1

Contents

2 Introduction

4 Philanthropy for Education: Challenges and Opportunities in the

United Arab Emirates

Dr. Catherine Hill and Dr. Nadera Alborno

13 Giving Back: Alumni as Assets for Generating Philanthropic Support

for Higher Education in Bahrain

Dr. Nina Abdul Razzak and Dr. Wafa Al-Mansoori

"رؤية مقترحة" والمجتمع مدخل لتطوير الشراكة بين الجامعةجامعة الشركات: 26

مدد. عزام عبد النبي أح

43 Education Hubs in the GCC Region – Exploring Interplays of Local

Visions and Global Influences for Higher Education Policy

Marvin Erfurth

52 Exploring CSR Initiatives and Stakeholder Discourse of International

Branch Campuses: A Stakeholder and Institutional Perspective

Dr. Katariina Juusola

64 A Case Study on Student Preferences for Public, Private or

Community College Education at a Private University in Saudi Arabia

Dr. Ziad Shaker Eljishi and Heba Shehata

74 Learner Motivation: The Dynamic and Diverse Construct

Nour Al Okla

83 It Takes Two (To Make a Thing Go Right): A Study of Factors

Influencing Motivation and Self-Efficacy of Teachers Working with

Refugees

Max B. Eckert

97 Mobile Learning with Arabic Speakers in Sweden

Lorna Bartram, Dr. Linda Bradley, and Khaled Al-Sabbagh

2

Introduction

The Gulf Comparative Education Society (GCES) held its eighth biannual symposium under

the sponsorship of the Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Foundation for Policy Research from

April 7th to 9th, 2018. Guided by the theme “Public, Private, and Philanthropy: Exploring the

Impact of New Actors on Education in the GCC,” attendees presented research and discussed

developments in the field of education in the Gulf.

The symposium was held at the Hilton Garden Inn Ras Al Khaimah in the United Arab

Emirates and consisted of a pre-conference workshop, three keynote addresses, four featured

panels, two special panels, and six breakout sessions with over 40 presentations by invited

speakers, as well as by those who submitted abstracts that had been selected by a blind review.

In its eighth year, the symposium continued the tradition of convening a diverse group of guests

and attendees from across the globe. This year’s presenters came from a wide variety of

countries including the UAE, Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Canada, Spain, Australia,

Germany, Sweden and the United States, representing different voices in the education sector,

such as policymakers, academics and researchers, school providers and leaders, consultants,

and teachers.

The theme for 2018 drew upon the growing involvement of emerging actors in GCC education

and put a spotlight on the impact of philanthropy on education in the Gulf. In 2015, reports

estimated a combined $34bn worth of private donations to foundations. Philanthropic

contributions, closely intertwined with private and public education, therefore hold the power

to shape GCC education ecosystems, through scholarships and mentoring, as well as the

creation of entire school systems and universities.

While the philanthropic sector is still in its infancy in the GCC, this years’ symposium took the

opportunity to apply a comparative lens through keynote speeches delivered by Professor Bob

Lingard (University of Queensland), Professor Megan Tompkins-Stange (University of

Michigan), and Professor Antoni Verger (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona).

The speakers discussed topics, such as the emergence of philanthropists, edupreneurs, and

consultants as new policy actors in education, the power and influence of elite private

philanthropies in the US, and the main omissions and shortcomings of translating public-

private partnerships (PPPs) into the educational policy field.

The featured panels and breakout sessions addressed the following key topics, among others:

Higher Education in the GCC

Informing Education Policy and Transforming Systems through Evidence

Motivation, and Alternative Approaches to Learning

3

Evaluating the Emergence of Private Actors in Education

The Challenges and Prospects of Philanthropy in Education in the GCC

Internationalization of Education: Effects on Students, Educators, and Institutions

Globalization in Philanthropy and Human Resources

In addition, the symposium brought together over 80 participants working in a range of

organizations across the Gulf and beyond, all of whom shared an interest in comparative

education in the GCC countries. This year’s symposium was further enriched by a special panel

discussion joined by representatives from UNESCO, UNDP, and the Arab Gulf Program for

Development (AGFUND). The discussion revolved around the Sustainable Development Goal

4 in the Gulf States and how partnerships can ensure quality education and promote lifelong

learning opportunities for all.

Following the symposium, speakers were asked if they would like to submit an approximately

3,000-word paper on their presentation. This volume is the compilation of those papers that

were submitted. While it does not cover all of the presentations that were given at the

symposium, slides for some of the other presentations are available on the GCES website

(www.gces.ae).

Dr. Abdullah Alajmi, President

Dr. Ahoud Alasfour, Vice President

Dr. Natasha Ridge, Secretariat Representative

David Dingus, Max B. Eckert, and Elizabeth Bruce, Proceedings Editors

4

Philanthropy for Education: Challenges and Opportunities in the United Arab Emirates

Dr. Catherine Hill

Dr. Nadera AlBorno

American University in Dubai

Abstract

The philanthropic sector in the Middle East is in its infancy. Traditionally, the practice of giving

for social purposes has been largely defined by religion and the requirements of Islam.

Currently, however, many for-profit organizations, such as Al Ghurair and Al Habtoor, have

been giving thought and consideration to social justice causes in more systematic and structural

ways, as exemplified in modern forms of philanthropy such as Corporate Social Responsibility

(CSR) and social enterprise. Thus, philanthropy in general and philanthropy for education in

particular is taking shape in this part of the world. Drawing from the preliminary results of an

ongoing study, this paper presents a thematic discussion that tracks the emergence of

philanthropy in the Middle East, specifically the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and explores

concomitant challenges and

opportunities.

Introduction

The philanthropic sector in the Middle East is in its infancy. Despite the accumulation of great

wealth, the practice of giving for social purposes has been largely defined by religion and the

requirements of Islam, especially during Ramadan—when no less than 2.5% of one’s estimated

wealth and possessions is designated as zakat and offered according to Islamic practice.

Currently, however, more and more for-profit organizations, such as Al Ghurair and Al

Habtoor, have been giving thought and consideration to social justice causes in more systematic

and structural ways, especially in the field of education. It is becoming increasingly common

for such corporations to identify offices within their organizations for addressing the needs of

society. Thus, philanthropy in general and philanthropy for education in particular is emerging

in this part of the world. As a result, learning lessons from the successes and failures of other

nations is not only important to the evolution of this practice but also essential to understanding

the pertinent challenges and opportunities that are taking shape in the Middle East.

Drawing from the preliminary results of an ongoing study, this paper presents a thematic

discussion on the challenges and opportunities of an emerging philanthropic sector in the

Middle East, specifically the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

5

Background

While the UAE consists of seven Emirates, this paper focuses on the development of

philanthropy in the Emirate of Dubai. We chose Dubai for two reasons. First, as a global city,

it is ranked as a leading multi-purpose and highly profitable trading and business center in the

Middle East. Second, it is the locale with which we are most familiar. Moreover, Dubai offers

a window on several types of philanthropy, ranging from traditional cash donations to more

modern approaches that aim to have social impact. For example, Khalaf Ahmed Al Habtoor,

the founder and chairman of the Al Habtoor Group, established the Al Habtoor Foundation in

2013 by allocating 20% of the group’s shares, which total 370 million AED as of 2016. He has

provided large-scale gifts for the improvement of education and human advancement in the

UAE, as well as towards the alleviation of poverty, homelessness and hunger worldwide. The

process of giving, however, is still very much aligned with traditional practice.

In 2015, UAE businessman Abdullah Al-Ghurair donated a third of his assets to establish a

foundation focused solely on education. The Abdullah Al Ghurair Foundation has pledged to

spend 4.2 billion dirhams over the next 10 years to “equip Arab youth with the knowledge and

skills they need to become the leaders of tomorrow.” The foundation awards grants and

scholarships through “a clear and transparent process” based on a highly competitive

application, which represents a step forward towards a more modern form of philanthropic

giving.

Philanthropic entities in the UAE are currently grappling with all aspects of traditional and

modern types of philanthropy. According to Coutts & Co.’s Middle East 2016 Report,

traditional forms of giving, such as grants to friends, family, colleagues and/or charities, still

prevail. Data from the 2016 Arab Giving Survey also note that while the spirit of giving in the

region is generous, the recorded number of gifts still focuses on traditional targets such as

individuals in need. In fact, 47% of respondents to the 2016 Arab Giving Survey identified

“individuals in need” (e.g., the disabled, refugees and the elderly) as the preferred cause for

donating (Philanthropy Age, 2016). However, new structures of philanthropic giving are also

emerging. These include forms of government-funded foundations such as Dubai Cares (de

Leon, 2017), Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), which will soon be compulsory in the

UAE and forms of social enterprise designed to address a social need through a market-

driven business model. Looking ahead to the future, Abdulaziz Al Ghurair observed that “far

too long our giving has been individual, fragmented and motivated by being charitable rather

than results-driven. Going forward, I see a majority of philanthropists being more focused,

asking tougher questions … and demanding more impactful and long-term results” (Coutts &

Co., Case Study: Abdulaziz Al Ghurair, the Abdulla Al Ghurair Foundation for Education,

Q9).

While these initiatives continue to drive sustainable development throughout the UAE, the

process of giving appears to be more traditional than modern.

Forms of Philanthropy

6

To extend the context for the study, the literature on philanthropy tends to distinguish

traditional from modern forms of philanthropic giving in today’s world—both in the UAE and

in countries around the world (Dacin, Dacin, & Matear, 2010; Dietlin, 2011; Fauzia, 2010;

Hess, 2005; Hess & Henig, 2015; Johnson, 2018; Johnson & Rahim, 2018; Merisotis, 2014).

Traditional Philanthropy

Traditional philanthropy in the Islamic world exists in the form of direct giving—usually in

cash or in-kind—to address human needs and to meet the requirements of the Islamic faith.

Essentially, traditional philanthropy is a form of charity in that the aim is to help someone or

something immediately by giving directly to alleviate the need or the suffering (Dietlin, 2011).

By definition, traditional philanthropy literally means benevolence or love for humanity. And,

by extension, people who do good for others are called philanthropists. In line with this

definition, the traditional philanthropist gives money in the form of donations and gifts and

then steps away. This kind of philanthropy is an old practice long associated with companies

and wealthy individuals who make cash donations or in-kind contributions to worthy causes

and/or needy individuals. The giver or the philanthropist is typically motivated by the sincere

desire to give something back to society, help the disadvantaged and/or to please God,

according to Islamic practice. This type of philanthropy is sometimes referred to as impulse

philanthropy, wherein the donor is primarily driven by emotion or a “feel good effect” (Crosta,

2017). To this day, impulse philanthropy remains the most common form of giving by

individuals and corporations.

Despite the sincerity of donors who are dedicated to making a difference, without measurable

results, there is little reason to think they are solving any of society’s problems. As individuals

and corporations, they are usually acting alone—without collaboration and the benefits of

learning from others. At the same time very few are tracking their own impact (Kramer, 2009).

Modern Philanthropy

Modern philanthropy, on the other hand, is a form of giving with broader goals and is usually

managed within and by civic institutions or corporate organizations (Fauzia, 2010). It is giving

that is grounded in justice, aimed at producing change and focused on the impact of results.

Thus, this type of giving is often referred to as impact or catalytic philanthropy (Crosta, 2017;

Kramer, 2009). Typically, it focuses on root causes as opposed to individual needs or symptoms

and aims to achieve measurable social results. It is designed to be systemic and not episodic,

proactive rather than reactive (Merisotis, 2014). The organizational forms of modern or impact

philanthropy include several mechanisms such as CSR and social enterprise.

As a form of philanthropy, CSR within an organization may include a variety of arrangements

for charitable giving: grant making, employee volunteering and/or core strategies for

improving the quality of life for all stakeholders and the community at large. It can be described

as embracing responsibility so as to yield positive outcomes for the local environment; in other

words, CSR is important for the community as well as valuable for the company.

7

Since 1966, the Al Ansari Exchange group has given high priority to the concept of social

responsibility initiatives and charitable giving throughout the UAE. In fact, the Arab

Organization for Social Responsibility recently honored Rashed Ali Al Ansari, General

Manager of the Al Ansari Exchange, by conferring him with the Golden Shield Award for his

efforts at instilling a culture of social responsibility in the private and public sectors in the

UAE. The Al Ansari Exchange has acquired a reputation for ambitious CSR programs that

provide financial support to needy families, the disabled and orphans; education; healthcare;

and various charitable societies.

CSR was declared to be mandatory in the UAE through a Cabinet Resolution passed on

February 5, 2018. The resolution calls for the development of an organizational framework and

guidelines for the management and distribution of contributions made by companies to support

socially responsible activities, such as economic, social and environmental programs and

projects, in the UAE. Companies are now in the process of registering on the UAE CSR Smart

Platform (KPMG, 2018). Data on outcomes and results for the first year will likely be

forthcoming.

A newer concept of modern philanthropy is known as social enterprise. While there is no

consensus on a single definition of social enterprise, most scholars would agree on a broad

definition with two perspectives: the for-profit standpoint defines social enterprise as

“businesses that trade for social purposes” (Sepulveda, 2014, p. 843), and the non-profit

standpoint, which defines it as “organizations adopting commercial methods to achieve their

social objectives” (Johnsen, 2017, p. 5). Thus, the emerging construct of social enterprise in

the UAE reveals a dual nature which combines economic and social value creation aligned

with global standards of sustainable social development. Across the existing UAE institutional

landscape, this form of philanthropy is uncommon. However, it is an emerging sector. A prime

example is Enable, a corporate initiative within the for-profit organization known as the Desert

Group that evolved from a 2008 inclusion program aimed at employing individuals with special

needs (https://desertgroup.ae/csr-enable/). In order to sustain the inclusion initiative, in 2015,

the Desert Group formally introduced Enable as a more permanent and sustainable employment

solution for individuals who are intellectually challenged. Since then, Enable continues to be

operated by the Desert Group as a social enterprise. Other UAE-based organizations claim to

be social enterprises, such as Evolvin’ Women https://evolvinwomen.com, Social Bandage

www.socialbandage.org and Taka Solutions https://takasolutions.com, but have ambiguous

organizational structures that appear to be inconsistent with the concept of a sustainable social

enterprise.

To summarize, social enterprises can be private for-profit, non-profit or hybrid organizations

with a social mission that use business approaches to achieve their objectives (Dacin et al.,

2010).

Philanthropy for Education

8

A growing number of philanthropic organizations are recognizing the importance of

education—for their own success as well as for the economic health of their respective nations

and for future generations. Thus, educational philanthropy appears to be a rising investment

trend among the wealthy (Enskog, 2016), with 35% of the nearly 30,000 foundations

worldwide focusing resources on the educational sector (Johnson, 2018). At the same time,

however, new research is emerging that questions the role of philanthropy in education research

and education reform (Feuer, 2016; Hess 2005; Hess & Henig, 2015). When, for example,

highly renowned donors, such as the Gates, Broad, Walton and Lumina Foundations, make

large contributions to schools and school systems, it is not uncommon for them to expect

education policies and practices to conform to their understanding of the “what” and “how” of

education (Cody, 2014). As a result, the haunting question is that of control and influence. The

power of philanthropic organizations and individuals to shape educational agendas is growing

in countless ways and yet very little is known about the extent and results of their investments.

This lack of knowledge calls for urgent attention to research across countries and national

borders.

Challenges

Obstacles and challenges related to the rapid growth of philanthropy and philanthropic models

in the Middle East include the need for legal frameworks and defined infrastructures, the lack

of research and reliable data in the Arab region, poor measurement and evaluation efforts and

the unmet demand for specialized talent (Kuttab & Johnson, 2015). These challenges are also

supported by the most recent information on philanthropy in the UAE, Great Expectations:

The Growth of Institutional Philanthropy in the United Arab Emirates, published by the Belfer

Center at the Harvard Kennedy School in partnership with Globesight (Johnson & Rahim,

2018). Insights from this report, which contributed to the Global Philanthropy Report

(Johnson, 2018), were drawn only from a regional survey; supportive research is yet to be done.

The fact that no clear legal framework exists for establishing and regulating philanthropic

organizations has led to a climate of giving that is both ambiguous and uncertain. Definitions

remain unclear and structures are shaped according to the desires, wishes and interests of the

respective families and founders. Beyond the typology defined in Great Expectations (2018,

p. 38), there is no shared understanding of questions, such as: How do we define a foundation?

How do we define an endowment or grant? How do we define the assets of a foundation? For

family foundations, are the assets of the foundations and that of the family clearly segregated?

(Kuttab & Johnson, 2015). However, the UAE Council of Ministers is beginning to address the

need for a legal framework. In fact, and as stated above, the Cabinet Resolution passed in

February 2018 aims to provide guidelines for the management of corporate responsibility

mechanisms among 400,000 companies across the UAE (WAM, 2018). This is one small step

toward the creation of legal framework.

In addition to the work of building a legal framework, the region needs more “big picture”

thinking, focused less on outputs and outcomes and more on social justice and desired social

impact. Limited infrastructure for philanthropy remains an obstacle for the emergence of a

9

coherent and systematic approach to philanthropic giving in the UAE. A legal framework needs

to address the absence of data, underfunded measurement and evaluation efforts and the search

for specialized talent—all of which are integral to success in this sector (Kuttab & Johnson,

2015). As the UAE and other Arab nations continue to look beyond the “old ways” of giving,

beyond religion and geography, levels of trust and transparency will rise and a coherent system

will flourish.

Opportunities

As the practice of corporate giving grows in the UAE, it is important to note that a variety of

structures are becoming more visible and strategic while they still remain closely related to the

government and ruling families. These include forms of CSR, social enterprises and

foundations. In addition, it is likewise important to identify safeguards regarding the flow of

money and the creation of partnerships that are transparent and socially responsive. At present,

philanthropic gifts tend to be focused on material needs in general, health care and student

scholarships in education. Among the 42 foundations that are known to exist in the UAE, 14

focus on education and community development projects (Johnson & Rahmin, 2018).

Weakness in the ability or willingness to do “big picture thinking” around the outcomes and

the impact of very generous philanthropic efforts exists. For example, by “big picture”

thinking, the UAE could make a concerted effort to move from feeding workers during

Ramadan to eliminating hunger in the Arab world.

The Abdulla Al Ghurair Foundation for Education can serve as a model in its attempt to respond

to the key factors required for a successful, robust and coherent design for philanthropic giving.

It has made great strides in the implementation of programs such as the Young Thinkers

Program, the STEM Scholars Program and the Open Learning Scholars Program. In addition,

they reported the employment of a measurement expert to document and emphasize the

importance of evaluation of their programs and impacts (Johnson & Rahim, 2018, p. 35).

However, no outcome oriented assessment data is available in the public domain to date.

Moving forward, the effectiveness of philanthropy in the UAE will be dependent upon public

policy support and the clarity of a legal framework. In addition, philanthropic individuals and

organizations will likely be expected to agree to a shared commitment to collaborate among

key actors and across sectors, organized a typology of philanthropy and increase their

investment in infrastructure. Structures for giving will probably continue to expand but in

unique ways compatible with the unique culture of the UAE. Furthermore, relevant actors in

the philanthropic sectors need to build compelling messages about why and how philanthropy

in human capital, specifically in education, will benefit the nation in the long term.

Recommendations and Conclusion

It is important to observe that the UAE is a nation in a hurry. While admirable as a national

vision, the impulse to hurry change circumvents the ability foster and engage in strategic and

long-term growth. Shifting the focus of philanthropy from charity to justice is a long-haul effort

10

that will require persistence over decades. While charity is commendable, philanthropy that

aims to achieve social impact has the potential to be transformative for the nation, the region

and the world.

The prospects for Arab philanthropy are enormous because the amount of wealth in the region

is striking. As structures for giving likely continue to expand and evolve in unique ways

compatible with a unique culture, it is important to keep in mind that the future belongs to those

nations that best educate the next generation.

11

References

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New York, NY: Garn Press.

Coutts & Co. (2016). Middle East 2016 report [Online]. Retrieved from

http://philanthropy.coutts.com/en/reports/2016/middle-east-gcc/findings.html

Crosta, N. (2017). Think before you give: Impact philanthropy vs impulse philanthropy [Blog

post]. Medium. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@Nico_Crost/impact-philanthropy-

vs-impulse-philanthropy-7e8f516c2cb6

Dacin, P. A., Dacin, M. T., & Matear, M. (2010). Social entrepreneurship: Why we don't need

a new theory and how we move forward from here. The Academy of Management

Perspectives, 24(3), 37-57.

Dietlin, L. M. (2011). Transformational philanthropy: Entrepreneurs and nonprofits.

Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Enskog, D. (2016). Educational philanthropy – a rising investment trend. Credit Suisse Group

AG. Retrieved from https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/articles/news-and-

expertise/educational-philanthropy-a-rising-investment-trend-201612.html

Fauzia, A (2010). Philanthropy, Social Justice and Islamic Tradition, Alliance, 15(4), 31-32.

Feuer, M. J. (2016). The rising price of objectivity: Philanthropy, government, and the future

of education research. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Hess, F. M. (Ed.). (2005). With the best of intentions: How philanthropy is reshaping K-12

education. Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, MA.

Hess, F. M., & Henig, J. R. (2015). The New Education Philanthropy: Politics, Policy, and

Reform. Educational Innovations Series. Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, MA.

Johnsen, S. (2017). Social enterprise in the United Arab Emirates. Social Enterprise Journal,

13(4), 392-409.

Johnson, P., & Rahim, T. (2018). Great expectations: The growth of institutional philanthropy

in the United Arab Emirates. Cambridge, MA: The Belfer Center for Science and

International Affairs, Harvard University.

Johnson, P. D. (2018). Global philanthropy report: Perspectives on the global foundation

sector. Cambridge, MA: The Hauser Institute for Civil Society, Harvard University.

KPMG. (2018). CSR in the UAE. Amstelveen, Netherlands: Author. Retrieved from

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https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/ae/pdf/UAEsYearofGiving-FINAL.PDF

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Kuttab, A., & Johnson, P. (2015). Better knowledge, better giving: The need for philanthropic

data in the Arab Region. Retrieved from dar.aucegypt.edu

Merisotis, J. (2014). The leadership model of philanthropy. Indianapolis, IN: Lumina

Foundation for Education.

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http://www.arabgivingsurvey.com/

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anniversary-1.1979163.

Sepulveda, L. (2014). Social enterprise – a new phenomenon in the field of economic and social

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corporate-social-responsibility-fund-1.2168982

13

Giving Back: Alumni as Assets for Generating Philanthropic Support

for Higher Education in Bahrain

Dr. Nina Abdul Razzak

Dr. Wafa Al-Mansoori

Directorate of Higher Education, Education & Training Quality Authority, Kingdom of

Bahrain

Abstract

Several regional and global factors are posing various challenges for Higher Education

Institutions (HEIs) in countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, including in Bahrain. These

include a global financial crisis, a major shift in the economy, and an increase in the number

of students entering higher education. Collectively, such factors are creating a greater need in

HEIs for new sources of financial support that are less contentious than increasing the tuition

fees, which are already on the rise at least in the private HEIs. One potential source could be

in the form of philanthropic initiatives engaging alumni who would be willing to give back to

their alma mater in a sustainable manner. However, are HEIs in Bahrain operating in ways that

help them create philanthropic cultures that can result in such committed and enduring

philanthropic alumni? And if not, what is needed, and which types of activities would be most

effective in engaging alumni as donors in the Bahraini context?

The results of this qualitative study, were derived through an analysis of published quality

assurance reports and researchers’ field experiences with HEIs in Bahrain. These results

indicate big steps that have yet to be taken by HEIs to create the needed philanthropic culture,

as well as a need for alumni high-engagement philanthropies. The study concludes that for such

philanthropies to serve as effective vehicles of change, they should support those who are most

capable of innovating within their communities, rather than themselves attempting to set the

agendas.

Introduction and Purpose

Several regional and global factors are posing challenges for Higher Education Institutions

(HEIs) in countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), including in the Kingdom of

Bahrain. These factors include the global financial crisis; shifts in the economy from natural

resources to knowledge and technology; and increases in the number of students entering

higher education. Collectively, these factors and numerous others are creating a greater need

in HEIs for new sources of financial support that are less contentious than increasing the tuition

fees, which are already on the rise at least in private HEIs. This is especially important, since

14

with the issues highlighted above, it is expected that this need for financial support will

continue to grow for the foreseeable future. One such source of support, which could be

significantly effective among others, is in the form of philanthropic initiatives on the part of

alumni, and in particular, those who would be willing to give back to their alma mater in a

consistent and long-term manner and in different forms other than monetary funding, such as

through their knowledge, expertise, and connections (Phills, 2008).

Although alumni philanthropic activities would mainly originate from private foundations,

such activities could also come from individual donations. A private foundation is “an

independent legal entity set up for solely charitable purposes …” and its funding typically

comes from a single individual, family, or corporation (Foundation Source, 2017, para.1).

Although private foundations typically make grants, and do not focus on running their own

programs (i.e., non-operating foundations), they can run programs or provide services in a

continuing and sustaining fashion (i.e., operating foundations). The main advantages of a

private foundation are control and flexibility: (1) control, in that it is legally independent and

exclusively controlled by its own donors; it has the final say in how its assets are invested and

spent; (2) flexibility, in that it can bring about change in many ways; for example, through

making grants, awarding scholarships, giving funds directly to individuals, and making

program-related investments (Foundation Source, 2017). Regardless of whether the alumni

support will be from non-operating or operating foundations or even from individual

contributions, the question is this: Are HEIs in Bahrain operating in ways that help them create

philanthropic cultures that could result in committed and enduring alumni as donors? And if

not, what is needed on the part of HEIs themselves and what forms of alumni philanthropy

would be most effective in the Bahraini context? These questions guided our research inquiry,

which relied on an examination of HEIs in Bahrain, a literature review on philanthropy in

higher education, and an analysis of Quality Assurance (QA) reports and field experiences.

This study concluded that HEIs in Bahrain are still falling short of creating such philanthropic

cultures, which limits the impact alumni could have in supporting their institutions financially

and in other scholarly and professional ways.

Background of the Study

Current Landscape of HEIs

Of the 14 HEIs in Bahrain, only one regional university (the Arabian Gulf University) is not

subject to QA reviews carried out by the Directorate of Higher Education Reviews (DHR) of

the Bahrain Education & Training Quality Authority (BQA). The rest all undergo two main

types of highly-structured review processes: program and institutional reviews, with follow-up

evaluative visits conducted for cases falling short of successfully meeting BQA standards

(Bahrain Education & Training Quality Authority [BQA], 2018a). To date, all of these HEIs’

15

programs have been reviewed. Part of the emphasis during these reviews consists of an

evaluation of graduates’ standards, employability, work destinations, and satisfaction toward

their HEI experience (Bahrain Education & Training Quality Authority, 2014). The reviews

result in published reports that record evidence-based findings about the programs or

institutions reviewed.

Of these 13 HEIs, two are public (among them is the main public institution the University of

Bahrain), and they have the largest student intake. The remaining HEIs are all private and

almost all suffer from a serious shortage of students, which usually results in an increase in

student fees in order to make up for the limited revenue from tuition. For the public HEIs whose

student fees are merely symbolic, the relatively large student intake is starting to result in some

noticeable cuts in resources and services with the current economic and financial crisis. Clearly,

such cuts can negatively impact stakeholders’ experiences, especially for the faculty and

students.

Given this situation, new sources of financial support, such as philanthropies, are needed. This

is what prompted the researchers of this study to (1) explore the ingredients necessary for the

creation of philanthropic cultures within HEIs in general and (2) inspect the operations of HEIs

in Bahrain and their relationships with their alumni specifically to deduce what could be the

types of activities that would be most effective in engaging alumni as donors in such contexts and to

understand how such relationships affect current policies and procedures.

Literature Review

In developing countries, there are many private activities supporting education, but these

activities lack cohesiveness and a strong strategic connection to the larger education policy

agendas (van Fleet, 2012). Additionally, due to lack of proper management and monitoring,

there is a lack of transparency of the data related to such activities (van Fleet, 2012). For this

reason, most of the evidence on philanthropic cultures is from the developed countries where

loyal and sustaining alumni have traditionally been the greatest philanthropic reserve of HEIs

and have been “the heart and soul of the most remarkable philanthropic cultures” ever created

(Langley, 2014, para.8). The relationship between philanthropy and education is complex and

creating philanthropic cultures within HEIs requires fostering three main elements:

appreciation, affiliation, and agency (Langley, 2014).

In terms of appreciation, enhanced quality of learning experiences offered by HEIs help

produce appreciative graduates who feel that the value of their education greatly exceeded the

price of tuition so they are willing to give back to the institutions that gave them so much. As

for affiliation, outreach initiatives/programs can facilitate communication, relationships, and

16

even partnerships with alumni. They can go beyond asking them for donations by providing

them, for example, with opportunities to continue to learn from and with exceptional faculty

members and talented peers, strengthening alumni affiliation to their HEIs and boosting their

philanthropic spirit towards them. Similarly, in terms of agency, HEI programs/initiatives that

help create a better world or have a powerful impact on one’s community, such as serving the

environment or finding a cure for a certain disease, also boost alumni’s philanthropic activities

since alumni feel that they are not just giving to their university but “also through it to create a

better world” (Langley, 2014, para.16).

However, a word of caution is needed here with respect to the limits and dangers of

philanthropy in education. As Fox (2017) explains, there is a danger of philanthropic parties

beginning to assume that they know what people and/or institutions should want, rather than

allowing them to reason on their own what best works for them. This could lead to centralized

planning from the side of the philanthropic foundations in ways that impact the operations of

these institutions apart from their missions and more towards a foundation’s own agenda. Many

times and for various reasons, these foundations start focusing on picking winners and losers

in terms of departments or programs rather than concentrating on pushing and backing up the

right ideas. With this in mind, this study set out to investigate the extent to which HEIs in

Bahrain are fostering the three main elements: appreciation, affiliation, and agency, which are

essential for the creation of philanthropic cultures within them, and to make recommendations

related to policies and procedures needed for well-managed, effective, and diversified alumni

donors.

Methods and Materials

This qualitative study was launched in December 2017, primarily using analyses of BQA/DHR

reports, which are published on the official BQA website, and the researchers’ knowledge from

many years of field experiences with HEIs in Bahrain during the data collection. These analyses

focused on the operations, practices, and relationships of HEIs over time, especially with

respect to their alumni. The advantage of using the BQA reports is that they are rich in

evidence-based data, thus enhancing their credibility and reliability. From their analysis, three

main themes emerged, which are described below:

HEI’s Quality of Education: The extent to which HEI programs are meeting QA

standards and graduating students with the needed knowledge and skills

Nature of Relationships with Alumni: The types of links that continue to exist between

HEIs and their students after graduation and the HEIs’ approaches towards these

relationships

17

Labor Market Research: The type of labor market scoping undertaken by HEIs to

identify market needs in terms of graduates’ employability skills, thus gearing HEIs’

programs toward their fulfillment

Field experiences are advantageous because they yield a great depth of understanding and are

more valid than surveys or experiments (Babbie, 2013). This is despite (1) the limitation of

reactivity that is always linked to qualitative field research (Babbie, 2011) which, in this

context, refers to the possibility of interviewees having responded differently than usual during

BQA reviews just because they knew they were being interviewed and despite (2) the challenge

of replication of the field research by others. From the analysis of field experiences, the

following two themes emerged:

HEIs’ Outcomes and Labor Market Needs: The amount of fit between HEI graduates

and actual needs in the labor market and

Real Contributions to the Community: The extent to which HEIs are adding something

of real or great value to the community.

Research Findings

BQA Review Report

HEIs’ Quality of Education

Since 2009, a total of 102 BQA program review reports have been published and more

than 70% of the programs have met BQA standards. There is, thus, a level of trust in

the quality and standards of their graduates. However, with respect to the remaining

programs, the reviews have raised some concern about their ability to graduate

individuals with the needed employability skills and knowledge (Bahrain Education &

Training Quality Authority [BQA], 2018b). This has negatively impacted stakeholder,

including alumni, satisfaction with these programs. This finding is consistent with

other studies (Mai, 2005; Zaheer-Butt & Rehman, 2010), which show the quality of a

university degree and its prospects in furthering students’ careers as among the most

influential predictors of stakeholders’ satisfaction.

Nature of Relationships with Alumni

The BQA reports show that the HEIs’ approach in maintaining their relationships with

their alumni is neither systematic nor effective. In general, they do not have sufficient

18

information about their graduates, and despite some recent improvements, HEIs still

tend to have sketchy and scattered information about graduates’ employability and their

first and current employment destinations.

In addition, alumni reported during BQA reviews that they are rarely approached by

their institutions and usually it is primarily for completing a survey of some sort. A

review of the literature shows that rare and weak relationships between HEIs and their

alumni are common worldwide and are not unique to Bahrain (Levine, 2009;

Rattanamethawong, Sinthupinyo, & Chandrachai, 2018). This is despite the fact that,

as Khanfar, Swaidan, and Mujtaba (2009) explain, “The need for HEIs to proactively

create a healthy relationship with their alumni cannot be overemphasized” (p. 15) and

despite research that has found alumni to be interested in staying connected to their

universities mainly through mail, attendance of events, and participation in an advisory

capacity for their major (Root, Taylor, Rose, & Lauderdale, 2017).

In relation to this, it was noted from review reports that most HEIs in Bahrain have

recently engaged alumni in a number of program advisory boards. However, this has

been found to be insufficient, as nearly all of these boards include only a single alumni

member in them and meet only twice a year. Additionally, even though some alumni in

Bahrain have reported that they continue to maintain a strong relationship with some

individual faculty members, it appears that HEIs do not build on these relationships in

more systematic ways.

Labor Market Research

A constituent theme in almost all review reports has been the absence of formal or

scientific mechanisms in HEIs for scoping the labor market needs and the poor

matching of program outcomes with the needs of employers. This applies even in the

case of programs that met the BQA’s standards and has been echoed in the BQA’s

annual reports (BQA, 2018a). The HEIs, therefore, also do not conduct formal studies

on long-term changes needed at the level of the programs they offer. By not conducting

such studies, the quality of some of these programs in terms of relevance and currency

could be compromised and could consequently negatively impact the value that

graduates and employers attach to such programs. This is a serious consideration,

especially since the cooperation between HEIs and employers in relation to curriculum

design and development is minimal in most cases. Were it higher, it could help improve

the matching of graduates to existing and future jobs (Bartlett, Uvalic, Durazzi,

Monastiriotis, & Sene, 2016), and thus would increase stakeholders’ satisfaction and

appreciation.

19

Field Experiences

HEIs’ Outcomes and Labor Market Needs

The 2005 national education reform project in the Kingdom was initiated due to,

amongst other reasons, complaints by the labor market that the outcomes of HEI

programs did not always match its needs, which resulted in having both unsatisfied

employers and graduates. In addition, until now, the latest data provided by the Labour

Market Regulatory Authority (2017) still indicates a rise in the employability of non-

Bahrainis and a decline for Bahrainis.

This mismatch between the HEIs’ output and labor market needs is not unique to

Bahrain, as the study of Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani (2018) shows a parallel

situation exists in other countries of the region such as in Egypt and Jordan. From many

years of the researchers’ experiences in the field, observations suggest that this is partly

due to the traditional nature of programs offered by HEIs in general and their lack of

agility to adapt to market needs.

Real Contributions to the Community

There is evidence in a few HEIs of some attempts to establish initiatives and programs

that are customized to add real value to the community, impacting society positively by

effectively responding to or raising awareness of existing issues and challenges related

to social changes, economic shifts, climate, the environment, etc. Nevertheless, these

attempts usually fail to pass their initial stage of development and do not materialize

mainly due to intermittent funding, thus ending in inadequate contributions.

Because the human resources needed for these initiatives are clearly available and

capable of innovation, they could benefit from other sources of funding that are more

consistent and sustainable. Philanthropic support in this case would be beneficial not

just to the HEIs themselves but also for the larger community to whom the HEIs’

initiatives aim to add real value. Such philanthropy is viewed as being the most

effective. As explained by Janet Hirst, the Chief Executive Officer of the Ian Potter

Foundation, “Philanthropy works at its best when it seeks out and provides support to

those who are best placed to innovate within their communities. Philanthropy is less

effective as a vehicle for change when it is attempting to set the agenda” (Anderson,

2018, p. 14). The philanthropic support in this case does not have to be restricted only

to funding but could also take the form of venture philanthropy, or “high-engagement

philanthropy” as it has also been called, referring to donors helping the

20

organization/beneficiary not only through money, but also through their knowledge,

expertise, and connections. This type of philanthropy has proven to be effective in

helping organizations succeed (Phills, 2008).

Discussion & Recommendations

Research studies present the ingredients necessary for the creation of philanthropic cultures

within HEIs as appreciation, affiliation, and agency. Specifically, graduates’ willingness and

motivation to give back to their alma mater become stronger when they feel that the value of

their education and learning experiences outweighed the cost of tuition, they are continuously

provided with opportunities to learn from and with members of their HEI community, and they

see that their HEI is making great contributions to the environment and/or society.

With respect to Bahrain, this study’s results show that HEIs are falling short of fostering these

three key components. Cause for concern stems from the ability of HEIs to graduate individuals

with the expected knowledge and skills and a lack of formal scientific mechanisms to conduct

labor market research through which their programs could be kept current and relevant, which

results in unsatisfied employers and graduates. This, consequently, can clearly and adversely

impact alumni’s feelings of appreciation toward the education they received and the institution

that provided that education.

In addition, HEIs in Bahrain do not systematically nor effectively follow up with their alumni

and fail to build on the good relations some of them have with individual faculty members.

This reduces the chances of alumni having a strong affiliation with their HEIs. Finally, with

HEIs’ limited initiatives to add real value to the community, the element of agency, just like

appreciation and affiliation, is far from being fostered, clearly reducing the chances of alumni’s

philanthropic spirit being boosted.

Based on the discussion above, the researchers recommend that HEIs in Bahrain should among

other things:

Maintain better links with their graduates by reaching out to them and by developing

formal alumni associations where alumni can meet regularly and have fruitful

conversations with their HEIs, which would help establish their sense of belonging and

have them advocate for those HEIs.

Increase the representation and strengthen the roles of alumni on program advisory

boards and increase the annual number of meetings of such boards.

21

Take advantage of and build more systematically strong relationships between alumni

and individual faculty members.

Regularly celebrate their successful alumni who have secured high posts in the

Kingdom, to make them feel appreciated by their alma mater and proud, so that alumni

might be willing to give back in different forms.

Keep detailed information about their graduates, such as their employment history, to

be able to better contextualize the graduates which could help HEIs develop programs

that would attract and maintain their alumni relationships. Examples include offering

PD training or academic programs offered by HEIs that would reflect the needs of their

alumni.

Keep detailed information about their graduates, such as their work destinations and

employment history, to be able to better match areas in need of support within the

institution with proven strengths in some of its successful graduates. Examples here

include: identifying capacity building needs of HEI staff on the one hand with

professional development training that could be provided by some alumni on the other

hand; or matching academic programs in the HEI that are in need of being promoted

with successful alumni from those programs, to have them help in improve those

programs’ image and student recruitment, etc. Formally assess the labor market and make program revisions accordingly to produce

graduates with the skills that are in demand.

Adopt policies that support and encourage greater cooperative activity with employers

in relation to curriculum design and development to improve the matching of graduates

to existing and future jobs.

Improve the quality of their offerings by fully addressing the recommendations of BQA

reviews.

Seek philanthropic support for initiatives that desire to make real contributions to the

community by raising awareness about such initiatives, their importance, and the

difference they could make.

Although these recommendations are important, it is necessary to keep in mind the limitations

and dangers of philanthropy in education, as mentioned earlier in the literature review, and

which tend to manifest themselves in a type of centralized planning from the side of the

philanthropic foundations in ways that serve their own agendas and interests. In light of this, it

is crucial that the work of alumni philanthropies in Bahrain be managed and regulated by

appropriate policies and robust systems of procedures so that such philanthropies would be

held accountable for diversifying their revenue streams and appropriating their funds.

Concluding Remarks

This research study set out to investigate HEIs’ operations in Bahrain in terms of creating

philanthropic cultures that would result in committed and enduring philanthropic alumni. The

22

study’s results showed that HEIs are still falling short of fostering the ingredients necessary for

such cultures, which are appreciation, affiliation, and agency. As a result, recommendations

are made for HEIs through which, if acted upon, the seeds for the creation of a philanthropic

culture will be planted.

Bahrain as a small country has a considerable number of HEIs with a good potential pool of

human capital in them, from competent and experienced academic to administrative staff

members. These institutions have already graduated a generation of successful alumni who

have reached high positions in the public and private sectors. It is therefore only logical that

any activities to engage alumni as donors should target those who played a part in graduating

such successful alumni and who are most capable of innovation in these HEIs. It should also

allow those individuals to lead the innovation, set their agendas, and support their innovative

endeavors in the process, rather than centralizing planning and possibly swaying the

institutions’ missions to serve donors’ own interests.

This will ensure that alumni donors can be an effective vehicle for positive change, especially

when alumni are provided with opportunities to be highly-engaged in benefiting others while

also learning from and with them, instead of only playing a money-granting role. An interesting

area of future research could be an investigation into the different roles that alumni donors in

Bahrain could possibly engage in to generate the greatest results for their alma mater and

society. Another area is related to the policies needed at the institutional level to manage and

lead related initiatives, which effectively regulate these funds in ways that ensure adherence to

the institution’s mission rather than focusing only on serving the agendas of donors.

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References

Anderson, M. (2018). Maximising the impact of philanthropy in education. Research

Developments, 25(4). Retrieved from https://research.acer.edu.au/resdev/vol25/iss25/4

Assaad, R., Krafft, C., & Salehi-Isfahani, D. (2018). Does the type of higher education

affect labor market outcomes? Evidence from Egypt and Jordan. Higher Education,

75(6), 945-995. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0179-0

Babbie, E.R. (2011). The basics of social research. Wadsworth, CA: Wadsworth Cengage

Learning.

Babbie, E.R. (2013). The practice of social research. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage

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handbook. Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain: Directorate of Higher Education Reviews.

Bahrain Education & Training Quality Authority. (2018a). Annual reports. Retrieved from

http://www.bqa.gov.bh/En/Publications/Pages/AnnualReports.aspx

Bahrain Education & Training Quality Authority. (2018b). Review reports. Retrieved from

http://www.bqa.gov.bh/En/Reports/Pages/default.aspx

Bartlett, W., Uvalic, M., Durazzi, N., Monastiriotis, V., & Sene, T. (2016). From university to

employment: Higher education provision and labour market needs in the Western

Balkans (Synthesis Report). Brussels, Belgium: European Commission Directorate

General for Education and Culture. Retrieved from

https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/2016-higher-education-labour-

market-balkans_en.pdf

Foundation Source. (2017). What is a private foundation? Retrieved from

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foundation/

Fox, J.R. (2017, December). The importance of philanthropy to education. Philanthropy NYU.

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Khanfar, N.M., Swaidan, Z., & Mujtaba, B.G. (2009). A study in relationship orientation and

prioritization of alumni association preferences with college seniors in higher

education. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 2(3), 15-22.

Labour Market Regulatory Authority. (2017, Second Quarter). Bahrain labour market

indicators. Newsletter of Labor Market Regulatory Authority. Retrieved from

http://lmra.bh/portal/files/cms/shared/file/Newsletter/Newsletter%20Q2_2017(En).pdf

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new realities. Trusteeship. Retrieved from

https://www.agb.org/trusteeship/2014/7/cultivating-culture-philanthropy-new-

approaches-new-realities

Levine, W. (2009). Communications and alumni relations: What is the correlation between an

institution’s communications vehicles and alumni annual giving? International

Journal of Educational Advancement, 8 (3-4), 176-197.

https://www.doi.org/10.1057/ijea.2009.2

Mai, L. (2005). A comparative study between UK and US: The student satisfaction in higher

education and its influential factors. Journal of Marketing Management, 21, 859-878.

Phills, J.A. (2008, October). How is the new philanthropy different? (Interview conducted by

Ben Mattison and published by Yale School of Management). Yale Insights. Retrieved

from https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/how-is-the-new-philanthropy-different

Rattanamethawong, N., Sinthupinyo, S., & Chandrachai, A. (2018). An innovation model of

alumni relationship management: Alumni segmentation analysis. Kasetsart Journal of

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preferences: An investigation of millennial alumni. Journal of Education Advancement

& Marketing, 2(2), 135-143.

van Fleet, J.W. (2012). Private philanthropy and social investments in support of education

for all (Report No. 2012/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/16). Retrieved from

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002179/217920e.pdf

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education. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 5446-5450. Retrieved from

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https://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042810009286/1-s2.0-S1877042810009286-

main.pdf?_tid=f3900ff9-59cd-46dc-8485-

c34846921a45&acdnat=1530379789_86dca28b13ca31208033c2a9ad090974

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تطوير الشراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمعلجامعة الشركات: مدخل

"رؤية مقترحة"

د. عزام عبد النبي أحمد

قسم األصول واإلدارة التربوية

جامعة السلطان قابوس –كلية التربية

مقدمةال

البشرية القادرة على تحقيق النهضة وسيلة الدول إلعداد القوى -بصفة خاصة-والتعليم الجامعي -بصفة عامة-يعد التعليم

االقتصادية؛ حيث لم تعد قضية اإلنتاج هي قضية أعداد وإنما قضية نوعية، فالبد من إعداد الخريجين من خالل نظام تعليمي

إلى تحقيق -النامي منها والمتقدم -يربط بين المناهج الدراسية وآليات واحتياجات سوق العمل، حيث تسعى دول العالم

هدافها التنموية؛ والتي تتمثل في توفير معدالت مناسبة للنمو االقتصادي، وتقديم خدمات أفضل في النواحي الصحية أ

والتعليمية واالجتماعية وغيرها، وتلعب الجامعة دورا هاما في تحريك عملية التنمية؛ حيث تعد مسئولة عن إعداد القوى

نمية االقتصادية واالجتماعية الشاملة؛ وذلك من خالل ارتباطها ارتباطا وثيقا البشرية وتأهيلها بما يساعد على تحقيق الت

بمؤسسات اإلنتاج والخدمات في المجتمع؛ حيث أن الجامعة لم تعد قادرة على مواجهة التحديات في هذا العصر بمفردها دون

وتحاول أن تصنع الحلول لها، ومن ثم مشاركة مؤسسات المجتمع المختلفة، كما إنها هي التي تكشف عن مشكالت المجتمع

أصبح من الضروري توثيق العالقة بين التعليم الجامعي وعالم العمل، وذلك بتدعيم الشراكة بين الجامعة والمؤسسات

اإلنتاجية والعمل على ربط الجامعة بقطاعات اإلنتاج، و تلبية حاجاتها، وفق متطلبات العصر ومتغيرات سوق العمل في

لمستقبل.الحاضر وا

مشكلة الدراسة

في إطار عمليات التنمية الشاملة بدأت العديد من الدول النامية البحث عن آليات جديدة فعالة لمواجهة األوضاع االقتصادية

الناتجة عن تطبيق سياسات اإلصالح االقتصادي، ومواجهة سياسات السوق المفتوح التي تنتهجها معظم دول العالم اآلن،

عات األعمال تحتاج إلى توافر عمالة مدربة، باإلضافة إلى ارتفاع نسب البطالة وخاصة بين خريجي الجامعة كما أن قطا

وصعوبة الحصول على فرص عمل مناسبة، وكذلك صعوبة الحصول على التمويل الالزم لهذه المؤسسات؛ مما فرض على

تصاد وتنشيط عمليات نقل التكنولوجيا من خالل الجامعة البحث عن آليات تساعد في خلق فرص عمل جديدة، ودفع االق

التي تقوم -شراكة حقيقية بينها وبين المؤسسات المجتمعية)اإلنتاجية والخدمية(، وكانت في مقدمة هذه البدائل أو اآلليات

التكنولوجية، جامعة الشركات، والحاضنات -على الربط بين الجامعة بمؤسساتها المختلفة وقطاع األعمال واإلنتاج والخدمات

والجامعة المنتجة، ومراكز التميز، وتعتبر هذه اآلليات من الحلول العملية التي قامت العديد من الدول الصناعية المتقدمة

بتوظيفها.

تواجه الجامعات العديد من المشكالت والتحديات التي تعوق تحقيقها ألهدافها، والقيام بوظائفها كما هو متوقع منها ؛ ومن و

أهمها: نقص التمويل الالزم للجامعة للقيام بأدوارها كما يتوقع المجتمع منها، باإلضافة إلى انفصال البحث العلمي عن

مستوى خريجيها وإعدادهم وفقا الحتياجات سوق العمل ومتطلبات العصر، مما يؤكد احتياجات المجتمع ومشكالته، وضعف

ضرورة البحث عن سبل لمواجهة هذه المشكالت، وتأتي الشراكة بين الجامعة ومؤسسات المجتمع في مقدمة الطرق التي

27

وفي ضوء ذلك . تطلباتهوم تساعد على مواجهة هذه المشكالت، والتكيف مع متغيرات العصر و احتياجات سوق العمل

تتلخص مشكلة الدراسة في السؤال الرئيس التالي:

ويتفرع من السرررؤال الرئيس كيف يمكن تفعيل الشرررراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمع في ضررروء التوجج معو جامعة الشرررركات

األسئلة الفرعية التالية:

؟ وأهميتهاأهدافها، بين المؤسسات من حيث مفهوما و ما المقصود بالشراكة

ما المقصود بجامعة الشركات ؟ومجاالت االستفادة منها؟

ما الرؤية المقترحة لتفعيل الشراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمع في ضوء جامعة الشركات ؟

هدافاأل

:ىتسعى الدراسة التعرف عل

أهميتهاماهية الشراكة من حيث مفهومها وأهدافها، و .

االستفادة منها.جامعة الشركات ومجاالت

لتفعيل الشراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمع . رؤية مقترحة وضع

هميةاأل

:تكمن أهمية الدراسة في

أنها تتماشييييييي مع االتجاه المحلي والعالمي الذي ينادي بالشييييييراكة بين مختلف القطاعات في الدول وبين الدول

وبعضها البعض.

تساعد الجامعات في التغلب على مشكالتها، بما يمكنها من إحداث التطوير أنها تلقي الضوء على أحد السبل التي

والتحديث الذي يواكب مستجدات العصر ومتغيراته.

أنها تزود صييانعي القرار والسييياسييات ببعض اآلليات التي قد تسييهم في تفعيل الشييراكة بين الجامعة ومؤسييسييات

حقق أهداف الطرفين.المجتمع، وإحداث التعاون والتكامل بينهما، بما ي

منهج الدراسة

الشركات . النظري المتعلق بالشراكة وجامعة األدباستخدمت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي من خالل تحليل

اإلطار النظري

(واألهميةماهية الشراكة )المفهوم واألهداف

الشراكة و المشاركة، ثم عرض أهدافها، وسوف يتم توضيح ماهية الشراكة من خالل عرض إلشكالية المفهوم والفرق بين

وأهميتها.

المفهوم

28

يوجد خلط كبير في استخدام مصطلحي الشراكة والمشاركة، فهناك من يستخدم مصطلح الشراكة على أنه مشاركة وهناك

ومفهوم من يستخدم مصطلح المشاركة على أنه شراكة؛ وفيما يلي توضيح لهذه اإلشكالية من خالل عرض لمفهوم الشراكة

المشاركة ثم الفرق بينهما.

الشراكة Partnership :إلى كلمة )شرك( بكسر أولها وسكون ثانيها، يرجع أصل كلمة الشراكة في اللغة

شركه شراكة وشركا وشركة بمعنى واحد وهي تعني أن لكل منهم نصيبا منه، وأ وهي تعني النصيب فكلمة

لمعنى تعني اتفاق بين اثنين أو أكثر للقيام بعمل مشييييييترك)مجمع اللغة في أمره: أدخله فيه، والشييييييراكة بهذا ا

(. وجاء في القاموس المحيط أن الشيييراكة تعني قد اشيييتركا وتشييياركا وشيييارك أحدهما اآلخر 1972العربية،

أما من الناحية االصطالحية فمصطلح الشراكة طبقا (.1977وجمعها شرائك في البيع والميراث)الفيروزي،

للموسوعة األمريكية يعني اتحاد شخصين أو أكثر من أجل تنفيذ عمل ربحي، وهي أيضا نتاج اتفاقية تعاقدية

لة عا ية في صييييييورة مكتوبة لتصييييييبح ف فاق 1998The,) بين الشييييييركاء وليا شييييييرطا أن تكون هذه االت

Encyclopedia Americana).

ة تعني عقد اتفاق بين الشركاء لتحقيق أهدافهم وتحمل المكسب وفي ضوء كل من األصل اللغوي واالصطالحي فإن الشراك

شراكة مكتوبا أم غير مكتوب. سواء أكان اتفاق ال شركاء كما أن والخسارة شراكة تقوم على وجود أهداف مشتركة بين ال ال

خر، من خالل القيام يسييعون إلى تحقيقها من خالل عقد اتفاق بينهما يعمل على التزام كل طرف بمسييئولياته تجاه الطرف اآل

باألدوار والمسييئوليات التي يتم تحديدها، وبما يعمل على تجميع القدرات والموارد للشييركاء، وبالتالي تعظيم الفائدة للطرفين

كما يتحمل الشركاء مخاطر العمل ومسئولياته.

المشاركة Participation :سواء كانت مادية أو عينية " اإلسهامات والمبادرات لألفراد والجماعات تعرف بأمها

وتتصف تلك اإلسهامات والمبادرات بأنها تطوعية وغير إلزامية، حيث تتم بناء على دعوة أفراد المجتمع ومؤسساته

لإلسهام في مجال تنموي أو اجتماعي، لكن هذا ال يعني أن إلسهاماتهم هذه أي نوع من أنواع اإللزام أو أن للمساهمين

وتعرف بأنها " (.2004واجبات")رئاسيييية الجمهورية، الذين دعوهم للمشييياركة أو أن عليهمحقوقا مماثلة لحقوق

ما يقوم به أعضييياء المجتمع من أنشيييطة لخدمة مجتمعهم في كافة مجاالته وتعتمد سيييلوكياتهم على التطوعية

اشييرة أو غير وااللتزام وليا على الجبر واإللزام، وقد تكون هذه األنشييطة نظرية أو عملية تمارس بطرق مب

(.2007مباشرة")العجمي،

فإن المشاركة عبارة عن مجموعة من األنشطة التي تقوم بها بعض المؤسسات أو األفراد تجاه مؤسسات وفي ضوء ما سبق

أخرى بشييييييكل تطوعي غير إلزامي بدافع المسييييييئولية االجتماعية تجاه هذه المؤسييييييسييييييات بهدف تحقيق التنمية االجتماعية

متان على اإلسيييهامات والمبادرات التطوعية، إال أن ومن ثم تتفق الشيييراكة والمشييياركة في أنهما قائواالقتصيييادية للمجتمع،

المشيياركة ال تحمل معنى االلتزام مثل الشييراكة، لذا ال توجد محاسييبية في المشيياركة، ولكن المحاسييبية تعد من أهم مقومات

الشراكة.

العالقة بين الشراكة والمشاركة

أن الشييييراكة تقع في نهاية خط مسييييتقيم مكون من أربعة أجزاء تنتهي به الشييييراكة كما يوضييييحها Wolfendedولفند ىير

الشكل التالي:

29

(S. Wolfended, 1989والمشاركة )( العالقة بين الشراكة 2شكل رقم )

وفي ضيوء الشيكل السيابق فإن مشياركة أفراد المجتمع ومؤسيسياته تكون بشيكل تطوعي دون إلزام مما يؤدي في النهاية إلى

شييييراكة حقيقية تقوم على اإللزام وتحمل المسييييئولية.ومن ثم تتفق الشييييراكة والمشيييياركة في أنهما قائمتان على اإلسييييهامات

التطوعية، إال أن المشييياركة ال تحمل معني االلتزام مثل الشيييراكة، لذا ال توجد محاسيييبية في المشييياركة، ولكن والمبادرات

المحاسييبية تعد من أهم مقومات الشييراكة، كما أن الشييراكة قائمة على وجود أهداف مشييتركة وتحديد لألدوار والمسييئوليات،

ته تجاه الطرف اآلخر كما أن اتفاق الشييراكة يكون في شييكل رسييمي وكذلك التزام كل طرف بالقيام بأدواره وتحمل مسييئوليا

مكتوب.

أهداف الشراكة

تسيييعى الشيييراكة إلى تحقيق المنفعة المتبادلة للشيييركاء، فهي تعمل على تحقيق األهداف المشيييتركة والتي تم تحديدها إلجراء

نفعة المتبادلة، وتختلف أهداف الشييييراكة الشييييراكة، وتكون هذه األهداف لصييييالح أطراف الشييييراكة بما يضييييمن تحقيق الم

بإختالف المؤسسات، ويمكن تصنيف أهداف الشراكة في ضوء المؤسسات المستفيدة منها إلى:

أهداف الشراكة بالنسبة للمؤسسات الجامعية

:(Prigge, 2005)ي بالنسبة للجامعات فإن هدفها من الشراكة مع المؤسسات اإلنتاجية والخدمية يتمثل فيما يل

.تعيين خريجي الجامعات المؤهلين لممارسة مختلف األنشطة اإلنتاجية

.تزويد الطالب بمزيد من الخبرات العملية

.توظيف أعضاء هيئة التدريا كخبراء ومستشارين في تلك المؤسسات

.الحصول على الدعم المادي لتمويل مراكز البحوث المشتركة بين الجامعات والشركات

فإن الجامعة تسعى إلقامة شراكة حقيقية بينها وبين مؤسسات اإلنتاج بما يضمن لها تحقيق أهدافها وبما يعود عليها ومن هذا المنطلق

بالفائدة، حيث تتوقع الجامعة من هذه الشراكة، زيادة في الموارد المالية مما يمكنها من تقديم خدمة تعليمية أفضل وفقا لمتطلبات سوق

القيام باألبحاث العلمية التي تخدم المجتمع وتسييهم في حل مشييكالته، مما يمكن الجامعة من اسييتعادة مكانتها العمل واحتياجاته، وكذلك

المجتمع. وقيمتها داخل

أهداف الشراكة بالنسبة لمؤسسات اإلمتاج وقطاع األعمال

الال مشاركةNonparticipation

الدعم

Supporting

المشاركةParticipation

الشراكةPartnership

30

ف عالقات شيييييراكة وتحالفات بهدتتزايد أعداد المؤسيييييسيييييات اإلنتاجية في الدخول مع المؤسيييييسيييييات التعليمية بصيييييورة كبيرة في

)1995 Lankard,(:

تحسيييييين المهارات الفنية والتقنية وكذلك األكاديمية للقوى العاملة التي تتطلع إليها، فالمؤسيييييسيييييات اإلنتاجية حينما

تدخل في عالقة شييراكة تنظر في المقام األول لما يعود عليها أو لما يمكن أن يعود عليها من تلك الشييراكة؛ مثل ما

يطرأ على القدرة اإلنتاجية من تحسن وما يتحقق من أرباح، حيث تقوم بعض الشراكات على تطوير برامج التعليم

المهني.

تنمية المواد واآلالت الصناعية أو المستخدمة في الصناعة وكذلك المنتجات والموارد المالية، فهذه الشراكات ترك

تدريب المهني التعاوني وتزود الك تدريب العملي الالزم على برامج ال باآلالت والمعدات والتسييييييهيالت وال يات ل

لطالبها مما يعود بالفائدة على قطاع التجارة في صييييييورة برامج عالجية وتأهيلية للموظفين ودعم إداري من قبل

الكلية، إضافة إلى برامج التزويد بالخبرة التي تعتبر من اهتمامات عالقات الشراكات أيضا.

نتائج البحوث والدراسات التي أجريت بالجامعة، واالستفادة منها في مجاالت العمل واإلنتاج.التعرف على

.االستفادة من جهود األساتذة والباحثين في وضع الحلول المناسبة للمشكالت التي تتعرض لها قطاعات العمل واإلنتاج

ش والمكتبات.استخدام المنشآت البحثية الجامعية؛ مثل: المختبرات والمعامل والور

لها العديد من األهداف التي تسييييعى -اإلنتاجية والخدمية -ومما سييييبق فإن الشييييراكة بين الجامعة والمؤسييييسييييات المجتمعية

لتحقيقها بما يعود بالنفع على كال الشيييريكين، حيث تسيييعى الجامعة لتحقيق أهداف خاصييية بها؛ مثل زيادة الموارد وتحسيييين

رفع مسييتوي العملية التعليمية ككل، بينما تهدف المؤسييسييات المجتمعية إلى الحصييول على أيدي وتطوير العملية التعليمية و

عاملة مواكبة لسيييوق العمل ومزودة بالمهارات والقدرات الالزمة لمواجهة متغيرات سيييوق العمل، وكذلك العمل على زيادة

اإلنتاج واألرباح، والقدرة على المنافسة في السوق العالمية.

الشراكةأهمية

ترجع أهمية الشيييييراكة إلى قدرتها على تحقيق العديد من الفوائد والنتائج والتي من أهمها توسييييييع الموارد وتوزيع المخاطر

أن Barczykيري برازيك وزيادة الكفاءة والفاعلية، وتبادل المعرفة والخبرات، وزيادة المكاسييب وتحمل المسييئولية.حيث

: (Barczyk, 2000) هرية هيالشراكة تحقق ثالثة فوائد جو

القائم على افتراض أن الشراكة تحقق أكثر مما يستطيع تحقيقه كل طرف على حدة.التعاضد :

ويقصد به طريقة تأثير الشركاء الرئيسيين على أهداف وقيم بعضهم بعضا من خالل التفاوض، والتي يتم التعول :

الشراكة.من خاللها التوصل إلى معايير االتفاق بين أطراف

ويقصد بها الحصول على الموارد اإلضافية نتيجة تعاون األطراف بعضهم مع بعض.توسيع الميزامية :

ومن العرض السابق فإن الشراكة لها أهمية كبيرة بالنسبة للمؤسسات التي تدخل في عملية شراكة، وترجع أهميتها لقدرتها

أهمها أنها تعمل على تجميع المهارات والموارد والميزانيات للمؤسسات على تحقيق العديد من الفوائد لهذه المؤسسات، ومن

سهم في تعظيم الفائدة شجيع األفكار اإلبداعية، والتوصل للحلول المرنة؛ مما ي شراكة باإلضافة إلى: ت التي تدخل في عملية

تحقيق أهدافها ، وهناك العديد من الشييراكة من أهم العمليات التى تسييهم في النهوض بالمجتمعات و ، وتعد لهذه المؤسييسييات

االتجاهات العالمية التي تعمل علي توثيق العالقة بين الجامعة والمؤسييسييات اإلنتاجية، وتكوين شييراكة فاعلة، ومن أهم هذه

االتجاهات جامعة الشركات، والحاضنات التكنولوجية، ومراكز التميز، ولالستفادة من هذه االتجاهات، يتناول الفصل التالي

هذه االتجاهات وكيفية اإلفادة منها في إقامة شراكة ناجحة بين الجامعة والمؤسسات اإلنتاجية بمصر.

31

Corporate Universityجامعة الشركات

صبحت جامعة الشركات اليوم ضرورة في ظل االقتصاد العالمي سريع التغير، وتميل المنظمات التي تنمو بقوة إلى أن أ

ثقافاتها عن طريق ربط رؤيتها وأهدافها بالنمو المهني والشخصي لموظفيها وإنجازهم، وهذه تكون منظمات غيرت من

المنظمات والمعروفة بمنظمات التعلم تخلق فرصا لموظفيها ليصبحوا متعلمين مدى الحياة، وبهذا يصبح الموظفون هم

ذ عمر المعرفة يتناقص، وظهرت الحاجة إلى مصدر الفائدة التنافسية للمنظمة، وفي سياق النمو التكنولوجي المذهل، أخ

,Andreu) الشركات تدريب وتطوير أشخاص مؤهلين جدا لهم طاقة عظيمة وفي النهاية عمل هذا على نمو جامعة

)2, 200Sieber, Grau, & Ranger. عبارة عن مظلة استراتيجية للتطوير والتعليم من خالل تقديم كل جامعة الشركات و"

من فرص التعليم الرسمي وغير الرسمي التي تعمل على دعم النمو الشخصي وكذلك النمو المهني لألفراد في المؤسسة، وذلك داخل

ها، وذلك لتحقيق أهداف مناخ تنظيمي إيجابي داعم يسوده االحترام لكل من األفراد العاملين داخل المؤسسة وخارج

، كما أنها شكل من أشكال التنافا مع ومن ثم فهي أداة محورية وهامة للتطوير المهني في المؤسسة (Jarvis, 2001)"المؤسسة

في غضون السنوات العشر الماضية، فقد اعترف 400جامعة شركة، أنشئ منها 1600الجامعات التقليدية، ويوجد في العالم نحو

واعتبرت معلما بين أنجح جامعات نوعها، فهي تعمل بموازنة سنوية تبلغ Motorola University جامعة موتور والبنشاط

وللتعرف على هذا االتجاه (. 2003البنك الدولي، )بلدا. 21شبكة تعليمية وتدريبية في 99مليون دوالر أمريكي، وتدير 120

.جامعة الشركات واهدافها وأنماطهافلسفة الحديث فسوف يتم تناوله من خالل عرض

فلسفة وأهداف جامعات الشركات

تعتمد فلسفة جامعة الشراكات على إعداد ما يسمى بـ " منظمة التعلم " حيث تنحصر مهمة الجامعة في العمل كعامل مساعد

تعليمية وتدريبيه عالوة على في إحداث التغيير والتطوير المستدام لدعم أهداف العمل التجاري فهي تزود عمالئها بحلول

وتهدف جامعة الشركات . (Jarvis, 2001)تزويدهم بأنظمة حتى يصبحون شركاء في تطوير طبقة مثلي من القوة العاملة

تشجيع النمو الشخصي المستمر للعاملين والموظفين، وإشباع الحاجات التي تولدها استراتيجيات العمل داخل إطار من ثقافة

: (,Frazee 2002) ؛ هيثالثة تعقيق أهداف ويري البعض أمها تسعى إلىزم بالمعرفة؛العمل التي تلت

لقد تعلم معظمنا في موقف جماعي بالمدرسة، وفي داخلنا النزعة نحو المزيد والمزيد تقديم مموذج فعال للتعليم :

التحدي نحو استكمال التعليم والتنمية من التعليم المستمر مدى الحياة، ومما الشك فيه أن جامعة الشركات تخلق لدينا

الذاتية للفرد.

أن أفضل ثمار جامعة الشركات تتجلى في توفير فرص للتعليم متكافئة، وكذلك فرص :توفير فرص تعليم متكافئة

عمل متكافئة في ظل متطلبات سوق العمل.

نحو كوادر أكفاء خاصة في ظل عصر : مما الشك فيه أن تزايد الحاجةالمساعدة على ممو كوادر جيدة في سوق العمل

المعلوماتية والثورة التكنولوجية التي نحياها،وتكمن الصعوبة في كيفية إعداد هذه الكوادر وفي ظل جامعة الشركات يتم

مراعاة الفروق الفردية في التعلم بين األفراد ومن ثم استخدام أفضل األساليب لتنمية القدرات والمهارات المختلفة الالزمة

لمواجهة سوق العمل.

ونتيجة لما سبق فإن فلسفة وأهداف جامعة الشركات تعتمد على تكوين منظمة التعلم التي تعمل على رفع مستوي العاملين

واألفراد الملتحقين بها من خالل تزويدهم بكل ما هو جديد في مجاالت العمل المختلفة، ومن ثم فهي تعمل على إمداد

البشرية المؤهلة التي تساعدها على تحقيق الريادة والسبق في مجال عملها، مما يسهم في زيادة مؤسسات اإلنتاج بالقوى

مواردها.

32

أمماط جامعة الشركات

(Anony ,M. , 2005 ): مجموعاتتم تصنيف جامعة الشركات إلى ثالث وقد

بزيادة البرامج التدريبية.ستجيب لالستراتيجية وخدمة األفراد : تتصرف كمصدر لنشر المعرفة وممدارس

:تتصرف كمعيد لتوزيع للمعرفة تخدم المؤسسة من خالل تحديد األهداف التنظيمية مع كفايات األفراد. كليات

:تتصرف كموجه لتجديد المعرفة التي تعيد تنمية نقل المعرفة والتبادل، و تخدم كال من المؤسسة واألفراد أكاديميات

ستراتيجية.من خالل تكوين وإدراك اال

وكل جامعة تكون فريدة مالئمة للشركة واألفراد الموجودين بداخلها, لهذا ال توجد جامعة مثالية وال يوجد نموذج يمكن أن

تقوم المؤسسة بتقليده، ويعد هذا التنوع في أنماط جامعة الشركات ليتيح الفرصة للمؤسسات اإلنتاجية والشركات لتتبني

ياجاتها، وذلك وفقا لقدراتها وإمكاناتها.النمط الذي يتالئم واحت

ويوجد العديد من نماذج جامعات الشييركات في العديد من دول العالم، وذلك كاتجاه عالمي منتشيير يسييهم في تحقيق الشييراكة

المميزات بين الجامعة والمؤسييييسييييات اإلنتاجية، ويسيييياعد في تحقيق أهداف كل طرف ويعود على كال الطرفين بالعديد من

وفيما يلي عرض لهذه النماذج كأحد النماذج التطبيقية.والفوائد؛

Hamburger University جـامـعة هامـبـورجـر

تعتبر جامعة هامبورجر مركز للتدريب اإلداري لشيييييركة ماكدونالد، فقد تم تصيييييميمها من أجل تعليم األفراد العاملين داخل

يتم توظيفهم من خالل نظام مسييتقل في المجاالت المختلفة للعمل التجاري، فمطاعم ماكدونالد تقوم كل وشييركة ماكدونالدز أ

عام بتدريب أفراد أكثر من جيش الواليات المتحدة، كما يتم فيها عمل دورات تدريبية إلعداد المدربين الذين سيييييييقومون

للشركة وأساس ثقافة الشركة. بالتدريب، حيث يعتبر ذلك جزءا من تكوين البنية الداخلية

مليون دوالر في جامعة هامبورجر وتم القيام بإنشاء حرم جامعي على 40م قامت ماكدونالدز باستثمار 1993وفي عام

؛ ويتضمن هذا الحرم ما يلي Oak Brook قدم مربع يقع في مكاتب شركة ماكدونالد في أوك بروك 130.000مساحة

(Valhalla, 2008): 13 حجرة لفرق التعلم 12مقعد.، 300قاعات لالستماع /لالجتماع تتكون من ، حجرة للدراسة

(McDonald’s, 2018c) معامل للمطبخ، معامل التدريب على الخدمة. 3التفاعلي،

اإلقليمي، باإلضافة إلى حرم جامعي لجامعة هامبورجر في سيدنى فريق للتدريب 22ويوجد اليوم في الواليات المتحدة

ومونيتش ولندن وطوكيو وهونج كونج والبرازيل، و يتم فيها تطبيق مداخل التعلم العالمية لجامعة هامبورجر، مما يسمح

. (McDonald’s, 2018a) بتكامل المواد التدريبية واألدوات في لغات وثقافات مختلفة

رئيا شركة ماكدونالد Frid Tornerم؛ حيث قام كل من فريد تورنر 1961جامعة هامبورجر إلى عام وترجع نشأة

بتأسيا جامعة هامبورجر على أساس مطعم ماكدونالد فى قرية إليك جروف Ray Crokالسابق وراى كروك

طالب، واليوم تقوم 14فصل من قامت الجامعة بتخريج أول 1961فبراير 24وفي .Elic Grofe in Illinoisبإلينونز

33

قامت الجامعة 1961، ومنذ عام (Valhalla, 2008) طالب قاموا بااللتحاق بالجامعة 5000الجامعة بتخريج أكثر من

م كانت جامعة 1961ومدير في اإلدارة الوسطى ومالك وعاملين، ومنذ عام ممدير مطع 80.000بتخريج أكثر من

فدان فى أوك بروك بضاحية شيكاغو، ويلتحق 80هامبورجر أول جامعة شركات، وتبلغ مساحة الحرم الجامعي لماكدونالد

ة إلى المركز الرئيا طالب، وباإلضاف 70.000طالب بالكلية كل عام، ويمكن أن تقوم بتخريج ما يزيد عن 5800حوالي

توجد فروع أخري للجامعة بإنجلترا واليابان وألمانيا واستراليا

(McDonald’s, 2018c).

أهدافها وفلسفتها

تسعى جامعة هامبورجر إلى تكوين قوى عاملة مدربة على أعلى مستوي تحقق لها أعلي إنتاجية وتسهم في إكسابها الشهرة

العالمية والتميز في مجالها، فقد تم تصميمها من أجل تعليم األفراد العاملين داخل شركة ماكدونالدز، وتتحدد رسالة جامعة

بتنمية األفراد مع تحقيق التزامهم بالجودة، والخدمة والنظافة والقيمة فى العالم". هامبورجر في "أن نكون أفضل من يقوم

فالتزامها بتدريب أفرادها وتنميتهم أدى إلى أن: تصبح أول شركة مطاعم تقوم بتنمية مركز تدريب عالمى، أول مركز فعال

فتعتبر الواليات المتحدة هي (ACE)التي تلقت حاليا توصيات اعتماد الكلية من المجلا األمريكي القومي (QSR)للـ

.(McDonald’s, 2018a) أقدم هيئة واألكثر مالئمة للتعليم العالي، الشهرة المستمرة باالمتياز فى التدريب.

البرامج الدراسية

س الكامل لتكوين وظيفة ذات قوة عالية. يعتبر ماكدونالد مؤسسة المطاعم يكون البرنامج شامال من خالل وضع األسا

الوحيدة التي حصلت على توصيات اعتماد ككلية من المجلا األمريكي للتعليم.وتقوم جامعة هامبورجر بتقديم برامج

.(McDonald’s, 2018b) دراسية في أربعة مستويات؛ هي

برمامج مديري المطاعم

مديرين المطعم يقومون بتنمية طريقهم من خالل كورسات اإلدارة بالمناوبة وإدارة النظم. ومتى تم االنتهاء من هذا البرنامج

يذهب المديرين إلى جامعة هامبورجر؛ حيث يتعلم فيها المديرون مهارات ومعارف إضيييييييافية يحتاجونها من أجل إدارة

. مطاعم تدر دخال يقدر بماليين الدوالرات

برمامج مديري اإلدارة الوسطى

مسييارات تعلم اإلدارة المتوسييطة في جامعة هامبورجر تكون السييتشييارات العمل التجاري ورؤسيياء األقسييام. فهي تقوم على

مهاراتهم القيادية واالسيييتشيييارية وتدرس لألفراد كيف يعملون بفاعلية في العمل التجاري وكيفية التدريب واالسيييتشيييارة مع

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دارة المطاعم الكبيرة.اآلخرين إل

برمامج العاملين

يتم تنمية منهج العاملين وتدعيمه بواسييييييطة العاملين في جامعة هامبورجر، ويتم تنمية العمل من خالل المطعم. ويكون ذلك

بالنسبة للعاملين أساس لإلدارة وتدعيم المسار الوظيفي للعاملين.

نبرمامج التنفيذيي

على تدعيم العمل التجاري الحالي ومهارات القيادة لإلدارة العليا. ويكون البرنامج متاحا في نالتنفيذييتسيياعد مسييارات تعلم

جامعة هامبورجر لبناء مهارات الكفايات القيادية التي توجد حاجة إليها من أجل تدعيم العاملين والمالكين / العاملين ونمو

المبيعات.

برمامج الدرجة الجامعية

ئة (ACE)يعتبر المجلا األمريكي للتعليم هذه الهي قامت ية حيث حدة األمريك ماد في الواليات المت حة لالعت مان ئة ال الهي

، وقد بالتعرف على جامعة هامبورجر والبرامج التي تقدمها؛ حيث تقدم لألفراد والشيييركة منهجا للتدريب على مسيييتوى عال

امعة هامبورجر للحصيييول على درجة جامعية من خالل البرنامج الخاص بعملهم. وافقت الهيئة على أن يتم اعتماد طالب ج

% من البرنامج الخاص بمديري المطاعم ومديري اإلدارة الوسييييييطي 100فقد أوصييييييى المجلا األمريكي للتعليم بنسييييييبة

برنامج يعمل عند مسييييتوى اعتمادا، هذا يعني أن تدريب ماكدونالد للمديرين معروف اآلن ك 46بإجمالي -لالعتماد بالكليات

الجامعة ويؤهل للحصييييييول على االعتماد التي يمكن أن تنتقل إلى الكليات والجامعات )الخاصيييييية والحكومية( ويتم تطبيقها

سييييينوات، وتعتمد الجامعة في تقديم برامجها على الشيييييراكة بينها وبين كليات وجامعات 4أو 2للحصيييييول على درجة لمدة

المجلا األمريكي.

المستهدفة الفئة

تقدم جامعة هامبورجر البرامج الدراسية لجميع العاملين في شركة ماكدونالدز في مختلف المستويات اإلدارية، حيث أن قد

لقد ازداد معدل الحضور 1961تم تصميم جامعة هامبورجر من أجل تعليم األفراد العاملين داخل شركة ماكدونالدز، و منذ

في العام في برامج جامعة 5000طالب كل أسبوع وما يزيد عن 200إلى ما يزيد عن طالب 10بالفصول من متوسط

,McDonald’s) طالب منذ نشأة الجامعة وحتي اآلن 65000هامبورجر وأنشطة التعلم، حيث تم تخريج أكثر من

2018d).

أعضاء هيئة التدريس

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لتقديم -من أنحاء العالم -خبراء في عمليات تشيييغيل المطعمأسيييتاذ يقومون بالعمل بشيييكل دائم مع 19في جامعة هامبورجر

المنهج التدريبي لماكدونالد، ويتم االسيييييتعانة بهم من خالل شيييييراكة بين جامعة هامبورجر وجامعات المجلا األمريكي مما

.يساعدها على اعتماد برامجها الدراسية ومنح درجات جامعية

الوسائل التعليمية

لدراسييية من خالل الفصييول الدراسييية واألنشييطة بالمعامل والسيييناريوهات التي تقوم على أهداف محددة يتم تقديم البرامج ا

ومديوالت التعلم اإللكتروني باسييييتخدام الحاسييييب،و العاملين فى ماكدونالد يقومون بتوفيق التدريب مع المسييييارات الوظيفية

م عمليات تشيييييغيل العاملين إلى تسيييييليم وتنفيذ المنهج الخاصييييية بهم.كما يؤدى التدريب المهني لجامعة هامبورجر وتصيييييمي

األسيييياسييييي من خالل النظام باسييييتخدام تقنيات تعلم مختلفة تتضييييمن عناصيييير الدراسيييية الذاتية والتدريب بالتعلم اإللكتروني

سية.ويتم تدريب الطالب من الوقت الذين ينضمون فيه إلى المطعم إلعداد أنفسهم للتعلم المستمر في مراكز والفصول الدرا

.(McDonald’s, 2018d)تعليمنا اإلقليمية وجامعة هامبورجر.

ومما سييييبق فإن جامعة هامبورجر تعد أولى جامعة الشييييركات التي تمتلك نظاما متكامال لتقديم برامجها وتحقيق أهدافها من

ل عملها، من خالل تحقيق التنمية خالل شييييييراكة بينها وبين الجامعة التقليدية، وذلك بهدف تحقيق التميز والريادة في مجا

المهنية المسييييييتدامة ألفرادها بما يوفر لهم كل ما هو جديد ومسييييييتحدث في مجال عملهم، كما تعمل علي تقديم برامج لمنح

درجات علمية معتمدة من المجلا األعلى للتعليم العالي األمريكي، مما أدى في النهاية إلي انتشيييييييار هذا النمط في أمريكا

شركات الكبرى لتكوين مثل هذه الجامعات.وسعي ال

مبررات ظهور جامعة الشركات

ومن أهم مبررات الشراكة بين الجامعة والمؤسسات اإلنتاجية مجموعة من المتغيرات؛ من أهمها:

:أدت ثورة المعلومات إلى وجود موجة ثالثة للمعرفة تقود االقتصيييييياد، وتعني هذه ظهور مجتمع االقتصرررررراد المعرفي

الموجة الثالثة بالتركيز على تجميع وتقسيم وابتكار المعرفة ونظرا لحدوث هذه الثورة المعلوماتية فإن الشركات وجدت

وة العاملة المتعلمة، كما أن اسييييييتغالل أنها تحتاج إلى أنظمة لتنظيم هذه المعرفة؛ حيث إن جودة اإلنتاج هي نتيجة للق

Anony ) المعرفة المتاحة بالفعل لم يعد كافي ولكن يجب أن تسييعى الشييركات إلى تجديد المعرفة و إال سييوف تفشييل

,M. , 2005) ،أن االقتصيييياد الذي سيييييسييييود في القرن الحادي والعشييييرين هو االقتصيييياد المعرفي وKnowledge

Economy وسوف يتحول النوع الجديد من الوظائف بشكل سريع من إعداد المنتجات المادية المحسوسة إلى ابتكار ،

المعلومات وتحويلها إلى "معرفة" لحل المشييييكالت، وأن تقييم الفرد في المسييييتقبل سيييييعتمد على مقدار ما يسييييتطيع أن

Knowledgeة العييياملييية المعرفيييية يتعلم، وليا على مقيييدار ميييا يعرف، وهيييذه سييييييتكون السييييييمييية المميزة للقو

Worker(Galbreath, 1999)

:نظرا لتحول العالم ليصبح قرية كونية محورها اقتصاد السوق، فإن هذا التحول يتطلب وجود أفراد التنافسية العالمية

تنافسييييية، حاصييييلين على تعليم مرتفع الجودة، أصييييحاب كفايات ودافعية مرتفعة لقيادة المجتمع للحصييييول على مزايا

وبالتالي فإن كافة المؤسييسييات بما فيها مؤسييسييات التعليم والتدريب، يمكن أن تقوم بدور في تحسييين المهارات المتوفرة

لدي األفراد، وهذا لن يتأتى إال من خالل مسيياعدة األفراد أنفسييهم ألنفسييهم، ويسييهم التعليم في المحافظة على اسييتمرار

(.2004)عبد الحميد، الل قدرة سكانها على اإلبداع في كافة المجاالتالدول في مناخ التنافا الدولي من خ

:تفرض العولمة ضييييييغوطا على الجامعات طالبة منها التغيير وتبني واعتناق ثقافة التعامل مع العولمة االقتصررررررادية

سييتجابتها هل الشييركات، وأصييبحت الجامعات ال سييبيل أمامها من مواجهة هذه الضييغوط واالسييتجابة لها، وفي حالة ا

36

سيييتتغير الجامعات بكفاءة وبسيييرعة لمتطلبات عالم الشيييركات من تعليم وتدريب، وحيث أن الجامعات غير قادرة على

,Barnett) تحديد الدور الذي ينبغي أن تلعبه أصيييبح من الصيييعب عليها أن تقرر كيفية االسيييتجابة لضيييغوط العولمة

2000)

المبررات التي تؤكد على ضيييرورة تدعيم الروابط بين التعليم وعالم العمل وتكوين وبصيييفة عامة يمكن تحديد مجموعة من

شراكات بين مؤسسات التعليم الجامعي ومؤسسات المجتمع؛ ويمكن تلخيص أهم هذه المبررات فيما يلي:

:قدمه،بروز اقتصررررررراديات المعرفة عد التحول إلى مجتمع المعرفة مرحلة من مراحل تطور المجتمع وت حيث ي

يقتضييي الوصييول إليها تضييافر مختلف الجهود العلمية واإلنتاجية في العديد من المجاالت، فالهدف ليا فقط إنتاج

معرفة ولكن القدرة على اسيييييتخدامها، وهذا يحتاج إلى الربط المتواصيييييل ما بين مؤسيييييسيييييات صيييييناعة المعرفة

ومؤسسات استهالكها واستخدامها.

ومن أهم سييييييمات هذا النظام عولمة النشيييييياط اإلنتاجي بمعنى أن العولمة: توجج النظام االقتصررررررادي العالمي إلى

وإنما أصيييبح يقوم على ما يعرف ،النشييياط ال يتم من بدايته حتى نهايته بواسيييطة مؤسيييسييية واحدة وفى مكان واحد

ارة لقوة بنظام الحلقات وتحتاج كل حلقة إلى درجة مختلفة من الكثافة الرأسييييمالية وإلى مسييييتويات مختلفة من المه

وبناء عليه فإن مسييتوى مهارة وإنتاجية القوى البشييرية أصييبح هو المحدد للحلقة التي يمكن للدولة الدخول ،العمل

والسييباق في اإلنتاج والصييناعة لكسييب المزيد من األسييواق العالمية، ظهور التكتالت االقتصررادية الضررخمة:.وفيها

اعدة معلوماتية ضييخمة لتصييبح التكنولوجيا هى المورد الرئيسييي واالتجاه المتزايد نحو الخصييخصيية انطالقا من ق

.لالقتصاد المتقدم

:وصييار لتلك الشييركات تأثيرات واضييحة على تزايد اهتمام الشررركات متعددة الجنسرريات بالتعليم العالي والجامعي

ليمية، وتحمل بعض مؤسيييييسيييييات التعليم العالي والجامعي من خالل المشييييياركة في تمويل التعليم وتجويد الخدمة التع

أعباء العملية التعليمية، واإلنفاق على الموهوبين وذوي الحاجات الخاصة، وإعادة صياغة المهارات والمعارف التي

العالمي. يهتم التعليم الجامعي بنقلها للطالب لتناسب المنظور

)مموذج تطبيقي( الرؤية المقترحة

شراكة بين الجامعة والمؤسسات اإلنتاجية من خالل جامعة في ضوء ما تم التوصل إليه في اإلطار النظري، يمكن تفعيل ال

الشييركات: حيث تقوم المؤسييسييات اإلنتاجية من مصييانع وشييركات في مختلف المجاالت بإنشيياء مثل هذه الجامعات من اجل

عيدا عن المؤسييسيية التي الوفاء بأغراض الشييركة، وتأخذ جامعة الشييركات عدة أشييكال فقد تكون جامعة لها كيانها المسييتقل ب

شكل افتراضي من خالل موقع للجامعة سام التدريبية، وقد تكون ب شئها، وتكون داخل هذه المؤسسة كأحد المراكز أو األق تن

على شبكة االنترنت يتم من خالله تقديم جميع الخدمات بما يحقق أهداف الجامعة.

سواء التي تعمل والمؤسسات الصناعية الكبري بالعديد من دول الخليجيمكن تطبيق هذا النموذج في العديد من الشركات

شركة "اإلمارات العالمية في مجال نفط أو غيره من المجاالت ، وعلى سبيل المثال ال الحصر يمكن تطبيق ذلك النموذج بـ:

سوداتل لأللمنيوم"، إحدى أكبر شركات األلمنيوم في العالم شركة العالمية ، شركة دبي للمرطبات، مجموعة لالتصاالت، ال

لزراعة األسييييماك، شييييركة الخليج للصييييناعات الدوائية، ارامكا، أرابتك، شييييركة ابوظبي الوطنية للطاقة )طاقة(،إعمار،

اتصاالت.

الفلسفة واألهداف

37

عن طريق توثيق فلسييفة من أن تحقيق التنمية االقتصييادية يسييتلزم تطوير مؤسييسييات التعليم الجامعي ومؤسييسييات اإلنتاج التنطلق

الترابط والتعاون بينهما من خالل شراكة ناجحة وفاعلة تحقق لكل طرف أهدافه، حيث تعمل الشراكة على تطوير التعليم الجامعي

وتحديثه ليصبح أكثر قدرة على تخريج أفراد مؤهلين قادرين على تلبية االحتياجات المختلفة لمؤسسات المجتمع المختلفة اإلنتاجية

على حد سييييييواء، ومزودين بالمؤهالت األكاديمية والتطبيقية التي تتالءم مع االحتياجات المسييييييتقبلية والحالية للمجتمع، والخدمية

وتقوم هذه الفلسررفة . باإلضييافة إلى تطوير مؤسييسييات اإلنتاج لزيادة معدالت اإلنتاج وخفض التكلفة والقدرة على المنافسيية العالمية

:على مجموعة من المبادئ أهمها

.التنمية المهنية المستدامة التي تعد عامال هاما لرفع المستوى المهني للعاملين بمؤسسات الشراكة، وتحسين أدائهم

التعلم الذاتي والمسييييتمر مدى الحياة الذي أصييييبح يلعب دورا هاما في تحقيق التنمية الذاتية للعاملين بمؤسييييسييييات

خبراتهم. الشراكة، بما يضمن لهم تجديد معارفهم وتحديث

تنمية األفكار اإلبداعية التي لها مردود اقتصيييادي على المجتمع، هو الذي يميز مجتمعات المعرفة التي تهتم بتنمية

رأس المال البشري ورعاية أفكاره ومشاريعه.

حل مشييييييكالت المجتمع واإلسييييييهام في تطويره وتحديثه، والذي يقوم على تضييييييافر الجهود والتعاون البناء بين

عات ومؤسسات المجتمع اإلنتاجية والخدمية. الجام

المنفعة المتبادلة بين مؤسييييييسييييييات الشييييييراكة يعمل على تعظيم الفائدة وتحقيق المكاسييييييب التي ال يمكن أن تحققها

المؤسسات بمفردها.

تتمثل فيما يلي: ؛ وفى ضوء هذه المبادئ التي تقوم عليها فلسفة التصور فإمج يسعى إلى تعقيق مجموعة من األهداف

توفير الدعم والتمويل والخدمات اإلرشييييييادية والتسييييييهيالت المتاحة ألصييييييحاب االبتكارات واألفكار داخل هذه

المؤسسات.

إعداد القوى البشييرية للحصييول على الدرجة الجامعية األولي والدراسييات العليا وفق احتياجات مؤسييسييات اإلنتاج

ومتطلبات سوق العمل.

شيييخصيييي والمهني المسيييتمر للعاملين والموظفين بمؤسيييسيييات الشيييراكة من خالل برامج تدريبية تشيييجيع النمو ال

متنوعة.

.توفير آليات لتسويق أنشطة التصور ومنتجاتها من البحوث والبرامج التدريبية

آليات التطبيق

سة هي التهيئة، واإلعداد، والتنفيذ، والمتابعة والتقويم، بما يضمن تطبيق هذا التصور تتضمن تلك اآلليات أربع مراحل رئي

:بفعالية عالية، وفيما يلي عرض موجز لتلك اآلليات

:وتسبق هذه المرحلة التطبيق الفعلي التفاق الشراكة، وتتضمن ما يلي: مرحلة التهيئة

o نشييييير ثقافة الشيييييراكة بين مجتمع الجامعة ومؤسيييييسيييييات اإلنتاج، وتتضيييييمن تعريف القيادات اإلدارية

ية بمميزات الشيييييراكة وما تحققه لهم من فوائد شيييييخصيييييية ومؤسيييييسيييييية، وإقناعهم بها وأنها واألكاديم

سييتسيياعدهم في التغلب على مشييكالت مؤسييسيياتهم التعليمية واإلدارية واإلنتاجية، وتسيياعدهم على إنجاز

أعمالهم بأعلى جودة، وأقل وقت وجهد، وأقل تكلفة، وتتماشي مع التغيرات العالمية والمحلية.

o ورش عمل ودورات تدريبية وندوات تثقيفية للعاملين في الجامعة ومؤسييييييسييييييات المجتمع يتم فيها عمل

توضيييح ماهية الشييراكة ودورها في توفير الموارد المالية للجامعة التي تمكنها من تقديم مسييتوي تعليمي

ج بالقوي يتوافق مع متطلبات المجتمع واحتياجات سييييوق العمل، كما تسييييهم في إمداد مؤسييييسييييات اإلنتا

المؤهلة والمدربة التي تساعدها في زيادة اإلنتاج والقدرة على المنافسة العالمية.

o قيام الجامعة بعمل ندوات تعريفية للمؤسييسييات المجتمعية بما تمتلكه من إمكانات وقدرات مادية وبشييرية وكذلك

ناعة لدي مؤسييييييسييييييات اإلنتاج بأهمية التعريف باألبحاث التي تقوم بها والمجاالت التي تهتم بها، وذلك لتكوين ق

38

الشراكة مع الجامعة والثقة في قدراتها وامكاناتها.

بالمرحلة : مرحلة اإلعداد ها كة، ويمكن تسييييييميت فاق الشييييييرا هذه المرحلة أيضيييييييا التطبيق الفعلي الت وتسييييييبق

ما يلي:التحضيرية،وفيها يتم االستفادة من االتجاهات العالمية المعاصرة في هذا المجال وتتضمن

o .تدريب القيادات اإلدارية واألكاديمية على كيفية عقد اتفاقات الشراكة

o .استصدار القوانين والتشريعات التي تنظم العمل في ظل تطبيق اتفاقية الشراكة

o ،عقد اجتماعات بين أطراف الشييييييراكة لمناقشيييييية أمور مثل تحديد األهداف المشييييييتركة، وخطة العمل

تبادلة، وكذلك مناقشيييييية اإلمكانات والقدرات لدي كل طرف مما يؤدي إلى واألدوار والمسييييييئوليات الم

تعظيم االستفادة الممكنة لكل طرف من الشراكة.

o تكوين لجان مشتركة تعمل على وضع خطوات ومراحل عمل الشراكة بين الجامعة ومؤسسات المجتمع

الشيييييراكة بحيث يحدث تكامل وكذلك المدة الزمنية التي تسيييييتغرقها كل مرحلة، مع مراعاة دور أطراف

بينهما بما يعظم الفائدة لكل طرف.

o تكوين لجان مشييييييتركة من الجامعة ومؤسييييييسييييييات المجتمع تقوم بمراجعة اتفاقيات الشييييييراكة واألدوار

والمسيييئوليات المنوطة بكل طرف وكذلك تحديد العوامل التي تسيييهم في نجاح الشيييراكة، ومراجعة مدى

شراكة ومدي تحقيقها ألهدافها.التقدم في الشراكة، وتقويم ال

o إنشياء آلية بين أطراف الشيراكة تسيهل عملية االتصيال والتواصيل بينهما بما يمكن نجاح عملية الشيراكة

ويضمان سرعة التواصل بين المؤسسات أطراف الشراكة.

:التنفيذ بصيييورة كلية وفقا ويمكن أن يمر التنفيذ بمرحلتين أحدها انتقالية واألخرى نهائية، أو أن يتم مرحلة التنفيذ

إلمكانيات وظروف الجامعة والمؤسسات اإلنتاجية، ويتضمن التنفيذ ما يلي:

o تحديد األهداف التي تسييعى الجامعة ومؤسييسييات اإلنتاج لتحقيقها، في ضييوء دراسيية الواقع الحالي باسييتخدام نموذج

السوق. واحتياجات، والتنبؤ بالمتغيرات المستقبلية المتوقعة، SWOTالتحليل الرباعي

o جمع المعلومات بصيييييفة دورية من مؤسيييييسيييييات المجتمع، وذلك لمواكبة المتغيرات والمسيييييتجدات في

احتياجات هذه المؤسسات، ويمكن أن يتم ذلك من خالل التقارير التي ترد للجامعة من هذه المؤسسات،

شات ستطالع رأي واإلحصاءات الرسمية المحلية المتاحة، والمقابالت الشخصية، والمناق المفتوحة، وا

القائمين على هذه المؤسسات والعاملين بها.

o اشيييييتراك كل القيادات اإلدارية واألكاديمية في وضيييييع الخطط الجامعية في ضيييييوء االحتياجات التي تم

تحديدها من قبل وكذلك وضع خطط المؤسسات اإلنتاجية.

o أيهم فيها قبل التنفيذ، وإحداث عرض الخطط على األفراد والمؤسييييييسييييييات ذات الصييييييلة بالخطة وأخذ ر

التعديالت المطلوبة، وأن تتسيييم الخطط بالمرونة التي تجعلها قابلة للتعديل وفق المتغيرات غير المتوقعة

والمستحدثة.

o سرعة شراكة، وأن يكون من خالل قنوات مفتوحة، وأن يتم ب صال داخل تنظيم ال تنوع وتعدد قنوات االت

فهم الرسييييييائل المرسييييييلة، وأن تتاح المعلومات لألفراد في الوقت الذي وبكفاءة دون حدوث أي لبا في

يحتاجونها فيه بأسرع وقت وأعلى دقة، وأن تستند في أداء ذلك على استخدام أحدث التكنولوجيات.

o سيييييرعة اتخاذ القرارات المتعلقة بالشيييييراكة، وأن يشيييييترك قطاع كبير من العاملين بالجامعة في صييييينع

ية صيييييينع القرار على معلومات دقيقة وكافية وغير مكلفة، وأن تتخذ باسييييييتخدام القرار، واعتماد عمل

التكنولوجيا الحديثة التي تتضمن السرعة والدقة، ومشاركة أعضاء هيئة التدريا في اتخاذ القرار.

o وضع نظام للمحاسبية والمسألة يمكن من خالله قياس مدى التقدم في الشراكة وتحقيقها ألهدافها، وكذلك

سبة أطراف الشراكة ومدي أدائهم ألدوار والمسئوليات المنوطة بهم.محا

يتم في هذه المرحلة ومن خالل لجنة المتابعة والتقويم، قياس مدى تحقيق الشييييييراكة مرحلة المتابعة والتقويم :

اتية ألهدافها وذلك في ضيييوء خطة العمل الموضيييوعة بين أطراف الشيييراكة، و يتطلب ذلك التوجه نحو الرقابة الذ

39

لألفراد، وتوجيههم باستمرار نحو تحقيق األهداف المرجوة بطريقة تعتمد على سرعة اتخاذ القرار وتحسين األداء

للحفاظ على المنافسة الدائمة.

البرامج الدراسية

تقديم برامج دراسيييييية نابعة من احتياجات ورغبات المؤسيييييسيييييات الشيييييريكة، من خالل تقديم مجموعة من المقررات ويتم

الدراسيييية التي تعمل على رفع مسيييتوي العاملين بما يحقق للمؤسيييسييية القدرة على المنافسييية العالمية وكذلك تحقيق زيادة في

اإلنتاجية وتقديم منتجات جديدة تتميز بالجودة العالية محققة لمواصييفات الجودة العالمية بما يمكنها من المنافسيية في األسييواق

رامج الدراسية ما يلي:ومن هذه الب العالمية والمحلية.

ويتم تقديم هذه البرامج في المجاالت التي تحددها المؤسييييسييييات الشييييريكة " الجامعة برامج ال تمنح درجة علمية ،

برمامج التأهيل للتعليم ، برامج التعليم المسررررررتمر، برامج التنمية المهنيةوالمؤسييييييسييييييات اإلنتاجية" وتشييييييمل:

برامج التدريب التعويلي،العالي

الليسانا(: يلتحق الفرد ببرنامج الدرجة الجامعية األولي وتكون –الدرجة الجامعية األولى ) البكالوريوس برامج

هذه البرامج في المجاالت التي تحددها الشييراكة، والتي تهتم بها المؤسييسييات الشييريكة وتكون هذه البرامج متجددة

قديم هذه البرامج بنظام السيييياعات المعتمدة أو باسييييتمرار وفقا الحتياجات مؤسييييسييييات الشييييراكة، وذلك من خالل ت

التعليم عن بعد.

برامج الدراسات العليا: وتشمل الحصول على الدبلوم، أو الماجستير، أو الدكتوراه، وذلك في المجالت التي تعمل

على تطوير وتحديث مؤسساتها، ويمكن توفير منح للحصول على درجة الماجستير والدكتوراه من الخارج.

خاتمةال

حاولت الورقة توضيح دور الشراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمع من خالل بناء شراكات قوية تتمثل في إنشاء جامعة الشركات

التي تعمل علي تدعيم العالقة بيم الجامعة ومؤسسات المجتمع، وذلك من خالل عرض لمفهوم الشراكة وأهدافها واهميتها،

مجال الشراكة بين الجامعة والمجتمع، والمتمثل في جامعة الشراكات، من خالل وكذلك عرض ألحد االتجاهات الحديثة في

عرض لمفهوم جامعة الشركات، وفلسفتها واهدافها وأنماطها، واحد النماذج التطبيقية لها، وهي جامعة هامبورجر، ثم اختتمت

موضحا من خاللها آليات التطبيق ومتطلبات الورقة بتقديم رؤية مقترحة أو نموذج تطبيقي لجامعة الشركات في الوطن العربي

النجاح .

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43

Education Hubs in the GCC Region – Exploring Interplays of Local Visions and Global

Influences for Higher Education Policy1

Marvin Erfurth

University of Münster, Germany

Abstract

This paper investigates interplays between local and global discourses in policy making by

examining Vision 2021 in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Using a discursive research

approach and applying Cultural Political Economy as a theoretical lens for its analysis, the

analysis shows that the policy links challenges regarding social cohesion to economic demands

and competitiveness as aims for governing higher education. On the one hand, this has been a

successful approach to increase capacity in the UAE’s higher education system(s) over the last

years, but on the other hand, may have created a tightrope for governing higher education,

making it harder to prioritize pedagogical rationales as action-guiding for the organization of

higher education and learning.

Introduction

In one of its recent issues, the British weekly magazine The Economist dedicated a Special

Report to the rapid social, cultural, economic, and political change over the past months in

Saudi Arabia, a member state of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (La Guardia, 2018). But

the Special Report also touches on developments that are greater in scope than only occurring

in Saudi Arabia, suggesting that they cut across the GCC region.2 GCC member states have not

only risen in political and economic power and influence over the last few decades, but their

governments are pursuing ambitious reform agendas for what they hope will be future success.

For instance, such reform agendas are developed in the form of what social scientists would

call “policies,” current examples of which are Vision 2030 in Saudi Arabia, New Kuwait, Vision

2020 in Oman, or Vision 2021 in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

1 This conference proceeding and the presentation at the 8th biannual GCES Symposium are connected to research

undertaken in conjunction with a chapter being published in the edited volume Researching the Global Education

Industry. Commodification, the Market and Business Involvement by M. Parreira do Amaral, G. Steiner-Khamsi,

and C. Thompson (2019). Please see this publication for a more in-depth and focused discussion on the UAE as

an Education Hub, as well as the theoretical and methodological approaches used. 2 The referenced Special Report by The Economist uses the term “Arab world”—a term that arguably deserves

some clarifications on its own, and for which an in-depth discussion with regard to education can be found in the

literature. As an example, please see, Mazawi and Sultana’s (2010) Situating the ‘Worlds’ of Arab Education.

44

Though the above-referenced policies focus to a great extent on economic modernization and

diversification, education—and higher education in particular—play a central role in all of

them. This central role of (higher) education in contemporary national economic policy,

mapped out in national development plans, such as the referenced policies, is very relevant for

education research because of its impact on the organization of education and learning

nationally and regionally. This could potentially result in economic aspects outweighing

education policy goals and may initially lead to diverging rationales.

International and Comparative Higher Education Research currently aims at understanding this

changing organization of education and learning by referencing the concept of International

Education Hubs (IEHs), predominantly in connection with analyzing and/or developing

education policy in countries in the Middle East and South-East Asia (see Knight, 2014).

However, the impact of the potential entanglements of education with economic policy is very

complex. To date, it remains uncertain the extent to which the described social phenomena may

be analyzed adequately using the concept of IEHs and what additional value it provides to

scholars and policy makers for understanding contemporary developments. Against this

backdrop, this contribution reviews a central policy in the UAE’s envisioned transformation

into an Education Hub—Vision 2021—to elaborate on some of the potentially profound

consequences for (higher) education policy in this GCC member state. In connection to this

year’s conference theme, these potential consequences also involve the inclusion of new private

and philanthropic actors into local/national education policy, leading to complex interplays of

“local visions” and “global influences” that appear somewhat veiled in this key policy.

To understand the potentially profound consequences of transforming countries into IEHs, the

narratives conveyed in policies, such as Vision 2021, 3 are particularly insightful for

understanding some contextual conditions that, in connection to this year’s conference theme,

enable “new actors” in education policy to exert their “impact.” While some research on IEHs

has already been undertaken regarding some GCC countries, these studies often focus on

structural changes and the face value of this social phenomenon. Only to a lesser extent do they

pay attention to the narratives, their inherent power, and the role of governments as their

authors (see, for example, Dou & Knight, 2014; Fox & Al Shamisi, 2014; Ibnouf, Dou, &

Knight, 2014). As such, I argue that a more comprehensive examination is needed with respect

to the UAE, given the rapid developments currently occurring in higher education across all of

its seven Emirates.

This contribution will proceed by elaborating on this social phenomenon and education policy

in the next section. It will then briefly describe the theoretical and methodological approaches

3 For instance, see: https://www.vision2021.ae/en/uae-vision

45

used, before applying them for investigating Vision 2021. It concludes by pointing out the

potential consequences for higher education policy in the UAE that need to be investigated in

future research, and emphasizes higher education as a veiled enabler of realizing the goals

outlined in Vision 2021. Furthermore, it highlights how logic, such as economic

competitiveness, instead of social or pedagogical rationales, are becoming action-guiding for

the organization of higher education and learning as a result of Vision 2021. The consequences

of which are profound changes in organizing higher education in the UAE, where for-profit

actors play a crucial role.

Education Policy and its Global Dimension

This section will briefly clarify some conceptual considerations for analyzing education policy

as a research object in times of global interconnection. The referenced national development

strategies tend to frame education, and in particular higher education, as a panacea for pressing

social and economic issues (see Fischer, 2003). This discursive framing signals changing

relationships between the state, economy, society, and higher education, pointing to an

intensified role of economic rationales and interests in this particular education sector.

Recent scholarly research on education policy reveals that the “framing” of education in

national policies is increasingly influenced by traveling policy ideas stimulating a global

circulation of quite similar concepts for education policy across geographical regions such as

concepts and ideas circulating in global discourses about the knowledge-based economy (see

Ball, Junemann, & Santori, 2017; or also Mundy, Green, Lingard, & Verger, 2016). This

circulation profoundly impacts the narratives being told in national policies and strategies,

framing (and somewhat altering) the historically close and complex relationship between state

and (higher) education (see Archer, 1979; Benavot, Resnick, & Corrales, 2006; Green, 1997;

Ramirez & Boli, 1987). In connection to this year’s conference theme, new private and

philanthropic actors appearing in education and policy might therefore be regarded as one

expression of such changing relationships, opening up spaces and opportunities for novel

“global players” to affect national education systems and their organization.

Through globalized discourses, as well as “global players” in education policy, it appears that

a small number of resembling ideas and concepts inform and orient education policies in most

national education systems today (see Verger, 2016). A growing strand of scholarly research –

more recently coined Global Education Policy (GEP) (Mundy, Green, Lingard, & Verger,

2016)—accompanies this change in the practice of education policy. This research focuses on

global discourses, agendas, and actors in the study of education policy to investigate the various

implications of the changing contextual conditions in which education policy evolves such as

the influence of intricate relationships between domestic and foreign actors on national

education policy (see Marginson, 2016; Verger, 2016; see also Ball et al., 2017).

Economic Diversification in National Development Strategies: A Shared Objective of

International Education Hub Policies in the GCC region?

46

In connection with the above conceptual considerations for analyzing GEP as a research object,

this section succinctly elaborates on—in analytical terms—“discursive spaces” cutting across

GCC countries through policies sharing similar rationales and narratives. A contemporary,

paradigmatic example of narratives for organizing education and learning that resemble each

other across several locales—involving novel private and philanthropic actors in the provision

and management of education—may currently be seen in policies pursuing the creation of so-

called IEHs that have been mentioned earlier (Knight, 2014). Several states, predominantly

located in South-East Asia and the Middle East, currently use this label to discursively brand

themselves as international destinations for learning, pursuing structural competitiveness in

connection to their always-individual understandings of what knowledge-based economies are.

IEHs are governmental politico-economic projects aiming at the transformation of selected

territories into economically competitive and socially progressive areas by means of reforming

education, in particular higher education.

With regard to the GCC region, IEH policies are often outlined in national development

strategies that, in this particular region, currently share the objective of economic

diversification as a cross-cutting theme. In connection with understanding education policy as

obtaining a “global dimension” (as in GEP), such cross-cutting themes generate discursive

spaces that are self-constituting through, for instance, the creation and repetition of resembling

narratives and problem definitions in different national policies. In this context, the UAE is one

of several GCC member states currently pursuing such a transformation into an IEH, with

Vision 2021 outlining this pursuit (as a somewhat master narrative). Against this backdrop, the

following sections will look into how the relationship between education and the state is being

framed in this policy, potentially having a profound impact on higher education policy in the

UAE.

Conceptual Considerations

To analyze Vision 2021 and its impact on education in the UAE, this contribution adopts

Cultural Political Economy (CPE; Sum & Jessop, 2013) as a theoretical lens, reflects concepts

brought forward by the Comparative Case Study approach (CCS; see Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017)

methodologically, and is methodically oriented by CPE and the CCS through the use of a

discursive research approach (see Fairclough, 1992; Wodak, 2004; Wodak, & Fairclough,

1997). For conceptualizing what is being conceived as, for instance, the “international” or the

“national” in the policy, but also their complex relationship, the culture- and context-sensitive

lenses brought forward by the CCS approach are adopted. This enables a conceptualization of

education policy as a so-called sociocultural practice throughout scale, space, and time as inter-

related analytical categories (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017). For conceptualizing (and tracing)

policy as a sociocultural practice, CPE suggests analyzing the interplay of ideational and

material dimensions of GEP as co-constitutive in connection to relational understandings of

space (Jessop, Brenner, & Jones, 2008). With its analytical tools, a CPE perspective provides

47

a kind of circulatory lens for researching processes of understanding and shaping the world as

inter-related, for which the co-constitutiveness of such ideational and material dimensions is a

key consideration.

The Interplay of Local Visions and Global Influences in the UAE’s Vision 2021

The elaborated analytical framework provides one possibility for studying GEP, which in this

case focuses on the interplay of “local visions” and “global influences” (as globally-circulating

policy ideas being re-iterated and locally adopted). Due to the focus and scope of this

contribution, it will solely focus on illuminating the discursive framing of the relationship

between the economy and higher education outlined in the policy, which may have a profound

impact on higher education in the UAE. Vision 2021 is a central policy in the creation of the

UAE as a hub, launched by its government in 2010 to outline a vision for the country about the

goals it should achieve by its golden jubilee in the year 2021. While some scholars would argue

for the absence of a destined strategy outlining the transformation of the UAE into an IEH, the

publicly available policy will be presented with a focus on illuminating this objective through

the adoption of these analytical tools. By adopting a discursive approach for investigating the

policy, guided by the theoretical tools of CPE, this contribution provides insight into (so-called)

“selective understandings” of the world through processes of sense- and meaning-making

(semiosis and selectivities in CPE), revealing economic rationales, such as economic

competitiveness, as action-guiding for governing higher education.

Vision 2021 has a traditional structure of reform strategies. The policy identifies certain

developments as problematic and constructs specific areas as issues before offering

modifications to existing programs and the launch of additional initiatives to improve the

current situation, but also elaborates on the achievement of overall goals (see Jungmann &

Besio, 2018). The policy, which is divided into four overall themes, sets the scene with a

preface reconstructing the UAE’s remarkable progress over recent decades and the historical

roots of this success. Its purpose is to unfold a vision for the UAE’s golden jubilee, the

achievement of which is described as potentially difficult due to challenges regarding the fabric

of society, economic competitiveness, national identity, as well as “health, education,

environment and well-being.” The policy’s relevance is emphasized by stating that an

“ambitious nation like ours cannot achieve its goals by relying on its past achievements. We

must work harder, be more innovative, more organized, and more vigilant in examining the

trends and challenges that will face us.” As an overall goal, the preface describes the method

of the policy as proactive for “bequeath[ing] to future generations a legacy worthy of the

pioneers who founded our great nation, a legacy defined by prosperity, security, stability, and

a life filled with dignity and respect,” which is further reflected in Vision 2021’s slogan:

“United in Ambition and Determination.”

The solution to the challenges identified by the authors of the policy, such as pressures for the

society and the economy, are—through an analytical CPE lens—selectively assessed in

connection with a correspondingly selective understanding of the concept of the knowledge-

48

based economy and its prescribed requirements. It leads to a specific remedy “to solve the

diagnosed problems and to realize socially constructed objectives” in the form of the presented

visions: the creation of a global hub (as a so-called knowledge brand in CPE research; Sum &

Jessop, 2013, p. 6). This social imaginary functions as the binding fabric uniting the society

and its government in the efforts to proactively create the conditions necessary for success in

the knowledge-based economy through the transformation of the UAE into such a global hub.

Although the vision for this hub is described as one for business and innovation, higher

education implicitly appears in several sections of the policy such as Theme Three, Leitmotifs

One and Three. Higher education moreover appears as the actual (although somewhat veiled)

enabler of the vision of the UAE’s global hub, in CPE terms, it is conceptualized as an extra-

economic factor determining economic competitiveness by providing science, research, and

opportunities for learning. The stunning growth in the number of higher education institutions

in the country may serve as one material causality constituted by those ideational aspects of

the policy, which are facilitated by using a model of free zones (in Dubai in particular) to attract

foreign institutions, but also by improving the quality of learning and research at/of a small

number of national universities.

On the one hand, the semiotic-discursive space created by Vision 2021 is, path-dependent on

the UAE’s legacy regarding trade and business, but on the other hand, also path-shaping for its

future development. A changing mode of governing higher education envisioned in the policy

can perhaps be best described by directly citing from Vision 2021, which (in Theme Two,

Leitmotif Three) states that the “UAE will enhance its pivotal role as a regional business hub

whose essential infrastructure and institutions provide a gateway linking our neighbourhood to

the world, serving as a role model for the region.” In this setting, the state functions as a

guarantor of success, a guardian of complex change, and—as the themes “United in…”

induce—a uniting entity to connect “the economic and government sphere, […] build[ing] on

sectors of excellence to export its model abroad, while constantly evolving to create new

competitive advantages.” Furthermore, as stated in Theme Three, Leitmotif Two, this IEH

pursues economic advantages through relating research and education to the economy by

“forg[ing] ever stronger international partnerships and capitali[zing] on them to boost trade and

commerce.” The powerful narrative, which unfolds throughout the policy relating it to

globalizing discourses about economic and social challenges, presents the transformation of

the UAE into a hub as the solution to those pressures and for achieving competitive advantages

in connection with diversifying its economy.

Conclusion

The “envisioning” of the UAE as an IEH as presented in Vision 2021 vividly depicts the

integration and linkage of the issues and concepts, which have been described as “circulating”

globally in one of the above sections of this paper, establishing an intricate relationship between

“local visions” and “global influences” expressed in this policy. The policy predominantly links

challenges regarding social cohesion to economic demands and competitiveness, (at least

discursively) integrating them as aims for governing higher education and making economic

rather than social or pedagogical rationales action-guiding for the organization of higher

49

education and learning. The adoption of those rationales for governing higher education that

have been illuminated as discursive has a somewhat material impact on the UAE’s IEH policies

with, for instance, the creation of economic free zones for (higher) education and a growing

number of predominantly private higher education providers—although approaches differ

between the individual Emirates.

Those material effects in combination with their ideational “framing” arguably create a

tightrope for governing higher education in this hub between notions of a somewhat “public

service”—perhaps portraying higher education as bearing some very important social

functions—and notions of “academic capitalism.” By entangling academia in market-like

behaviors, aspects such as effectiveness, efficiency, and, more profoundly, profitability are

made to be action-guiding. Consequently, higher education may be stripped of some of its

historically vital social functions and potentially shift the focus away from the needs of

learners, lecturers, and researchers. In this context, the strategies adopted and outlined in Vision

2021 may paradoxically impede the attainment of goals set out in this policy and supersede

other education policy goals set out by the government.

These developments, including the complex impact of novel private and philanthropic actors

on education, appear as a vital area for scholarly research on education policy within

International and Comparative Education that, due to their complexity, command new

comparative research approaches, and—perhaps most importantly—empirical research to

better understand them (through comparison). Arguably, the trends highlighted here may

currently be seen across the GCC region, potentially creating unintended, complex effects

between single member states envisioned as IEHs. However, due to its scope and focus, this

short paper can only briefly elaborate on some of the potential impacts of Vision 2021 on higher

education policy in the UAE, which also limits the generalizability/applicability of inferences

drawn from it. Nonetheless, this contribution hints at some new and very important issues and

challenges in education policy and education research, potentially guiding future research

projects about education policy in the GCC region, especially in a time when several of its

member states aim at transforming themselves into IEHs.

50

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52

Exploring CSR initiatives and stakeholder discourse of international branch campuses:

A stakeholder and institutional perspective

Dr. Katariina Juusola

The British University in Dubai

Abstract

This study explores corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives and stakeholder discourse

of international branch campuses (IBCs) to generate an understanding of strategic stakeholder

management in transnational higher education. This research is driven by two research

questions: how branch campuses build legitimacy through CSR initiatives and how stakeholder

expectations are identified and addressed in the CSR discourse. The findings reveal that IBCs

address several types of stakeholders (students, faculty and staff, government, industry,

professional associations, parents, and the broader community) in their stakeholder discourse

and CSR initiatives and that IBCs are likely to adapt their CSR initiatives to locally suitable

ones when operating in the host country. The findings implicate the existence of three distinct

types of discourses defined as altruistic, utilitarian, and political discourses, each of which

involve unique rationales directed towards different key stakeholder groups.

Introduction

This study focuses on exploring corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives and the

stakeholder discourse of international branch campuses (IBCs), which are physical branches of

universities in foreign countries that award degrees of the home institution. IBCs operate in

complex global-local settings and have become a notable provision of transnational higher

education. Currently, there are 33 IBCs in the UAE (Garrett, Kinser, Lane, & Merola, 2017).

The motivation for the present study comes from the lack of empirical research on CSR

initiatives and stakeholder management in IBCs, particularly on how IBCs identify and address

the needs of a diverse sets of stakeholders to gain legitimacy in the host country.

Through identifying CSR initiatives and the stakeholder discourse practiced at IBCs in the

UAE, the aim of this qualitative research is to generate an understanding of strategic

stakeholder management in the IBC context. This research is driven by two research questions:

1. How do IBCs build legitimacy in the host country through CSR initiatives? 2. How are

stakeholder expectations identified and addressed in the CSR discourse?

The next section discusses stakeholder theory and a range of stakeholders in transnational

higher education. This is followed by explanations of the research design, the findings of the

empirical research, a discussion, and concluding remarks.

53

Background

Stakeholder Theory and Organizational Legitimacy

Stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1984) addresses the responsibilities of firms to their internal and

external stakeholders and offers strategies for improving organizational effectiveness by

adding value through firms’ operations. Stakeholders are defined as “any group or individual

who is affected by or can affect the achievement of an organization’s objectives” (Freeman,

1984, p. 5). Managing stakeholder concerns and complying with their expectations is central

for organizational legitimacy (Suchman, 1995).

There are two main theoretical approaches in legitimacy research that help in understanding

how stakeholder management is practiced. First, the institutional approach in stakeholder

management focuses on how organizations build support for their legitimacy by maintaining

normative and widely endorsed organizational characteristics (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).

This typically involves the development and maintenance of institutional structures,

procedures, and personnel that would signal trustworthiness and credibility to outside

audiences, as well as compliance with community expectations on social and environmental

outcomes (Castello & Lozano, 2011). The second approach, the strategic approach, is a more

instrumental approach, which views legitimacy and CSR as strategic tools and operational

resources that help organizations’ economic objectives (Garriga & Melé, 2004).

Distinguishing different stakeholders and understanding their specific expectations and

demands are central to stakeholder theory, but at the same time, organizations cannot provide

all of the social value for every stakeholder group. Instead, they need to prioritize their

stakeholders and treat them differently based on their perceived legitimacy, the level of urgency

of their needs, and the power they have over the organization (Freeman, 1984). In practice,

while organizations may address a wide range of stakeholders in their official stakeholder

discourse, the actual CSR practices may be addressed only towards certain stakeholder groups

that are the most crucial evaluators of an organization’s legitimacy.

Stakeholders in Transnational Higher Education

Addressing the web of stakeholders and their expectations in IBCs is a complex task as they

are evaluated by their key stakeholders in both the home country, as well as the host country,

where each stakeholder group has their own demands and dynamics. There are six key groups

of external stakeholders in transnational higher education: government, industry, professional

associations, students, parents, and the broader community (Bolton & Nie, 2010). In addition,

faculty and staff are important internal stakeholders. To date, there is only one existing study

that aimed to identify stakeholders particular to IBCs (see Farrugia & Lane, 2012). Whereas

Farrugia and Lane (2012) collected data from IBCs’ mission statements to understand how

IBCs aim to build legitimacy in the host country, the present study focuses on stakeholder

discourses found in IBCs’ marketing materials in explaining how stakeholder management

takes place.

54

Research Design

This empirical research focuses on 24 IBCs operating in the UAE that offer programs in

business management and/or finance/economics.4 Data was collected from IBCs’ marketing

materials, such as student prospectuses, and institutional websites, for 2016 through 2018. In

addition, because organizations may engage in overstatements in their marketing language and

exaggerate the impact of their practices, visible examples of CSR initiatives were searched

from IBCs’ social media sites (Facebook and Twitter) to validate their claims.

The data analysis involved two phases, each following a different approach: content analysis

and discourse analysis. The first phase focused on understanding IBCs’ institutional

approaches in building and maintaining legitimacy through their CSR initiatives and

stakeholder discourse, as well as understanding IBCs’ strategic approaches to CSR in which

legitimacy is treated as an operational resource and in which the demands of certain

stakeholders (students, parents, faculty and staff, government, industry, the community, and/or

professional organizations) are prioritized. The data obtained from IBCs was analyzed by

applying a content analysis method, which is a suitable method for analyzing and categorizing

textual content.

The second phase of the data analysis used the same set of data but focused on a deeper analysis

of the different types of discourses to reveal the underlying rationales behind IBCs’ stakeholder

discourse. To do that, discourse analysis was used as it allows the deeper meanings of text

embedded within the wider social phenomenon to be interpreted. As a result, three specific

types of stakeholder discourses were identified that are driven by distinct rationales.

Findings

Phase I: IBCs’ Institutional and Strategic CSR Initiatives and Stakeholder Discourse

The content analysis revealed that most IBCs address various stakeholder groups in their

stakeholder discourse, but not necessarily all of them. Furthermore, most IBCs were found to

have evidence of actual CSR practices that supported their stakeholder discourse. Appendix A

summarizes the findings of the content analysis: how seven groups of stakeholders were

addressed in IBCs’ stakeholder discourse and examples of CSR initiatives directed at these

stakeholders.

4 Amity University, BITS Pilani, Cass Business School, Curtin University, Heriot Watt, Hult Business School,

INSEAD, London Business School, Institute of Management Technology, Manchester Business School,

Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Middlesex University, Modul University, Murdoch University, New

York Institute of Technology, New York University Abu Dhabi (NYUAD), Rochester Institute of Technology,

Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology (SZABIST), Strathclyde Business School,

Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi (SUAD), SP Jain, Synergy University, University of Bradford, University of

Wollongong.

55

IBCs’ institutional stakeholder discourse and CSR practices, as found in the research materials,

made several claims on how the IBCs address stakeholder concerns as well as what is practiced.

IBCs seem to place the most emphasis on students, their discourse and actual CSR initiatives.

Student stakeholders were addressed through elaborate descriptions on what kind of education

and experience the IBC offers. Notions such as a “vibrant student experience” (Middlesex

University, 2018), and “stimulation of critical thinking” (Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi,

2018a) were used to demonstrate IBCs’ education and service offerings. Furthermore, the

availability of student services, counseling, and guidance were highlighted by a number of

institutions (e.g., Manipal University, Heriot-Watt). Concrete CSR initiatives involving

students were very visible. For example, IBCs post photos of student activities, trips, and sports

competitions on their social media sites, as well as photos of student volunteering and

presenting their research in seminars and conferences.

While student stakeholders were extensively addressed in the stakeholder discourse, parents

seemed to get less attention. Surprisingly, only two IBCs offering undergraduate programs

addressed parents; Amity University and Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi had separate sections

in their communication materials specifically addressing parents. These messages focused on

persuading parents why they should consider this particular IBC for their children. These

messages were mainly marketing messages aimed to sell and persuade but did not aim to

engage parents in the IBC’s activities.

Faculty and staff stakeholders, in contrast, were addressed to some extent in the stakeholder

discourse. While addressing internal stakeholders is considered to be a prerequisite of good

organizational governance, many IBCs, surprisingly, tended to neglect addressing them

specifically. Although all IBCs had sections about their faculty and staff, the information (who

the faculty/staff are, their references, and contact details), as well as organizational charts, were

mainly directed towards students and other stakeholders. Thus, the communication material

mainly sought to inform. Those IBCs that addressed faculty and staff specifically (e.g., Amity

University, Institute of Management Technology, Middlesex University, NYUAD) seemed to

highlight what kind of organizational culture and values drive their employment strategies and

how employees benefit in practice, but evidence of such practices was sometimes not visible

in actual CSR practices. However, NYUAD seems to act as a pioneer IBC, as it has developed

a very proactive stance towards addressing staff and faculty needs. The NYUAD website

(https://nyuad.nyu.edu/en/) and social media (https://www.facebook.com/NYUAD/,

https://twitter.com/NYUAbuDhabi) show images of staff appreciation days and training

sessions.

Government stakeholders were addressed by most IBCs through their discursive attempts to

gain legitimacy in the local context. In practice, this means partnering with the government or

government-affiliated organizations and supporting government’s future visions. Such

practices were visible both on a discursive level as well as in practice. For example, Modul

University has been nominated as the official partner of the Hamdan Centre for the Future of

Investment—a global initiative under the umbrella of Dubai Economy that aims to promote the

56

contribution of foreign direct investment to foster sustainable development. Sorbonne

University Abu Dhabi, on the other hand, has partnered with both local government-affiliated

organizations, such as Abu Dhabi Tourism and Culture Authority and Abu Dhabi Art, as well

as with organizations affiliated with the French government, such as Institut Français des

Emirats Arabes Unis and Alliance Française. The partnerships typically involve organizing

joint-activities, which are widely publicized on social media and the respective IBC’s press

releases.

Industry stakeholders seemed to gain a lot of attention in the discourse of IBCs, as IBCs

highlight their role in providing graduates for industry needs. This manifests in collaborations

with local and international organizations and industries through workshops and seminars to

facilitate an exchange of ideas on promoting investment that enable businesses and

communities to grow sustainably, as well as events in which IBCs promote student work

placements and internships and facilitate direct recruitment from the institutions.

Community stakeholders also gained a lot of attention in IBCs’ stakeholder discourse and

practices. By engaging the community, IBCs can integrate a wide range of stakeholders as well

as engage in practices that promote sustainability, inclusiveness, and other important societal

agendas. For example, Amity University conducted an “International Workshop on Recent

Trends in Solar Power Generation and Energy Harvesting” in March 2017, while BITS Pilani

organized an “International Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing.”

Lastly, professional associations were approached in IBCs’ stakeholder discourse mainly in

passive form. While it is a common practice for universities to highlight their accreditation and

ranking status, defined by their institutional or national accreditation bodies and ranking

organizations, such information is mainly only used for marketing purposes to signal

legitimacy and the trustworthiness of the institution. In practice, the IBCs only referred to

meeting the criteria of external evaluative organizations but did not engage in specific dialogue

nor include CSR initiatives directed towards them.

Phase II: IBCs’ Strategies in Legitimacy and CSR Discourse

A deeper look into IBCs’ strategic CSR initiatives and stakeholder discourse revealed a number

of distinct discourses and practices. Through discourse analysis, the following rationales of

CSR discourse emerged: altruistic, utilitarian, and political discourses. Each of these themes

involves unique aims and objectives, is directed towards different key stakeholder groups, and

materializes specific types of stakeholder and CSR discourse, which are illustrated in Appendix

B.

The altruistic discourse focuses on building IBCs’ institutional legitimacy in the local

community by focusing on community engagement and promoting of sustainability. These

activities are practiced consciously or unconsciously to signal institutions’ worthiness and

acceptability (Castello & Lozano, 2011). In practice, this discourse was organized around

57

themes touching on sustainability, philanthropy, corporate citizenship, and innovation

discourses. For example, Modul University articulates its role as an institution that aims to:

transform and innovate the way people think through education, research and service

while putting sustainability at the forefront of our priorities and develop strategies that

meet the demands of the present without compromising the welfare of future

generations. Our ambition is linked to sustainability to endure the test of time while we

believe through consistency we create integrity and through integrity we breed trust in

pursuit of excellence. (Modul University, 2018)

The utilitarian discourse differs from the altruistic discourse as it has a more practical and

strategic purpose—to build IBCs’ organizational legitimacy by focusing on aspects associated

with good governance, practices that may be linked to organizational efficiency but focus on

financial performance. The key themes in this stream of discourse focus on reputation,

organizational strategy, and governance rhetoric. Utilitarian discourse manifests, for example,

in Murdoch University’s mission:

These values are an intrinsic part of the Murdoch University culture: Equity and social

justice, global responsibility, innovation and entrepreneurship, sustainability.

Engagement with internal and external stakeholders, including our students, staff,

alumni, industry, government and communities in which we live and work, will

underpin all of our activities. Commercial and financial rigour will underpin the

University's decision making at all levels of the organisation, and will help increase

resources for pursuing strategic priorities. (Murdoch University, 2018)

The political discourse, on the other hand, is a distinct type of discourse as it aims to build

IBCs’ political legitimacy and avoid stakeholders’ criticism towards IBCs’ activities by

strategically addressing and prioritizing certain stakeholders, such as the government, and

addressing their needs. This discourse manifests in IBCs’ broader stakeholder statements that

are directed at a wide range of institutional stakeholders. Such statements consist of

institutional promises addressing the legitimacy of the institution and why it exists. For

example, Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi aims to serve as a “true bridge between civilisations”

(Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi, 2018b) by organizing concerts, panel discussion sessions,

opera and musical concerts, theater and poetry evenings, art and photography exhibitions, and

sports tournaments to engage and bond with various stakeholder groups.

Discussion and Conclusions

The findings of this paper support Farrugia and Lane’s (2012) findings that IBCs address

several types of stakeholders in their stakeholder discourse and CSR initiatives and that IBCs

are likely to adapt their CSR initiatives to locally suitable ones when operating in the host

country to accommodate the demands of the stakeholders in the host country.

58

The stakeholder discourse and CSR practices were found to involve both institutional and

strategic approaches. From an institutional perspective, CSR initiatives and stakeholder

management facilitate IBCs to be seen as more legitimate establishments for stakeholders, both

in the home and host country. From a strategic perspective, the more legitimate and sustainable

they are, the better, which may materialize in improved financial performance, a better internal

and external reputation, and being subject to less criticism from stakeholders. This, in the long

term, has an impact on IBCs’ cognitive, taken-for-granted legitimacy, which is of utmost

importance for organizational survival as organizations are dependent on stakeholders’ support

and acceptance (see Suchman, 1995). An ability to understand, generate, and harness this kind

of unique social capital is crucial for IBC managers and their strategic planning.

Furthermore, the stakeholder discourse was found to follow three distinct types of discourses

defined as altruistic, utilitarian, and political discourses. Each of these themes involves unique

rationales, is directed towards different key stakeholder groups, and materializes in specific

types of stakeholder and CSR discourses. According to Bolton and Nie (2010), transnational

higher education offers the potential for value creation through building legitimacy. By

strategically employing these three stakeholder discourses, IBCs have the potential to address

different stakeholders and create value for them by addressing their needs and influencing

them. IBC managers should build strategies for stakeholder management by identifying and

prioritizing their key stakeholders based on their perceived levels of legitimacy, urgency, and

power. Future research could address IBCs in different countries and explore the kind of

stakeholder management and CSR practices that take place.

To conclude, this research discussed how IBCs practice CSR and how they identify and address

the needs of stakeholders to gain legitimacy in the UAE. The findings are of relevance to the

managers of IBCs as well as to academics studying transnational higher education. This

research naturally has its limitations. It only focuses on those IBCs in the UAE that offer

programs in business management and/or finance/economics and, hence, does not represent all

IBCs. Future research could address IBCs in different countries and explore their stakeholder

management and CSR practices.

59

References

Bolton, D., & Nie, R. (2010). Creating value in transnational higher education: The role of

stakeholder management. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 9(4),

701-714.

Castello, I., & Lozano, J. M. (2011). Searching for new forms of legitimacy through corporate

responsibility rhetoric. Journal of Business Ethics, 100, 11-29.

DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism

and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review,

48(2), 147-160.

Farrugia, C. A., & Lane, J. (2012). Legitimacy in cross-border higher education: Identifying

stakeholders of international branch campuses. Journal of Studies in International

Education, 17(4), 414-432.

Freeman, E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston, MA: Pitman

Publishing.

Garrett, R., Kinser, K., Lane, J., & Merola, R. (2017). International branch campuses: Success

factors of mature IBCs. London, England: OBHE/C-BERT.

Garriga, E., & Melé, D. (2004). Corporate social responsibility theories: Mapping the territory.

Journal of Business Ethics, 53(1-2), 51-71.

Middlesex University. (2018). Strategy overview. Retrieved September 15, 2018 from

https://www.mdx.ac.ae/strategy-overview

Modul University. (2018). Vision & mission. Retrieved September 15, 2018 from

https://www.modul.ac.ae/about-modul/general-information/vision-mission-and-values

Murdoch University. (2018). Vision statement. Retrieved September 15, 2018 from

http://www.murdochdubai.ac.ae/About-us/Vision-Statement/

Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi (2018a). Prospectus: Master in sustainable development law.

Retrieved September 15, 2018 from https://www.sorbonne.ae/

Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi (2018b). Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi. Retrieved

September 15, 2018 from https://www.sorbonne.ae/

Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: Strategic and institutional approaches.

Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 571-610.

60

Appendix A

Stakeholder Discourse and CSR Initiatives vis-à-vis Key Stakeholders

Stakeholder Stakeholder discourse Examples of CSR initiatives

Students Provides a caring, student-centric, enriching

environment for students that helps in developing a wide

range of skills and knowledge needed for success in a

global, competitive environment, as well as placing

importance on students’ community engagement.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 9

Student activities and trips, athletics, offering student

counseling and information on well-being, self-

development, etc. Involving students with volunteering

in the local community and supporting participation in

academic conferences, workshops, and seminars.

Offering scholarships for high-achieving students with

financial constraints.

Parents Providing rationales for how the IBC offers good quality,

rigorous education and how students will benefit from

their education. Ensuring that the parents are getting the

best return on their investment in their children’s

education.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 2

NA

Faculty and

staff

Providing a good place to work, emphasizing support for

continuous self-development in careers and in research,

employee engagement and creation of high-performance

culture.

Providing fair working and living conditions for faculty

and staff, providing healthcare services, providing

financial support for faculty research through research

funds, staff and faculty appreciation days, offering

training courses for faculty and staff.

61

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 5

Government Engaging with local, national, and global policy

communities to take part in policy-making and for

facilitating social mobility, skills, and productivity

growth.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 4

Partnerships and organization of joint-activities (e.g.,

seminars, panel discussions with cultural, scientific, and

financial entities affiliated with the government).

Creating strategic centers for the development of the

government’s future visions.

Industry Collaboration with local and international organizations

and industries, providing a platform for universities and

industries to meet to discuss the latest research, practices,

and future challenges in development of innovative

products, processes, and practices with emphasis on

environmental, economic, and societal aspects of the

business.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 8

Partnerships and organization of joint-activities (e.g.,

workshops, seminars) with local organizations,

involving local organizations with student work

placements and internships, and facilitating direct

recruitment of students from IBCs.

Community Getting involved with the external community to engage

and promote inclusive engagement of citizens and the

IBC. All stakeholder groups are aimed to be engaged

through practicing citizenship behavior.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 9

Organizing cultural and communal events, celebrating

religious and other occasions, involvement with local

non-profit sector, such as advocacy groups and social

philanthropic foundations, spreading awareness and

attempting to impact on issues related to cultural

tolerance and inclusiveness, as well as global issues such

as climate change and poverty.

62

Professional

associations

Meeting the criteria of external evaluative organizations,

such as accreditation and ranking organizations.

Number of IBCs addressing this stakeholder group: 0

NA

63

Appendix B

Stakeholder and CSR discourse

Altruistic discourse Utilitarian discourse Political discourse

Aims and

objectives

This discourse aims to

build IBCs’

institutional legitimacy

in the local community

by focusing on

community engagement

and promoting

sustainability.

This discourse aims to

build IBCs’

organizational

legitimacy by focusing

on aspects associated

with good governance

practices that may be

linked to organizational

efficiency but focus on

financial performance.

This discourse aims to

build IBCs’ political

legitimacy and avoid

stakeholders’ criticism

towards IBCs’ activities

by strategically

addressing the

expectations of home

and host country

stakeholders by

prioritizing certain

stakeholders and

addressing their needs.

Key

stakeholder

groups

addressed

Local community,

government, industry,

students

Internal stakeholders,

government

Internal and external

stakeholders in the

home and host country,

mainly policy-makers

Key themes in

stakeholder

and CSR

discourse

Sustainability,

philanthropy,

citizenship, innovation

Reputation, strategy,

governance

Broader stakeholder

dialogue addressing

multiple constituents

Theoretical

perspective on

legitimacy and

CSR

Institutional Strategic Institutional and

Strategic

64

A Case Study on Student Preferences for Public, Private, or Community College

Education at a Private University in Saudi Arabia

Dr. Ziad Shaker ElJishi

Heba Shehata

Effat University

Abstract

This was a case study of undergraduate female students registered at a private university in

Saudi Arabia on their preferences on deciding on a university to study at. The study surveyed

and interviewed Saudi and non-Saudi students with a sample size of 363 (321 Saudi and 42

non-Saudi). The study’s findings indicate that the majority of students surveyed favored private

university over public university and community college. The interviews showed that student

life and a high-quality education were the two main factors determining the students’

preferences for a private university. The need for the study comes from little evidence reporting

on Saudi female student preferences for university study found in the literature. The

implications of the study inform government officials and university administrators on factors

favored by Saudi female students regarding university choice.

Acknowledgement: I would like to acknowledge my GSEM 200 students for helping me in

the data collection process.

Introduction

In our research, we discovered little existing literature on Saudi female preferences and

motivation in selecting a college to study at. The motivation behind this research study was to

give a voice of an important stakeholder, the female Saudi student. The need for this research

project comes from the need to investigate Saudi female students’ preferences of private

university institutes and to identify the factors deemed important in influencing their university

choice. With the liberalization of female rights in the country taking place now, female Saudi

students represent important stakeholders in the strategic planning of institutes of higher

education in the country, with the expected number of women seeking an education and

employment in the Saudi “Vision for 2030” to increase and to gain more prominence. Thus,

the main research question of this study asked students their preferences for public, private, or

community college institutes and what the reasons for their choice were.

With the spread of globalization, the influence of the English language on higher education

institutes of the Arab Gulf has been increasing, as has the number of private universities.

Historically, the first universities founded were in the Arab world, with Jama’at Al-Qaraween

in 859 recognized as the first proper university proper founded in the world (Denman & Hilal,

65

2011). The evolution of universities as state run institutions of learning saw them become either

free tuition universities or tuition-based universities. Along the way came private universities

with many founded and sponsored by religious institutions, such as Catholic private

universities in the United States. Though some private colleges are founded as not-for-profit,

most private colleges are known either to be for-profit or elitist institutions, charging high

tuition fees for enrollment.

By contrast, public universities are meant to be more affordable and community colleges to be

the least expensive option in the US. However, it is equally important to note that under the

spread of globalization, public universities in the United States, for example, have witnessed a

steady increase in tuition fees over the last decades with unprecedented tuition fees being

charged today. In fact, there has been a 400% increase since the 1980s corresponding to a

financial crisis affecting US-based public universities (Auter, 2017). The ramifications of this

have negatively affected students as well, with the majority of college students in the US

seeking student loans in order to finance their college education. The post-World War II era in

the USA saw the evolution of the previously known two-year junior college into the community

college (also known as the city college), with increased numbers of enrolled veteran students

who needed to earn a quick education in order to be integrated into the workforce.

Under the influence of globalization, universities in the USA and around the world, have

evolved into the new concepts of the entrepreneurial university and the sustainable university.

The entrepreneurial university is the notion that a university can work with the government and

industry to use its innovation to promote economic growth, as well as to increase its financial

advantage for the institution itself and its faculty (Yarime et al., 2012). This concept has now

given way to the idea of a sustainable university (Weenen, 2000). The sustainable university is

concerned with promoting sustainable solutions towards social justice and environmental well-

being for society (Yarime et al., 2012).

In the case of Saudi Arabia, many public and private universities exist today, with universities

struggling to meet the demands of an increasing student body. Also, there has been the

increased need to instill measures to safe-guard the quality of education being offered

(Alkhazim, 2003). Education in Saudi Arabia is free for Saudi students in public universities

with the added bonus of providing students with monthly stipends for personal spending. In

the case of not-for-profit private universities, a scholarship program is in place to cover the

tuition fees of students enrolled. Yet many Saudi students choose to study abroad to complete

their post-bachelor’s degree studies. With the help of the scholarship program initiated by the

late King Abdullah, students are able to attend universities in the US, UK, and other countries.

In the case of the United States alone, there were close to 60,000 Saudi students studying in

2015, and Saudi Arabia is cited as the fourth most common country of origin out of the top 25

countries with international students studying in the USA (Institute of International Education,

2015).

Literature Review

66

Conducting a literature review of student preferences for private, public, or community college

yielded a limited number of studies. We began our literature review search with studies within

the United States and then expanded our search beyond the US. At first, we found one paper

by Kindle and Colby (2008) that discussed college preferences for a master’s degree program

in social work in the USA. In this study, like ours, they reported that in review of existing

literature they were unable to find many papers related to social work, and that reported on

student preferences for choosing a public university versus a private university. Thus, this

literature review will be organized with a discussion of the studies we found in the US, followed

by a discussion of the studies we found outside the United States.

First, we discuss the studies we found from the USA. The study by Kindle and Colby (2008)

cited three studies on student college preferences: Fellin (1983) focused on students at the

University of Michigan School of Social Work, while Sanchez, Mindel, and Saleebey (1980)

and Bowie, Cherry, and Wooding (2005) surveyed minority students. Given the lack of data

found in the social work field, Kindle and Colby (2008) expanded the scope of their literature

review to include results of a report by Augusto (2000) that surveyed preferences of students

across all disciplines in their choice of public versus private university.

Using a survey of 2,289 graduate students enrolled in college, Kindle and Colby’s own study

(2008) found that “reputation related and employment-related reasons” were the main reasons

students gave for choosing to enroll at a private university. The major reason students chose a

public university to study in was location. The Fellin (1983) study reported different results,

with social connections being the dominant reason for choosing a college. In a survey given by

Sanchez et al. (1980) to minority students in 1976, the results indicated that the ranked

curriculum and location were the primary reasons for students’ choice of college to attend.

Bowie et al. (2005), who surveyed African American students at two Florida colleges and one

Tennessee college, reported geographic location and type of program as the most important in

student decision to join a graduate college.

Last of all, the report published by Augusto (2000) surveyed 1,142 graduate school applicants

who took the GRE General Test in October 1999. Students preferred large or medium-sized

universities and public over private schools (39.4% to 16.9%), with 42.3% of students reporting

that the public/private distinction did not matter to them. Graduate students identified location

and a program's academic reputation as the important factors in their decision to select a college

to attend. However, location was not an obstacle as around 65% stated that they would move

more than 100 miles from their current residence to attend a college (Augusto, 2000). Looking

at the papers in sum, it appears that academic reputation of the program was the most common

theme across the four studies considered.

Second, evidence from countries outside the USA shows that academic quality (quality of

teaching and teachers) was the determining factor in students’ assessment and satisfaction of

their college experience. Findings from a case study at a private university in Turkey (Turan,

Cetinkaya, & Ustun, 2016) indicate teaching and research as the most important factors for

67

students’ assessment of their university. Similarly, a survey of student satisfaction with the

higher educational institutes in Pakistan from both private and public university students (Butta

& Rehmanb, 2010) show teacher expertise as the most important factor in students’ evaluation

of their college.

We can now easily draw a link between academic quality being an important factor in the

studies from outside the USA and the academic reputation of colleges as an important factor

cited in studies from the USA. Lastly, we found no studies presenting data on Saudi student

preferences for private or public university study. This constituted the need for conducing this

study of student choice for public versus private university in Saudi Arabia.

Methodology

This study used a non-experimental research design with a mixed methods approach. The

quantitative data was collected through a close-ended questionnaire survey, while the

qualitative data was collected through unstructured interviews of students, where students were

asked to explain their answers given in the survey. A thematic content analysis approach was

used to analyze the interview transcripts, and the various themes were coded with frequency

numbers assigned to them to calculate percent response rates for each identified theme. The

case study took place at a private university in Saudi Arabia where the participants were female

undergraduate students from a variety of disciplines with a sample size of 363 (321 Saudi and

42 non-Saudi). The sample was chosen through a convenience non-random sampling method

for both the surveys and interviews. All participants signed an informed consent form before

joining the study.

Results

Overall, the survey results (Figure 1) for Saudi female students (n=321) showed overall that

these students were in favor of private universities (47% of total responses), while second place

was given to community colleges (30%). Public universities constituted 22% of the total

responses, and no preference constituted 1% of the total responses.

Figure 1. Survey results for Saudi and non-Saudi female undergraduate students.

68

As shown in Figure 1, survey results for non-Saudi female students (n=42) were similar to

those of Saudi female students, with 49% of total responses in favor of private universities,

28% in favor of community colleges, 19% in favor of public universities, and 4% had no

preference.

Overall, the results show that preference is given by both Saudi and non-Saudi undergraduate

students to private universities over public, in which it contrasts the literature where no

preference was found for US students (Augusto, 2000).

Based on the survey results that indicated private universities as being the most popular choice

of students, the follow-up interviews asked students who had chosen private universities, why

they preferred private universities. The results (Figure 2) indicate that Saudi undergraduate

female students (n=125) preferred private university for their university activities, relationships

they could build with their peers, and the university’s environment, followed by their

perception that they would obtain a better quality education degree and have smaller class sizes.

The results shown in Figure 2 depict the major themes found in Saudi female student responses,

which constituted 80% of the total interview themes found.

Non-Saudi female undergraduate students (n=13) preferred the private university because of

their perception that they would obtain a better quality educational degree, and have better

instructors, the university activities and social environment provided. The results shown in

Figure 2 only depict the major themes found in non-Saudi female student responses, which

constituted 90% of the total interview themes found.

Figure 2. Interview results for the reasons female undergraduate students choose a

private university.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Private Community Public No preference

% R

esp

on

ses

Saudi Non-Saudi

69

Similar to what was found in the literature (Augusto, 2000; Butta & Rehmanb, 2010; Turan et

al., 2016), both Saudi and non-Saudi undergraduate female students, indicated that the quality

of education and instruction as determining factors in their choice of which university to study

at. A quote taken from an interview of a Saudi undergraduate student illustrates this: “The

quality of education in the private colleges has improved my decision to study in one of them.”

A non-Saudi undergraduate student reflects the same point: “I prefer the private universities

because I believe they have a better quality of Education and are more challenging to study at.”

Moreover, both Saudi and non-Saudi female undergraduate students believe that the smaller

classes at private universities allow students to better focus on the instructor. A Saudi

undergraduate female student explains this: “The number of students is less and [the] focus is

more.”

As for instruction in the English language being an advantage, a Saudi undergraduate student

explains: “For me the English language [sic] important things in private college.” In addition,

Saudi undergraduate female students see the flexibility in choosing a major as yet another

advantage in choosing a private university over a public university: “The private college [sic]

more flexible. ... the rules are more flexible. …the private college can allow students [sic]

choose their majors to study in.”

What was unique in the findings of this study was the importance of the open environment of

the university, the activities offered, and the relationships students could build with their peers.

Both Saudi and non-Saudi students deemed student life that includes an open environment,

where students could express themselves through activities that grow their personal

development skills, social relations that strengthen their personalities and communication

skills; and social relations with others as amongst the more important factors, regarded as

advantages, offered by their choice of studying at a private university. A quote by a female

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35%

Res

po

nse

s

Saudi Non-Saudi

70

undergraduate Saudi student illustrates this: “because they focus on building your personality

not just educate [sic] you. They also care about your future career and focus on each student

specifically. … I like the activities and how we become more independent and socially

responsible.” A quote by a non-Saudi undergraduate female student further explains this: “They

don’t care only for the education. They also have so much [sic] activities and entertainment

that helps to improve the students’ personality [sic] as well. Everyone treat [sic] the other like

a family.”

Hence, the two quotes above illustrate how students recognize that personal development is

just as important as academic development in the universities that they choose to attend.

Overall, student quotes explain the quality of education, instruction in English, small class

sizes, flexibility in choosing a major, an open learning environment, and activities as the most

important reasons for their choice to attend a private university.

In summary, we have identified two factors as the most important in students’ preference for

private university: quality of education and student life Student life includes: students’

participation in university planned activities inside and outside the university, the ability of

students to study in a free academic environment including their ability to express their ideas

and concerns, and students being able to build social relationships with their peers. All factors

are deemed by students as important in promoting students’ personal growth and providing

skills outside academic learning. Second, there is a perception that the quality of their

education is better at a private university because smaller class sizes lead to a better educational

experience with more focus on students. In the case of Saudi students, the flexibility provided

allows them to choose the major they want, and, lastly, their ability to study in the English

language is also seen as an advantage.

Recommendations and Takeaways

Implications of the study inform both government officials in education and university

administrators of private and public universities alike on what is important for students in their

choice of private university and in choosing a university in general. Recommendations of the

study are that government officials and university administrators in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf

Cooperation Council (GCC) countries support student preferences for a college by: providing

a vibrant university student life with an environment of academic freedom that is flexible and

open to student participation; emphasizing the importance of maintaining a high quality of

education for students by recruiting high quality instructors and maintaining high academic

standards; providing smaller class sizes that give more attention to students; and strengthen the

English language skills of the students.

The emphasis on good instructors and the quality of the teaching is not unlike what we have

found in the literature in countries outside the US (Butta & Rehmanb, 2010; Turan et al., 2016).

Student preferences for a strong academic reputation and strong curriculum were likewise

similar to student preferences for colleges in the USA as cited in the literature (Augusto, 2000;

71

Sanchez et al., 1980). Students’ recognition of smaller classroom sizes that lead to positive

student, teacher, and academic achievements in the classroom correspond well with what has

been long noted (Smith & Glass, 1980). Last of all, the emphasis on good English language

preparation is most likely related to employment in a globalized economy that features many

companies requiring a good command of the English language for prospective employees.

Emphasis on good English language preparation is also a reason for studying abroad in English

speaking countries, and an increasing number of Saudi students are going to the US, for

example, for their graduate degrees (Institute of International Education, 2015).

A limitation of the study is that it surveyed and interviewed female undergraduate students

registered at a private school in Saudi Arabia. The study necessitates a follow-up future

research study that surveys and interviews female undergraduate students registered in a public

university in Saudi Arabia in order to compliment the results collected in this study. Such a

future study could ask students registered at a public university in Saudi Arabia about their

preferences for public, private, or community college and capture their reasoning for their

preference.

Conclusion

The results of this study show that both Saudi and non-Saudi female undergraduate students

value student life, as well as the perception of obtaining a better-quality education, as major

reasons for choosing a private university. In the context of the GCC, what was unique in this

study was the importance given to student life by Saudi female undergraduate students. The

activities provided by the university, the open-university environment, and students’ ability to

express themselves and build social relationships with their peers were very important in their

preference for a private university to study in. As we did not find any references in the literature

that address female Saudi undergraduate preferences for choosing a university to study at, we

believe the results of this study contribute to providing data to address this gap in the literature.

Moreover, the results of this study provide important information on possible reform for public

universities which, as the case may be here in Saudi Arabia, may not offer enough of an open-

university environment, with social and academic opportunities for student growth, flexibility

in choice of major, or adequate preparation in the English language that students of the Arab

Gulf today deem as important considerations when choosing a university. As such, this

represents an opportunity for a future research study that might look at the motivation and

obstacles faced by Saudi female undergraduate students enrolled in a public university in Saudi

Arabia.

72

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opportunities missed. Higher Education Policy, 16, 479-486.

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Augusto, J. (2000). A report on the uses of the Internet in selecting a graduate program: A

collaboration between the National Association of Graduate Admissions Professionals

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Kindle, P. A, & Colby, I. (2008). School selection preferences of public and private university

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73

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collaborations. Sustainability Science, 7(1), 101-113.

74

Learner Motivation: The Dynamic and Diverse Construct

Nour Al Okla

Al Ghurair University

Abstract

Motivational influences have been acknowledged to play an important role in the process of

second language learning. However, the construct of learner motivation is rarely explored as a

diverse and dynamic construct. This study investigates the various motivational factors which

influence Arab undergraduate learners in the UAE. The data was collected using a survey,

feeling graphic scale, and learners’ written responses to written prompts. The findings of the

study emphasized the importance of the construct of language learner motivation as a dynamic

and complex construct in light of the second language motivational self-system. The data also

revealed fluctuations among the learners’ emotions, which in turn influenced their motivation

to learn. While the participants held different attitudes and beliefs towards learning English,

these factors were found influential in learner investment and motivation. The study calls for a

new conceptualization of learner motivation considering the complexity and dynamicity of this

construct. It also emphasizes the importance of raising the awareness of language learners and

teachers of the vital role played by learner motivation in the success of language learners.

Introduction

Learner motivation has been acknowledged as an influential factor which plays a vital role in

language learners’ development (Dӧrnyei, 2005; Dӧrnyei & Ushioda, 2009; Gardner,

Tremblay, & Masgoret, 1997; Ushioda, 2001). The level of learner motivation is considered an

indicator of learners’ investment of time and effort in the learning process. Although learner

motivation has gained increased attention during the past few decades, research has mostly

concentrated on the quantitative aspect of motivation where it is usually measured by

quantitative research methods. Moreover, research on learner motivation has focused on the

investigation of the integrative and instrumental orientations of learner motivation, which

limits the understanding of this complex and dynamic construct.

The purpose of this study is to focus on the complexity of language learner motivation by

integrating qualitative research methods to depict the various aspects and influences of learner

motivation on language learning. Therefore, the study aims to answer the question: How does

learner motivation influence the language learning process? The study addresses this question

from a comprehensive perspective using quantitative and qualitative methods where motivation

is viewed from the learners’ perspective. The findings emphasize the uniqueness, diversity, and

dynamicity of language learner motivation.

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This study provides an overview of the diverse studies on learner motivation including the

second language motivational self-system, a brief account of the research methodology, and a

discussion of the key findings, which indicate the complexity and the dynamicity of learner

motivation.

Background

Motivation at a Glance

Learner motivation first gained importance through some of the early research, which was

conducted by Gardner and his associates in 1959 and focused on motivation as a major factor

in language learners’ success in Canada. Second language (L2) learner motivation was

researched from a socio-psychological perspective with the social context of learning taken

into consideration (Dӧrnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Gardner and his associates viewed learner

motivation as driven by two main orientations: integrative orientation and instrumental

orientation. An integrative motivational orientation is comprised of the inner desire of a

language learner to learn a target language and be an integrated part of the target language

community (Gardner & Lambert, 1959). An instrumental orientation, on the other hand, refers

to the practical reasons which encourage a learner to learn the language, such as job interests

or academic purposes. Therefore, learners with integrative motivational orientations are

believed to be more enthusiastic to learn the target language than learners with instrumental

motivational orientations (Gardner et al., 1997; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003; Tremblay &

Gardner, 1995). Integrative motivation has been considered one of the most essential variables

which influenced language learning for more than three decades (e.g., Clement, Dӧrnyei, &

Noels, 1994; Csizer & Dӧrnyei, 2005; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003; Tremblay & Gardner, 1995).

Although the conceptualization of language learner motivation in Gardner’s socio-educational

model prevailed for a long time, it had its limitations, as many researchers viewed learner

motivation as a construct driven by mainly two orientations, integrative and instrumental. The

shift to a new conceptualization of language learner motivation occurred when Crookes and

Schmidt (1991) suggested that motivation should be viewed as a dynamic construct which can

influence and be influenced by specific situational classroom experiences.

This call for a new conceptualization of learner motivation paved the way to introduce new

theories in motivation such as the process-oriented approach in which motivation is viewed as

a complex, dynamic, and situation-specific process (Dӧrnyei & Ottó, 1998). Researchers

started to view learner motivation in relation to different contextual and personal factors such

as the learners’ past learning experiences, the role of the teacher, and the learners’ beliefs and

attitudes towards language learning. For instance, it was found that a learner’s past learning

experiences influence the way a learner perceives the learning process and affects their

motivation, indicating that there is a positive correlation between the learning experiences and

the level of motivation of language learners (Shoaib & Dӧrnyei, 2005; Ushioda, 2001).

Moreover, positive influence of teachers was associated with high levels of learner motivation

among language learners and vice versa (Shoaib & Dӧrnyei, 2005).

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Other factors, such as learners’ self-confidence, investment, and beliefs and feelings about the

target language, were also connected to language learners’ motivation. The findings of these

studies indicate a correlation between high levels of learner motivation and better learning

outcomes.

The L2 Motivational Self-System

A recent shift in L2 motivational research occurred when motivation began to be viewed as

closely related to the inner aspect of the learner’s self. L2 learners need to be viewed as real

people influenced by their own cultural and historical contexts (Ushioda, 2009). This

conceptual move to explore the self-concept in relation to L2 learner motivation was led by

Dӧrnyei (2005, 2009). Dӧrnyei created the “L2 Motivational Self-System,” which consists of

three main components: the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 Self, and the L2 Learning

Experience (Dӧrnyei, 2009).

The Ideal L2 Self refers to the language learners’ hopes for their futures as language learners.

Therefore, it is highly associated with the images the learners have of themselves after they

have gained the language. The Ideal L2 Self is considered the most powerful motivational drive

because “it represents the learners’ desire to reduce the discrepancy between their actual and

ideal selves” (Dӧrnyei, 2009, p. 29). The second component of Dӧrnyei’s L2 motivational self-

system, is the Ought-to L2 Self which consists of the external motives that are led by social

norms and expectations. The Ought-to L2 Self is related to the extrinsic factors that influence

language learners and, therefore, is considered a weaker motivational drive than the Ideal L2

Self.

Dӧrnyei added the L2 Learning Experience dimension to indicate the importance of the situated

learning process. According to Dӧrnyei, the L2 Learning Experience “concerns situated,

‘executive’ motives related to the immediate learning environment and experience” (Dӧrnyei,

2009, p. 29). The L2 Learning Experience includes the various influences of the teacher, the

learning group, the curriculum, and the learner’s past experiences of success.

These three components constitute the L2 Motivational Self-System as a comprehensive

system that includes all of the influential factors on language learner motivation.

Research Methodology

The participants in the study included 37 female and male Arab undergraduate students from

two universities selected randomly in the UAE. The data gathering period lasted for a total of

16-weeks spread over two successive semesters. The data was collected via three different

research instruments: a survey, a feeling graphic scale, and learners’ written responses to

written prompts.

The survey included 13 closed items and three open-ended questions, which mainly addressed

the participants’ learning experiences, beliefs, feelings, and attitudes towards learning English

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as a second language. The final question included a graph through which the participants were

invited to reflect on possible changes in their feelings about learning English throughout the

duration of the study. The graph was designed to measure the fluctuations in the learners’

emotions and the influence of these emotions on the participants’ motivation during the study.

The written prompts were designed to help the participants express their beliefs, convey their

feelings, and comment on the use of English in their lives. They were also used to detect any

possible changes that might influence the learners’ motivation during the time of data

collection. The written prompts were distributed electronically using emails and the WhatsApp

Smart Phone Application.

Key Findings

The analysis of the data in this study revealed three main categories: learners’ attitudes and

beliefs, manifestations of the L2 motivational self, and the dynamicity of second language

learner motivation.

Learners’ Attitudes and Beliefs

Most of the participants in this study held positive attitudes and beliefs towards learning

English as a second language. Ninety-seven percent of the participants highlighted the

importance of the role of the teacher in the language learning process (Figure 1). This indicates

that most of the participants showed awareness of the vital role that teachers play in influencing

the learners in any field. This coincides with the results of previous studies where the role of

the teacher influenced learner motivation in language learning, such as studies by Ushioda

(2001) and Shoaib and Dӧrnyei (2005).

Another dominant result was the participants’ beliefs in the importance of the English language

as a means of attaining better job opportunities (80%). This refers to the pragmatic side of

learner motivation where the Ought-to L2 Motivational Self is highlighted. Moreover, when

the participants were asked about their previous learning experiences, 45% of them indicated

that they had positive learning experiences with English, whereas only 14% of the participants

recalled negative experiences. These results might have influenced the participants’ inclination

to invest in learning English, as 74% of them expressed their willingness to continue after

graduating from college. Only 26% were not enthusiastic to do so. Such attitudes and beliefs

indicate that most participants held positive feelings towards learning English as a second

language. This is clearly shown in the results of the survey as 86% expressed positive feelings

towards learning English, 71% indicated that they felt proud when they spoke or used English

in their daily life, and 73% expressed that they felt self-confident when they used English in

different contexts. While most of the participants pointed out positive feelings in connection

with the English language, 26% of the participants had negative feelings, choosing the fear of

embarrassment and lack of self-confidence as the reasons for their lack of participation in

different learning settings. These results can be connected to the previous studies which found

a correlation between learners’ positive feelings and beliefs towards the target language, high

levels of learners’ self-confidence, and the learners’ investment in language learning (Shoaib

& Dӧrnyei, 2005; Ushioda, 2001).

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Figure 1. Frequency of Learners’ Beliefs and Feelings

L2 Motivational Self Manifested in the Learners’ Selves

The manifestations of the L2 motivational self were inferred from the written responses that

the participants submitted in response to the prompts provided. Most of the participants

expressed a clear vision of their future jobs and their future need and use of English as a means

of communication. For instance, one participant wrote that his English language proficiency

would be flawless and that he wanted to become a teacher of management in English. This can

be considered a clear manifestation of the Ideal L2 Self where the learner has a vivid image of

his future including the English language. Another example that uses imagery as an indicator

of the Ideal L2 Self was stated by a female participant who viewed her future as an English

teacher and her “English will be perfect.” Nevertheless, the Ought-to L2 Self was also

manifested in the participants’ written responses for English, as it was viewed as an instrument

to attain a better job opportunity because “the market now needs English.”

Motivation as a Dynamic Construct

As the participants were requested to mark their feelings throughout the duration of the study

on a feeling graph, three patterns for the participants’ feelings appeared. These patterns

indicated consistent emotions, increase in some participants’ positive emotions, and decrease

in some participants’ positive emotions during the study. Forty-five percent of the participants

maintained the same level of their positive feelings throughout the duration of the study, 33%

of them experienced an increase in their positive feelings towards the end of the study, and

21% of them had negative feelings towards learning English at the end of the study. The

participants’ feelings varied from negative feelings (sad, tired, confused) to positive feelings

(enthusiastic, excited, proud). As the duration of the study lasted for sixteen weeks, the

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Positive

Negative

79

participants experienced different feelings and levels of motivation. For instance, by the end of

the study, the participants were having their midterm exams which might have influenced their

feelings towards learning the target language. The participants who experienced a decrease in

their positive feelings were slightly demotivated to learn the language. This can be an indication

of learners’ fluctuating emotions impacting their language learning motivation.

The Complex Construct

The findings indicate that the participants’ motivation is influenced by several factors including

their attitudes and beliefs towards the English language, which can clearly influence their

investment in learning and using the language. Moreover, the results of the feeling graph

suggest that the fluctuation in the learners’ emotions are influenced by many variables which

in turn influence the learners’ motivation as there is correlation between the learners’ feelings

towards the target language and the level of investment in the learning process. These findings

provide evidence of the dynamicity of the construct of learner motivation as an evolving and

changing construct. Therefore, learner motivation needs to be examined as a situational and

dynamic construct that is likely to change over time.

Learner motivation, as concluded from the findings of the study, has proven to be a dynamic

construct likely to change over time, a diverse construct in terms of the roles and influences

that it plays in the learners’ selves, and a unique construct that differs from one learner to

another. This diversity of motivational influences, the uniqueness of the learners in their

reflections and motivational derivations, and the dynamicity of language learner motivation are

all indicators of the complexity of this evolving construct. This entails a new conceptualization

of learner motivation as the old paradigm of integrative and instrumental orientations is not

sufficient in this new vision of learner motivation.

Pedagogical Implications

The new conceptualization of the dynamic and complex construct of learner motivation taking

into consideration the L2 motivational self-system entails many implications that are related to

both language learners and language teachers.

Implications for Language Learners

Going forward, it is important that language learners understand that their motivation to learn

an additional language is susceptible to change over time, which means that they might

experience fluctuations in the level of their motivation. Learners also need to be equipped with

various means to assist them in managing their emotions as these emotions play a vital role in

their learning motivation. Therefore, language learners need be aware of the importance of

their motivation and the dynamicity of this complex construct. This will help them better

understand and manage these fluctuations and any feelings of frustration they might encounter

throughout their learning journey.

Implications for Language Teachers

80

Language teachers need to understand the complexity and the dynamicity of learner motivation

to be able to deal with it in the new conceptualization of this construct. Moreover, there is a

need to raise awareness about the uniqueness of learners’ motivation, which will enable

teachers to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of learner motivation and deal with

different situations that might arise throughout the learning process. Nevertheless, language

teachers need assistance, training, and support to be able to manage their classes and efficiently

and professionally overcome any challenges that may arise efficiently and professionally. In

many cases, teacher training courses provide training on classroom techniques and methods,

while the psychological factor is not taken into account in spite of its importance in the learning

process.

As English is used in most of the Arab Gulf countries as a lingua franca, extra attention needs

to be given to language learners’ motivation as it constitutes a fundamental factor in language

learning success. Understanding the complex nature of language learner motivation will assist

educators in the Arab Gulf countries to develop the most effective policies and practices to

motivate English language learners.

Future research can be directed towards highlighting the different variables that influence

language learners’ motivation and the different manifestations of the L2 motivational self-

system among language learners in the Arab Gulf countries. Although this study was conducted

on a small scale and in a short time span, it can be used to complement other comparative

studies that compare learner motivational factors among learners in the Arabian Gulf countries

with those of learners in other countries around the world.

Conclusion

Learner motivation has proven to be a vital component in the language learning process and

therefore, needs to be viewed in light of the newest trends and theories to ensure that language

learners receive the assistance and guidance they need during their learning journey. A

learner’s beliefs, self-confidence, and learning experiences play an important role in their

success. Furthermore, L2 learner motivation is a complex self-system that is influenced by and

influences various aspects of a learner’s life. Educators need to view learner motivation from

this new perspective to achieve the best learning outcomes possible. Such a view will enable

teachers to understand the diversity among learners and the uniqueness of each learner, which

entails the ability to view the diversity of motivational factors among different learners. Future

research can assist in exploring the different dimensions of learner motivation and the various

variables that play a role in the success of English language learners.

81

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83

It Takes Two (To Make a Thing Go Right): A Study of Factors Influencing Motivation

and Self-Efficacy of Teachers Working with Refugees

Max B. Eckert

New York University Abu Dhabi

Abstract

This study investigates teachers’ responses to the needs of an increasingly diverse student

population. Against the backdrop of a sharp rise in Arabic-speaking refugees in Germany, this

paper presents findings from fieldwork and surveys with teachers at vocational schools. The

German case is used to examine how teachers working with refugees responded to these

students and what makes a successful teaching and learning environment. Specifically, the

study investigates how factors, such as experience and training, impact teachers’ levels of

motivation and self-efficacy. By analyzing factors that improve teachers’ performance, the

findings further underscore the importance of teaching certificates in the field of foreign

language instruction, such as teaching German as a foreign language.

Introduction

Over the past four years, Europe has experienced the largest migration of refugees and asylum

seekers since World War II. With approximately 1.8 million asylum seekers in 2017, Germany

has become the primary destination for refugees in Europe. Consequently, at least 300,000

minor refugees have resettled in Germany since 2014 and enrolled in primary and secondary

schools.

At the time of this study, most previous research had focused on the macropolitical impact of

immigration and the economic implications for receiving countries, but relatively few pieces

of empirical research had investigated the everyday interactions of refugees with their host

communities. The present study responds to the underrepresentation of refugee issues in

educational scholarship (Gagné, Schmidt, & Markus, 2017), as little is known about the

interaction of refugee students with teachers and how to support teachers in such diverse

classroom settings. Using the case of Germany, this study offers an outlook on research in the

fields of refugee education and foreign language instruction. Findings may encourage further

research in countries, including in the Middle East and North Africa, that have relevant priority

populations, such as refugee or foreign language students.

With a majority of refugees hailing from Arabic-speaking countries, German administrators

and policymakers have placed an emphasis on language acquisition for social and labor-market

integration. Due to a large influx of foreign students, teachers were under pressure to teach new

84

material effectively, despite limited experience in teaching German to speakers of foreign

languages. Certificates for teaching German, akin to the Teaching English as a Foreign

Language (TEFL) certification, have gained popularity, but effects of this have been

understudied in the German context.

This paper introduces the key findings of an undergraduate thesis focusing on teachers and

their interactions with refugees at German vocational schools, while using the German context

as a vehicle to explore the effects of teacher training, such as through earning language

certificates. The findings of this paper highlight the importance of certificates for teaching a

language to speakers of other languages, by analyzing the factors of teacher motivation and

self-efficacy and their correlations with mediating factors.

Its findings demonstrate a strong correlation between motivation and self-efficacy and

highlight the benefits of refugee-focused teacher training through professional development

and pre-service teacher education. This underscores the importance of incorporating the study

of migration and teaching German as a second language into teacher education.

Background

Between 2014 and 2018, Germany received the largest share of refugees in Europe, recording

over 1.6 million applications for asylum, which is more applications than were filed the

previous 20 years combined (Lederer, 2018). A 2016 report by UNICEF estimated the overall

number of minor refugees in Germany to be at least 300,000, a number that has grown

significantly every year (UNICEF, 2016). Since the German education system makes it

compulsory for students to attend school until the age of 18 or the completion of 10th grade,

public schools were compelled to accept large numbers of refugee students. Over the course of

a few weeks, secondary schools akilled lacross the country created new classes, ranging from

intensive German instruction to basic literacy courses, for refugee students who came from

varying educational backgrounds and brought with them unique requirements.

Benefits of Refugee Integration

While education is compulsory for all refugee students, attending classes at local schools is

commonly cited as a decisive contribution to successful integration. Previous research has

identified enrolment in the German education system as a key entry point into German social

and economic life, fostering vocational and language skills (Eisnecker, 2016). Recognizing

the acceptance of refugees as not only a moral obligation but also realizing that immigration

and integration are necessary steps in order to avoid a looming demographic crisis caused by

Germany’s aging population (Mushaben, 2017), the success of welcoming refugees would

hinge on two factors: social and labor-market integration.

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Research on the integration of refugees has underscored the importance of refugees

participating in the workforce, thereby reducing welfare costs, increasing government

revenue, and responding to a shortage of skilled labor in certain industries (Bach et al., 2017).

An investigation funded by the German Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs found

that if 20% more refugees obtained vocational qualifications, the overall costs for integration

would decrease by at least 500 million euros (Bach et al., 2017).

The Role of Vocational Schools in Germany

In order to obtain these workforce qualifications, local authorities enrolled many refugee

students in vocational schools. Due to varying levels of education in their home countries,

students were anticipated to benefit from pursuing less academic-driven, but more work-

focused tracks, a decision that is supported by research demonstrating the positive impact of

vocational training on migrants’ social mobility (Tjaden & Hunkler, 2017). It is important to

note that German vocational training offers a viable and lucrative alternative to higher

education, providing a smooth school-to-work transition and stable employment (Tjaden &

Hunkler, 2017). Accordingly, more than half of 25-34 year olds (56%) graduated from

vocational school, a number that is one of the largest shares among OECD countries

(Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2008).

During the peak of the refugee crisis, refugee student populations at vocational schools across

the state increased more than fivefold over the course of two years, from 794 refugee students

to more than 4,500 students in 2016 (Federal State Government, 2017). In response to news

stories of understaffed schools and overwhelmed teachers that spread across cities and

municipalities (Bausewein, 2015; Walther, 2014), governments invested resources into

German as a foreign language programs.5

With schools largely given autonomy about how to spend the increased funding, many schools

acquired new teaching materials, created more teaching positions, and hired new staff from a

variety of backgrounds. Due to a shortage of teachers with an official certification to teach

German as a foreign language, schools resorted to hiring staff from varying educational

backgrounds on annual contracts, including student teachers and career changers without a

professional teaching background.

Since research suggests that teacher quality plays a large role in determining student

achievement (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2008), the State

Ministries of Education offered in-service teacher training and professional development

seminars aimed at improving teachers’ abilities to work with refugee students. While optional,

in-service teacher training responded to the immediate challenges teachers faced. A long-term

focus on teaching German as a foreign language also gained significance in pre-service teacher

5 In German this translates as Deutsch als Fremdsprache or Deutsch als Zweitsprache, abbreviated DaF or DaZ,

respectively.

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training. More language institutes now offer the certifications and an increasing number of

universities incentivize a DaZ certificate with extra credits.

In order to analyze the impact of the teacher training, such as language courses, on the teacher’s

ability to respond to the needs of their students in real-life classrooms, this study collected

original data from teachers.

Methodology

Following an inductive, mixed-methods approach, research was based on the iterative process

of grounded theory (Singleton & Straits, 2010), allowing patterns and concepts to emerge from

the field, rather than confirming or rejecting preconceived hypotheses. Data collection began

with nine weeks of participant observation at the field site, a vocational school with

approximately 130 refugee students and approximately 30 teachers working with refugees.

Data from participant observation and semi-structured interviews (n = 15) was then analyzed

and coded to form the basis for a survey that was piloted and conducted across 33 vocational

schools in the state of Schleswig-Holstein (n = 94). While there was no reliable number of

teachers working with refugees overall, the population of interest is estimated to be

approximately 520.6

Following the findings from interviews and observations, the questionnaire included two

psychometric scales measuring teachers’ self-efficacy and motivation. Both lead to

characterizations describe a collection of attitudes and beliefs that teachers hold, which have

been shown to impact their effectiveness in improving students’ attainment.

If a teacher has a high sense of self-efficacy, she believes that firstly, she has the appropriate

skills and ability to improve students’ learning, and secondly, she is able to bring about the

desired learning, even in the face of difficult or unmotivated students (Schiefele & Schaffner,

2015). High levels of self-efficacy are seen to be related to psychological wellbeing and lower

teachers’ desire to quit (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015). As evidence suggests that teachers with

a strong sense of self-efficacy are more likely to experiment with new teaching methods

(Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) and invest more effort into preparing their lessons,

their lessons are expected to yield higher results for students’ interest and motivation (Schiefele

& Schaffner, 2015). Thus, higher levels of self-efficacy are anticipated to help teachers at

vocational schools cope better with the challenges of refugee instruction and integration.

The study further asked for teachers’ motivation and its impact on factors, such as self-efficacy,

which allows us to make inferences about how teachers’ decisions to teach refugees and their

6 2016 statistical data shows that approximately 4,500 refugee students were taught at vocational

schools, with a mean cohort size of 16. Therefore, an estimated 260 refugee classes/cohorts exist at

vocational schools in the state. Generally, two teachers are assigned to a cohort, which allows me to

estimate my overall population to be about 520 teachers.

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attitudes impact their ability to teach well. The scale used in the survey, which measures values

and professional beliefs of teachers7, is a reliable and valid indicator or a teacher’s motivation

to enter the profession (König & Rothland, 2012).

To analyze the data, I used the statistical software R to calculate descriptive statistics and

perform multivariate regressions with the outcome variables motivation and self-efficacy.

Survey Design

The survey included a set of questions about demographic information, as well as the

psychometric scales containing questions about self-efficacy and motivation. Basic

demographic data was collected on factors, such as age, gender, teaching experience, and

employment status (tenured versus non-tenured, reflecting short-term versus long-term hires).

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Despite a small sample size (n = 94), the demographics reflect a diverse group of teachers,

which show no signs of a skewed distribution that would be indicative of a sampling bias.

While the mean age of teachers is 45 (SD = 11), participants fall on a wide spectrum, from 24-

to 71-year-olds, with years of working experience varying accordingly. Overall, the survey

sample included more female teachers (60%, n = 57), and the mean hours a teacher spent

teaching refugees per week was 14 (SD = 6.4), ranging from minimal weekly commitments (1

hour/week) to full-time teaching positions (23 hours/week).

The main dependent variables of interest, namely self-efficacy and motivation, show

considerably lower variation, with participants reporting moderate levels of self-efficacy and

generally high levels of motivation. On average, respondents indicated a 5.7 (SD = 0.74) on a

7-point motivation scale and a 6 (SD = 0.83) on a 9-point self-efficacy scale.

The survey also asked participants to indicate their attitude toward teaching with 1 (“teaching

refugees was against my preference,” n = 2), 2 (“I felt indifferent,” n = 26), and 3 (“I

volunteered to teach refugees,” n = 60). For the purposes of this analysis, a dummy variable

was created that included teachers who opposed and felt indifferent about teaching refugees as

one group and teachers who volunteered as another group.

7 These values and professional beliefs of teachers include personal utility and social utility values. An

example of a personal utility values is satisfaction with pay. Enhancing social equity is an example of

a social utility value (Watt & Richardson, 2012).

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The survey sample revealed that overall, slightly less than half (n = 44) of the participants had

completed the certificate for teaching German as a foreign or second Language (DaZ), but more

than half (n = 54) of the teachers had attended professional development seminars, offered by

the State Ministry of Education, which consist of on-the-job training for in-service teachers.

Regression Analysis: Self-Efficacy

A regression with the dependent variable self-efficacy reveals a statistically significant

correlation between self-efficacy and three variables: language teaching certificates, years of

experience, and the belief in social equity. Overall, the model shows a moderate R squared

(0.35) that demonstrates the effectiveness of the model (see Table 1, Column 4).

A look at the multivariate regression reveals that teachers with a German language teaching

certificate report significantly higher levels of self-efficacy. This means that teachers who have

a certificate consider themselves more capable of improving their students’ learning and

understanding of the material, as well as addressing difficulties in the classroom. Hence, a

language certificate proves successful in providing teachers with techniques for teaching

refugee classes. Additionally, more experienced teachers reported minimally higher levels of

self-efficacy. According to the linear regressions, a one-year increase in work experience

corresponds to a 0.02 increase in self-efficacy.

Different from the language certificates, which take between one to four semesters to complete,

professional development seminars did not produce a statistically significantly increase in self-

efficacy beliefs. Compared to language certificates, the short duration of these on-the-job

training sessions could explain why language certificates prove to be more effective for

teachers. Further research into the design, attendance, and content of on-the-job training

sessions could seek to improve the effectiveness for teachers.

As a subscale of the teachers’ motivation scale, the items measuring social equity show a strong

correlation with self-efficacy. If teachers consider their job as creating more social equity and

having a positive impact on their students’ lives, their self-efficacy also increases. While

overall motivation is highly correlated with self-efficacy, this effect disappears when including

the subscale of social equity (see Table 1, Column 4). Thus, motivation as an overall concept

is in fact related to self-efficacy; however, in the teacher sample, it is specifically the belief in

social equity that has a significant impact on teachers’ self-efficacy. In other words, the more

teachers believe they contribute to an equitable society, the more they feel able to teach refugee

classes well.

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Although being a tenured teacher (“Civil Servant”; see Table 1, Row 1) as well as the factor

motivation show a high correlation with self-efficacy (see Table 1, Column 2), they become

insignificant when controlling for years of experience and the belief in social equity, which

shows that out of all factors, these variables account for the difference in self-efficacy levels.

A possible explanation for why tenured teachers, who studied education at university, believe

in social equity so strongly, could be that for their studies, they invest considerable time, effort,

and opportunity costs, which are correlated with their belief they have a positive impact on

students. This motivation may be less pronounced among teachers who join the school for a

short-term and may not see it as a long-term commitment.

Table 1

Self-Efficacy Coefficients

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Regression Analysis: Motivation

Concurrent with previous research (Woolfolk, Rosoff & Hoy, 1990), the regression shows a

moderate, statistically significant correlation between self-efficacy and motivation. According

to the model, a one-step increase on the self-efficacy score is correlated with a 0.36 increase

on the 7-point motivation scale.

Additionally, the multivariate regression in Table 2 reveals a statistically significant correlation

between attending professional development seminars and motivation. Teachers who have

attended at least one professional development seminar show a small increase in motivation.

The coefficients remain significant after controlling for factors, such as age, voluntary choice,

and years of experience. However, from these results we cannot fully understand the direction

of the relationship, meaning that professional development seminars may increase teacher

motivation, or it may be the case that more motivated teachers seek out professional

development more frequently. Further research is needed to understand directional effects and

rule out the possible influence of a third, unobserved factor.

Looking at the relationship between motivation and volunteering to teach shows that initial

attitudes towards teaching refugees did not impact long-term motivation of self-efficacy

beliefs. The model does not find a statistically significant relationship between motivation and

whether or not people started teaching refugees on their own accord or because they were

assigned the role.

It is likely that even though the teachers have initial preferences or reservations about teaching

refugees, it does not affect their motivation or self-efficacy in the long run, because they may

change their mind and embrace their new role as teachers in refugee classes. Considering

instead the strong relationship between motivation and self-efficacy, motivation depends on

whether or not teaching methods prove successful with students, suggesting dynamic attitudes

towards teaching. Therefore, a positive takeaway could be that even if schools see themselves

forced to assign teachers who are indifferent or reluctant to teach a new student population,

this does not play as much of a role for teachers’ motivation and self-efficacy, as other factors,

such as training and certification.

Table 2

Motivation Coefficients

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Discussion

Identifying effective teachers is crucial for improving the quality of teaching, which has

positive outcomes for students and schools alike. In the German case, the chances for

successful integration of refugees are expected to increase with teachers who have a high sense

of self-efficacy. Overall, schools teaching language to speakers of other languages benefit from

those teachers who show high levels of self-efficacy, motivation, and are, therefore, expected

to be less likely to quit (Schiefele & Schaffner, 2015).

Limitations

The present paper only provides a small overview of factors influencing the teachers’

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experience in one state, which raises general questions about generalizability of the findings.

Further research may confirm findings fully or only in part.

Additionally, the study did not include a reference group or a comparative sample of teachers

who do not teach refugees. Therefore, it cannot be determined with certainty whether or not

teachers in refugee classes show significantly higher levels of motivation or self-efficacy than

their “regular” peers or whether the findings of the study mirror similar trends in teacher

training in Germany.

Future Research

Administrators in Germany have addressed the challenge of integration by making ad hoc

decisions in the absence of official policies; however, future successes of integration will be

dependent on more systematic analyses and research of the role of teachers in the integration

process. Further research should include the students’ voices, attitudes, and performance,

where possible. This would contextualize the role of teachers in relation to their students and

the larger social context.

Further, survey data provides a snapshot of motivation and self-efficacy at one point in time.

Since constructs like motivation and self-efficacy are flexible and prone to change over a

longer period of time, longitudinal studies of teachers are needed to develop robust models

predicting teacher success and satisfaction. Longitudinal data also helps to alleviate the

shortcomings of a cross-sectional snapshot of teacher stress and self-efficacy.

Recommendations

Despite its limitations, my research points toward some key findings responding to current

challenges faced by administrators at schools with both refugee students and foreign language

students alike. In the German case, principals and department heads review their temporary

staff annually and express recommendations about whether or not to keep teachers; however,

final hiring decisions are up to the state’s Ministry of Education. Although the immediate

shortage of skilled teachers led to an increased hiring of temporary teachers, the integration of

DaZ classes into the curricula of teacher education has led to more university graduates being

formally trained to teach German as a foreign language. My research points to the success of

this initiative, considering the positive effect a language certificate has on self-efficacy.

Comparing professional development and language certificates’ effectiveness for teachers has

further shown the importance of comprehensive, pre-service skill development in the form of

certificates obtained at universities.

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Thus, integrating certificates for teaching foreign language into university curricula has

significant positive implications for teachers working with refugees at vocational schools.

Increased investments into these qualifications at an early stage, such as teacher training, yield

substantive returns, demonstrated by a significant increase in self-efficacy for teachers later on

in their teaching career.

Considering the beneficial effects of work experience on self-efficacy, schools should strive to

staff refugee classes with permanent teachers, either by offering tenure to current teachers or

by replacing temporary teachers with full-time, tenured teachers as soon as possible. A

prerequisite for all teachers in refugee classes should be the certification of teaching German

as a second language (DaZ), either enforced as an entry requirement for new hires or, where

new hires are not possible or lack the certificate, the opportunity to complete one should be

extended to current in-service teachers.

The factor motivation has a strong impact on self-efficacy; however, ensuring teacher

motivation requires a holistic institutional support system for teachers and effective

communication between division heads, principals, and teachers. It is, therefore, up to

individual schools to identify motivated teachers and invest the time and resources to train

effective and motivated teachers.

While the study focused on Germany as a case study, findings can nonetheless give hints about

the opportunities of teaching in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which has made the quality

of education, and specifically of teachers, their goal. Findings from the present study

underscore the benefits of language certifications as schools recruit teachers of English for

students, who are predominantly Arabic-speaking. Especially Gulf countries, including the

UAE, rely on the recruitment of skilled English teachers to teach diverse group of local and

expatriate students. While the issue of job satisfaction and job longevity play as much of a role

in the UAE as they do in Germany, the concepts of self-efficacy and motivation should be

investigated further in the context of English-language instruction in the UAE. Findings from

the present study identify language certifications as the key predictor of effective teachers;

however, beliefs about teaching, such as the belief in social equity, have shown to increase

self-efficacy significantly as well, indicating these traits to be important for characteristics for

resilient and capable teachers.

Conclusion

While the survey captured only a small percentage of teachers, the underlying field work sheds

light on refugee education and teacher training as a complex, interconnected issue.

Additionally, the overarching takeaway underscores the importance of listening to teachers. A

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2005 study of refugee teachers in England found that “integration may mean different things

in different contexts. […] However, the needs for language support, training and access to the

right support for the right child at the right time are common factors in all circumstances”

(Whiteman, 2005, p. 389).

While, arguably, ensuring the “right support for the right child at the right time” seems like a

daunting task, teachers are invaluable informants and sources of inspiration. Field work has

shown the complexity of teacher-student, teacher-teacher, and teacher-supervisor interactions

and how difficult it is to extrapolate these findings onto the larger population of teachers in a

state. Therefore, the institutional and local knowledge within school communities should not

only be respected but be of paramount importance for staffing decisions and the

implementation of future interventions. Considering each school as an ecosystem of factors,

which influence the teacher’s performance, self-efficacy, and motivation, policy makers should

strive for policy solutions that are tailored to individual schools.

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Mobile Learning with Arabic Speakers in Sweden

Lorna Bartram

Dr. Linda Bradley

Khaled Al-Sabbagh

Chalmers University of Technology

Abstract

We set out to investigate the pedagogical implications of mobile learning and to develop a

language learning application for Arabic-speaking migrants in Sweden, by far the largest

language group of newly arrived migrants during the past few years. Through a design-based,

bottom-up approach, the smartphone as a learning tool is explored. In our two most recent

studies, 26 individuals were surveyed about their mobile literacy and preferences for learning

with their smartphone. Qualitative methods, such as focus group interviews, questionnaires,

and observations, were used. We developed a model for evaluating app usability, where we

iteratively involved users to get feedback on their experience with the app and to generate ideas

for development. Results indicate that the pedagogical aspects in existing apps focus on

traditional approaches with basic vocabulary training, while more active learning, such as

pronunciation and speaking activities are less common. This resulted in the design of our app,

displaying pronunciation training activities with phrases connected to situations in everyday

life.

Acknowledgements: The research is part of the two-year Minclusion project: Integration with

mobiles, funded by the European Asylum, Migration, and Integration Fund (AMIF) during

2016 and 2018.

Introduction

Learning to speak a language is one of the most crucial aspects for migrants to become included

in a new society (e.g., Bradley, Berbyuk Lindström, & Sofkova Hashemi, 2017; Kukulska-

Hulme et al., 2015). In fact, language learning is acknowledged as one of the key aspects of

integration (Majhanovich & Deyrich, 2017). Sweden has a national Swedish language program

for immigrants, Swedish for Immigrants (SFI), offering free Swedish courses to adults over 20

years old who do not speak Swedish as their mother tongue. The courses have a curriculum of

different levels, from beginner to more advanced levels of Swedish.

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The time span when attending an SFI program is individualized according to educational

background and previous knowledge, making the environment very fluid. Once migrants get a

job, they struggle with managing their time between their language studies while maintaining

a job, resulting in drop-outs before the Swedish courses are finished. In recent years, Arabic-

speaking migrants, mainly from Syria, have been the largest group in SFI. In 2017, 40% of the

SFI students spoke Arabic as a native language (Swedish National Agency for Education,

2018).

Our earlier research shows that migrants are generally interested in finding their way into

society by means of mobile technology and have an interest in using technology to get informed

and learn the language (Bradley et al., 2017). However, both migrants and SFI educators have

been frustrated due to the lack of coordination of information, which has also been experienced

in other countries that have received many migrants, e.g., Germany (Kaufmann, 2018).

Improving digital infrastructure would affect migrants’ possibilities of, for example, obtaining

employment and housing as well as being informed about society (Kaufmann, 2018), which

has an impact on well-being in the new country. Nevertheless, a large number of migrants own

their own smartphone that they mainly use to stay in touch with friends and family. Our

research shows that 84% of Arabic migrants have smartphones that could be used for

integration purposes, such as learning the language and getting information about the new

society that they live in, if they only knew how to find the right information amongst the wealth

of existing apps (Bradley et al., 2017).

The purpose of this research is to investigate the role of digital and mobile technologies in

learning Swedish amongst the new migrant community of Arabic-speakers in Sweden.

However, the results can also be generalized and applied to any mobile language learning

context geared at Arabic-speaking language learners. Specifically, this research explores the

mobile literacy among newly arrived Arabic-speaking migrants to Sweden and how mobile

learning can be used as a tool for facilitating more contact with the host society. Thus, our

research questions are:

1. What is the existing situation for Arabic-speaking migrants concerning their digital literacy

and use of mobile apps for language learning?

2. How can a mobile app be integrated into language learning activities for Arabic-speaking

migrants?

First, we introduce the theoretical foundation and existing research in the area. Then, we give

an account of existing mobile language learning apps and the learning activities Arabic-

speaking migrants are engaged in with their smartphones when learning Swedish. Next,

outcomes from the design of our app development in aiding migrants to learn the language to

become more established are presented.

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Theoretical Framing

Mobile learning, which has emerged from digital learning, is built on the premise that learning

is taking place ubiquitously, in everyday situations by means of digital and mobile devices

(Kukulska-Hulme & Pegrum, 2018). With increased globalization, there is growing mobility.

Mobile learning in relation to migration must therefore be understood as any type of learning

activities taking place on the move with a digital device. This research investigates mobile

learning from a perspective in which the user is seen as active and part of the social

environment where learning takes place and mobile language learning is considered a bridging

activity (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011).

From a language learning perspective, mastering spoken language skills is one of the keys to

being included in a new communicative environment (Thorén, 2014). For Arabic speakers,

focus on practicing vowels becomes central since Modern Standard Arabic only has six vowel

phonemes, whereas other languages generally have significantly more, e.g., Swedish has nine

vowels which have long and short variations (Thorén, 2014.). Distinguishing between sound

qualities in vowels becomes a challenge in a language that has other sound principles. In

addition, vocabulary knowledge plays a central role in a person’s ability to communicate, as

well as read and understand written text (Heimann Mühlenbock & Johansson Kokkinakis,

2012). Thus, practicing pronunciation and vocabulary in phrases are two features found in

language learning apps (Burston, 2015).

Research has shown that mobile technologies support informal and incidental mobile language

learning (Hager & Halliday, 2006), in which learning takes place although it was not planned

nor intended. This is what happens in everyday life in activities that are not traditionally

designed as learning events, such as engagement in leisure pursuits or social interaction, which

nevertheless create opportunities for language acquisition. For such ubiquitous learning,

smartphones have been identified as having a central role (Park, 2011).

Categorizing apps for language learning, Rosell-Aguilar (2017) found that apps could (i) be

developed for language learning, (ii) be used but not created for language learning, or (iii)

provide wordlists and translation. This categorization is based on a framework of app

evaluation according to four categories, which are overlapping to a certain extent: technology,

pedagogy, user experience, and language learning.

Previous research shows, however, that mobile technologies for learning are driven by the

functionality of the technology and what it can offer, rather than how it can be used (Burston,

2015). Thus, it is suggested that language learners need re-skilling to better adjust to a mobile

world and its new learning resources (Kukulska-Hulme, 2013). In other words, learners need

to be equipped with better strategies and tools to appropriate the target language and culture. It

is claimed that user-generated opportunities for social interaction are increasing due to social

100

networking and game-based features (Thorne, 2013), but more research is needed on how

social interaction is extended through the use of mobile devices.

Research on Migrants and Language Learning with Mobile Technology

Regarding research on mobile uses by migrants focusing on social inclusion, an early example

is Ruge’s (2012) research on adult migrants’ use of technology to learn Greenlandic. These

learners were using SMS tasks to overcome social and practical barriers in practicing the

language. Another early example is a study of migrant groups’ usage of mobile phones by

Pearson (2011) in a Bangladeshi community in London to overcome barriers in employment.

This study consisted of two groups of women, one enrolled in a formal language learning class

and another group that did not attend formal classes. The findings suggested that using mobile

phones for learning English enhanced the confidence levels in both groups.

In the SALSA-project, language training and intercultural communication were combined

(Gaved, Greenwood, & Peasgood, 2015). Smartphones were explored, enabling citizens to take

advantage of the infrastructure found in smart cities. The focus was on migrants in a city where

they were provided information resources and language learning through smartphones, which

were integrated into their daily routines and leveraged a city’s network infrastructure. This

offered both individual knowledge development as well as the opportunity to build

communities.

Research on the effects of utilizing smartphones for language learning with Arabic speakers is

scarce. However, in a study of digital learning, Alsaleem (2013) suggested that using the

messaging and voice calling app WhatsApp had the effect of improving vocabulary word

choice and writing skills with undergraduate Saudi students.

Concerning studies on digital means of learning as integration tools with Arabic migrants,

Safa’a and Hanna (2017) investigated Information and Communication Technology (ICT) with

Syrian refugees in Germany in a qualitative analysis of fifteen interviews. This study showed

that ICT, in terms of social media, has the potential to promote integration and enhance

wellbeing as well as an individual’s sense of agency. This is supported by Kaufmann (2018)

who investigated the role of smartphones and digital practices by interviewing ten recently

arrived Syrian refugees in Vienna. The participants were involved in various informal language

learning activities on their smartphone, such as looking up local food ingredients on Google

and watching language lessons on YouTube. The multitude of uses led to their smartphone

becoming key tool to cope with the everyday difficulties encountered in their new society.

In sum, to date there have been few studies examining the uses of mobile technology as a tool

to learn a language and increase the understanding of a newly arrived migrants in their new

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context. However, the existing studies point to mobile phones having the potential to engage

users in informal language learning. This study contributes to the literature by showing how a

combination of research and development of a mobile app for language learning can serve as

an integration tool for migrants.

Methodology

During the entire project of two years, a number of field studies were conducted, first with the

objective of learning about the digital literacy and the needs of migrants and later to test the

usability of the current iterations of our own app development. The affordances and constraints

around the smartphone as a learning tool were explored through a design-based approach

starting from the bottom-up, i.e., investigating the needs of the migrants themselves.

The initial work consisted of mapping existing language learning apps for the target group

according to certain criteria, e.g., Does the app offer contrastive elements between Arabic and

Swedish? Is it free of charge for the user? Is it without major bugs and technical problems?

From investigating existing apps, we developed a model for evaluation of mobile language

learning resources (Sofkova Hashemi, Berbyuk Lindström, Bartram, & Bradley, 2017). This

model informed further work when scrutinizing apps from a pedagogical perspective.

In our field studies, we met over 100 individuals at two NGOs and four SFI schools overall. In

the first studies with the two NGOs and two of the SFI schools, we explored digital literacy

among participants and conducted focus group interviews to find out what language learning

activities the participants were engaged in. In the next two SFI schools, applying qualitative

methods of investigation, we studied the use of our app development in addition to scrutinizing

digital literacy and conducting focus group interviews. In all six studies, respondents were

given pre-questionnaires with self-estimation questions regarding their background and digital

literacy and were interviewed to elicit more information on the uses of their mobile devices,

including their preferred ways of using them for learning Swedish.

From a total number of 54 Arabic-speaking participants in the two latter SFI schools, the data

presented below concerns digital literacy and an evaluation of our app that is based on 26

participants (13 participants in each school) who had a sufficient level of digital literacy

according to the pre-questionnaire and who were present in the SFI class for observation during

the weeks of our studies. A post-questionnaire and complementary interviews with ten

individuals in pairs were used during a follow-up.

There was an even distribution of gender amongst the participants (13 females and 13 males).

Among the respondents, four (15%) reported that they spoke another language besides Arabic.

Only two (8%) stated that they spoke English, the most widely spoken language in Sweden in

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addition to the mother tongue, Swedish (European Commission, 2006). The majority (76%) of

the participants came from Syria. The educational backgrounds varied from elementary school

to university level; however, most had a background of at least nine years of school. Regarding

professional background, teaching was the most common (31%) profession among the female

participants; however, just as many had also been unemployed, staying at home. All of the men

had a professional background. The majority were newly arrived migrants, covered by an

establishment plan. This is valid for up to three years after receiving a residence permit, and

SFI is a compulsory part of the plan.

As a complementary source of information, four SFI teachers were also interviewed about their

experience with mobile and other digital technologies for language learning. The teachers had

an average of 6 years and 9 months of experience working at SFI. In the interview, they were

asked (i) if they had used apps to learn a language themselves; (ii) if they had any experience

in using apps in their teaching; (iii) if they received questions from their students about

language apps and what they recommended to their students; (iv) and in what areas they

regarded that Arabic-speaking students needed more Swedish language training.

Analysis and Results

Findings in Existing Apps

From our analysis of existing apps, the focus was primarily on drill-training vocabulary, which

is suggested to be a common activity in language learning apps (Burston, 2015), while learning

that requires the user to be more productive, e.g., pronunciation and speaking, is less common

(Sofkova Hashemi et al., 2017). At the end of 2017, we found approximately 40 apps on the

Apple App Store and Google Play Store for Arabic users learning Swedish, mainly with a

similar design. These contained text only or text and sound. Some of them even had the same

content, being clones of one another. These apps were generally quite static, presenting an

Arabic phrase and then a subsequent Swedish translation of it. The apps were not always easily

found by the users. However, our investigation showed that the most preferred communication

apps were translation services as well as voice calling and text messaging services, which were

installed on all respondents’ phones. This is in line with our results from the pre-study (Bradley

et al., 2017).

In the focus group interviews, several respondents pointed out the importance of learning

everyday phrases, such as being able to talk in the shop and with their children’s teacher. The

respondents’ main motivation for learning Swedish was being able to communicate in the host

society. In response to what the respondents thought they needed in order to be integrated into

Swedish society, it was clear that the respondents acknowledged language as a primary key to

integration, which is also supported by the research (e.g., Majhanovich & Deyrich, 2017).

Furthermore, their interest was mainly in communication and using language in interaction

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connected to vital aspects of everyday life, which is also what is suggested by Cabral and

Martin-Jones (2017).

In terms of mobile language learning activities, all respondents reported that they used

translation and word lists to manage their social interactions, both in direct communication,

such as communication with teachers and in the supermarket, and in distance communication,

such as translating letters from authorities. This conforms to research suggesting that

translation services are considered a means to learn a language amongst the respondents in this

study as well (Kaufmann, 2018; Rosell-Aguilar, 2017).

In the interviews with four SFI teachers, it was found that only one of them had experience in

using language learning apps, both in terms of private use and in education. On the other hand,

all teachers used web-based materials (such as online exercises and useful links to YouTube

videos) made available for their students on educational platforms. Concerning the question of

whether they received any requests from students about language apps, the teachers frequently

got asked if they could give any recommendations. In this respect, the teachers felt that they

could not contribute since they were not that familiar with language learning apps. For the

question of which areas they regarded Arabic-speaking students needed more Swedish

language training, pronunciation was cited, specifically practicing sounds and intonation,

which is supported by Thorén (2014). Writing skills and spelling were other areas pointed out,

due to the differences between written Arabic and Swedish.

Designing a New App

The development of our app was founded on basic requirements from the migrants, such as

breaking the initial barrier in being able to communicate and mastering some of the sounds that

are typical in Swedish. The functionality that would support this kind of learning was,

therefore, elaborated on in our development, including multimodal means of learning (e.g.,

videos, audio, and text) together with the design and navigation. This resulted in the first

iterative development of a module in the app targeting the pronunciation of vowels and

everyday dialogues, where users can target specific weak spots in their own learning (see

Figure 1).

Figure 1. The first development with everyday phrases.

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The next version of our development was founded on additional interviews and observations

of the migrants, resulting in refined designs and even more expanded content, such as

connecting the app to a wider range of authentic and everyday situations and social aspects of

communication (Kukulska-Hulme & Pegrum, 2018). One example of a generically interesting

area is cooking (see Kaufmann, 2018), where users are moving between something that is

already familiar but now put in a new setting, learning recipes from another country with new

ingredients and in a new language. Hence, the Cook and Learn part of our app, which stemmed

from ideas generated by newly arrived migrants and that were later processed at a student

hackathon. These ideas were refined further in terms of design and usability until they could

be included in the app (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. The second development with Cook and Learn.

105

Concerning language learning, the central language learning features of repetition and feedback

(Rosell-Aguilar, 2017) are important to also address in any language learning app. However,

certain functionalities are easier to implement (e.g., presentation of text and images) than others

(e.g., voice recognition and personalized feedback), resulting in apps becoming quite static.

Our results show that a variation of modalities is preferred, aiming to implement multi-user

functions and gamification to make the app more appealing to users as a way forward (Thorne,

2013).

Recommendations and Future Research

Our research aimed to contribute to the mobile language learning field by increasing the

understanding of how mobile technology can be used as a potential bridge for migrants

integrating into a new society, where learners are active in the process of learning (Akkerman

& Bakker, 2011). By exploring digital language learning, we have highlighted the potential of

smartphones in the learning process based on the habits of how individuals use these devices.

These habits can facilitate their use when being connected to bridging activities, such as in the

communication of everyday phrases and pronunciation.

106

Recommendations for development of mobile apps include focusing on the user perspective.

The results in our studies support the fact that it is relevant to include activities that support

everyday speech in connection to social interactions in an app. Concerning an app for migrants

who are in the process of being integrated into a new society, we recommend that content and

functionality should be connected to the users’ everyday lives to increase the usability of the

app. From a language learning perspective, repetition and feedback are key components of the

learning process (Rosell-Aguilar, 2017), requiring a more longitudinal perspective, which

should be explored further in future research.

Going forward, it should be emphasized that it is important to carefully plan how to engage

migrants in a study. Migrants attending language learning classes, such as SFI, are a fluctuating

and difficult group to study, which led us to conduct short-term studies in the project. Finding

ways to capture migrants in a longer study would be relevant from a language learning

perspective since language improvement takes time to develop, even for diligent users of apps

for language learning training.

Even though the overall number of participants in our research was relatively low, our results

indicate what the Arabic-speaking migrants’ level of digital literacy is like and how an app can

be designed to fit their needs. This research is not only applicable to learning Swedish but also

to other languages, such as improving English skills to be able to access higher education.

Discussion and Conclusion

Our research concerns mobile learning from the perspective of newly arrived Arabic-speaking

migrants in Sweden. This inquiry was made up of mobile literacy and the uses of existing apps

for language learning in connection with the development of an app based on the needs of the

target group. Analyzing the data, we applied a mixed-method approach consisting of

questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Approaching users from different angles

contributed to a multifaceted picture of the users’ relationships with their mobile phones.

Results of our studies showed that there were distinct discrepancies in relation to the available

resources on the market and the actual use of these resources.

Concerning research question 1, the migrants in our study were digitally literate in the sense

that they were moving in and out of different digital resources. The majority of the respondents

were positive towards mobile technologies as a mediator to learn languages. However, despite

the large availability of free apps for Arabic-speakers learning Swedish, only a small range of

these apps were actually being used regularly. The reasons given by users included not being

able to easily find them, not finding the apps useful in terms of content and/or functionality, or

above all, finding it difficult to integrate such apps into daily routines so that they would

become habitual. Instead, they were diligent users of apps and web pages to translate and look

up words in glossaries.

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Regarding research question 2, concerning implementing an app into language learning

activities, there is a challenge from a development perspective, in adhering to user requirements

in terms of design and content. Also, technical aspects, such as versions of smartphones and

internet connectivity, play a role in how the performance of an app will appear to the user.

Connecting an app for language learning to practical everyday usage is a likely way forward.

The interviews with the teachers also indicate potential areas for improvement to strengthen

the digital infrastructure of resources in the SFI education system. Mobile technologies were

not an integral part of the education, but rather dependent on the teachers’ knowledge and

interest in that. Both students and teachers showed an interest in how apps could be used for

language learning.

108

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