For Official Use DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2015)4

For Official Use DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2015)4 Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économiques Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 08-Jul-2015

___________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________ English - Or. English DIRECTORATE FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION

COMMITTEE ON DIGITAL ECONOMY POLICY

Working Party on Measurement and Analysis of the Digital Economy

NEW SKILLS FOR THE DIGITAL ECONOMY: MEASURING THE DEMAND FOR ICT SKILLS AT

WORK

OECD Headquarters, Paris, 22-23 June 2015

This paper, prepared by the Secretariat, presents new evidence on how the use of ICTs at work is changing the

demand for skills. Three sets of ICT-related skills are examined: generic skills, specialist skills and

complementary skills. The findings will contribute to session “4.2 Skills for a digital world” of the CDEP

Ministerial Meeting (item 4).

The Working Party is invited to comment on the study and to advise on further analysis.

For further information please contact: Economic Analysis and Statistics Division (EAS),

Vincenzo SPIEZIA, E-mail: [email protected]

JT03379955

Complete document available on OLIS in its original format

This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of

international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

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Cancels & replaces the same document of 18 June 2015

DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2015)4

2

NEW SKILLS FOR THE DIGITAL ECONOMY:

MEASURING THE DEMAND FOR ICT SKILLS AT WORK

1. Introduction

1. Increasing use of ICTs at work is raising the demand for new skills. This is occurring along three

lines. First, the production of ICT products and services – software, web pages, e-commerce, cloud, big

data, etc. – requires ICT specialist skills to programme, develop applications and manage networks.

Second, workers across an increasing range of occupations need to acquire generic ICT skills to be able to

use such technologies in their daily work – access information online, use software, etc. Finally, the use of

ICTs is changing the way work is carried out and raising the demand for ICT complementary skills, e.g.:

the capability to communicate on social networks, to brand products on e-commerce platforms, etc.

2. The attention of policy-makers and analysts has mainly focused on the first two sets of ICT skills,

specialist and generic skills, while ICT complementary skills have received much less attention.

Furthermore, the measurement of both the demand for and the supply of such skills seem short of the

evidence base that is necessary to inform education and training policies.

3. The aim of this paper is to contribute to fill this gap. Section 2 provides new evidence on the use

of ICT generic skills at work by linking data from the OECD Programme for the International Assessment

of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) and the national Labour Force Surveys. Section 3 presents a set of

measures of the demand for ICT specialists based on vacancies and wage statistics both from official

sources and online vacancies. The complementarities between ICT and other skills at work are analysed in

Section 4 based on the PIAAC survey and the US Occupational Information Network (O*NET). Section 5

discusses the implications of the main findings and concludes.

2. The demand for ICT generic skills

4. The aim of this section is to provide new evidence on the demand for ICT generic skills at work

in selected OECD countries. The analysis is undertaken in two steps. The first step measures the intensity

of ICT use in each occupation based on the PIAAC survey. The second step measures the demand for ICT

generic skills at work by linking the ICT intensity by occupation to the share of employment in each

occupation based on the Labour Force Surveys.

2.1 ICT-intensity by occupation

5. The PIAAC background questionnaire collects a range of information on the ICT use at work by

asking how often the respondents:

send/receive email (g_q05a);

find work-related information on the Internet (g_q05c);

conduct transaction on the Internet (g_q05d);

use spreadsheets (g_q05e);


3

use word processors (g_q05f);

use programming languages (g_q05g); or

have real-time discussions (g_q05h)1.

6. Possible answers are: Never; Less than once a month; Less than once a week but at least once a

month; At least once a week but not every day; and Every day.

7. Non-missing answers to all above questions (except g_q05g.) have been combined (OECD,

2013a) into a synthetic indicator according to the Item Response Theory (IRT). This methodology

combines multiple choice questions to derive measures of an underlying unobservable psychometric trait,

such as the ability of the individuals, or how frequently individuals use, certain types of skills at work2.

8. The resulting ICT index3 is a continuous variable, which should be interpreted as a measure of

the intensity of ICT use at work: people with a higher level of the ICT index have a higher probability of

frequently performing ICT tasks at work.

9. To facilitate comparisons, the index has been standardised in PIAAC to have mean equal to 2 and

standard deviation equal to 1 across the pooled sample of respondents in all countries (appropriately

weighted). This results in an index for which at least 90% of the observations lay between 0 and 4,

whereby low values suggest a low frequency of use and high values suggest a high frequency.

10. In the PIAAC survey, the questions used to calculate the ICT index are only asked to people who

report “having experience with computer in job”4. As people with no experience have not been included in

the computation of the ICT index, on average the index tends to overrate the intensity of ICT use at work.

In addition, as the distribution of those with no computer experience across occupation is unknown, the

bias is not uniform: the index overrates ICT use in some occupations and underrates it in others.

11. Figure 1 shows that this bias is likely to be large. Almost a quarter (24.51%) of all (weighted)

PIAAC respondents reported no computer experience at work while a very small percentage of individuals

(0.07%) refused to answer or answered “do not know”. The bias is larger in Poland, Italy and Spain, and

smaller in the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway.

1. Questions g_q05a, g_q05c, g_q05d, g_q05e, g_q05f, g_q05g and g_q05h, respectively.

2. The generalised partial credit model (GPCM) is an IRT model developed for situations where the item

responses are contained in two or more ordered categories. Items associated to a given latent trait are

grouped together and the unobserved trait is estimated. The main ingredients for the estimation are (a) the

unidimensionality of the latent construct or scale and (b) the parameterisation of the model allowing

mapping each level on the latent scale to the probability of choosing a specific alternative among the item

possible choices over the immediate precedent.

3. The index is labelled “ICTwork” in the PIAAC database.

4. Question g_q04.


4

Figure 1. Individuals with no experience with computer use

Weighted proportion of all individuals

Source: OECD, based on PIAAC.

12. In order to correct for such a bias, the ICT index has been adjusted by attributing its lowest

possible value (-0.454) to those who reported having no experience at work.

13. The ICT use intensity has been computed for each occupation as the (weighted) average of the

ICT index of all individuals based on: i) their current occupation, if they are employed; or ii) their last

occupation, if they have been unemployed for no more than one year. The latter condition permits to fully

exploit the information available (i.e.: the last occupation for those unemployed) while ensuring that the

ICT index is not out-of-date (i.e.: more than one year). Occupations are defined according to the ISCO

2008 classification at 3-digit level (127 occupations –excluding Armed Forces-), except for Australia and

Finland, where PIAAC data are available at 2 digits only (40 occupations –excluding Armed Forces-).

Figure 2. ICT intensity index at work by country

Unweighted averages across occupations


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35(%)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5ICT intensity adjusted ICT intensity


5

14. Figure 2 compares the average ICT intensity across occupations by country, adjusted and

unadjusted. Before adjustment, the average ICT intensity ranges between from 1.68 in Japan and 2.16 in

Italy. After adjustment, it ranges between .75 in Poland and 1.56 in Norway. On average, the effect of

adjustment is larger for the Slovak Republic, Spain, Poland and Italy.

15. The top-20 ICT-intensive occupations by country, before and after adjustment, are reported in

Annex A, table 1. The main effect of the adjustment is to push out of the top-20 some occupations with an

implausibly high ICT intensity before adjustment. This is the case, for instance, of “Forestry and related

workers” in Canada (1st before adjustment); “Street vendors – excluding food” (1

st) and “Wood treaters,

cabinet makers and related trade workers” (3rd

) in Denmark; “Car, van and motorcycle drivers” (1st) in

Germany; “Street and related service workers” (1st) in Poland; “Vehicle, windows and other hand cleaning

workers” (1st) in the Slovak Republic; “Handicraft workers” (1

st) in Spain; “Printed trade workers” (5

th) in

England and Northern Ireland.

Table 1. Top-20 ICT-intensive occupation across countries

Proportion of countries where the occupation is among the top-20 ICT

Rank Occupation ISCO-08 Frequency

1 Administration professionals 242 100%

2 Information and communications technology service managers 133 100%

3 Business services and administration managers 121 95%

4 Finance professionals 241 95%

5 Information and communications technology operations and user support 351 95%

6 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 95%

7 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 89%

8 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 89%

9 Database and network professionals 252 84%

10 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 79%

11 Electrotechnology engineers 215 74%

12 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 68%

13 Managing directors and chief executives 112 68%

14 Physical and earth science professionals 211 68%

15 Professional services managers 134 63%

16 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 58%

17 Legislators and senior officials 111 53%

18 Life science professionals 213 53%

19 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 42%

20 Business services agents 333 37%


16. Despite the adjustment, some occupations that do not seem to involve intensive use of ICT

remain among the top-20 in some countries: “Veterinarians” in Austria, Denmark, Korea and the Slovak

Republic; “Social and religious professionals” in the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic; “Sports and

fitness workers” in Estonia.

17. Table 1 shows the top-20 ICT-intensive occupations across countries, based on the adjusted ICT

index. Interestingly, 15 out of the top-20 ICT-intensive occupations (shown in italics) are not ICT

specialist occupations. They include administrators and managers (ISCO-08 242, 121, 112 and 134); sales

and business agents (122, 243, 332 and 333); financial and mathematical professionals (241 and 331);

scientists and engineers (211, 213 and 214) as well as “Authors, journalists and linguistics” (264) and

“Legislators and senior officials” (111).


6

2.2. Labour demand in ICT-intensive occupations

18. Having ranked all occupations by their intensity of ICT use, the next step of the analysis is to

compute an economy-wide index of ICT intensity at work by linking the ICT intensity by occupation to the

share of employment in each occupation. This economy-wide index is a measure of the total demand for

ICT generic skills at work in a country.

19. Employment shares in each occupation have been computed based on national Labour Force

Surveys. For EU countries, employment data are drawn from the EU Labour Force Survey, where

occupations are classified according to 3-digit ISCO-08 from 2011 on. In a number of other countries,

however, national occupational classifications have been converted into ISCO-08. For the United States,

employment by 3-digit ISCO-08 occupations has been estimated by the OECD from the BLS Current

Population Survey, based on the concordance table between SOC 2010 and ISCO-08. For Australia,

employment by 2-digit ISCO-08 occupations has been estimated from ABS data, based on the concordance

between ANZSCO 2006 and ISCO-08 developed by Statistics New Zealand. For Korea, Statistics Korea

has provided 3-digit ISCO-08 estimates in 2008, 2013 and 2014, based on the national KSOC

classification. For Japan, employment data at 1-digit ISCO-08 have been drawn from the ILO and the

Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications and are available from 2008 to

2014 (except 2011).

20. Figure 3 shows the economy-wide index of ICT intensity at work in 2011 and 2014. ICT

intensity varies significantly across countries. In 2014, the ICT index ranged between 1.6 in the United

States and Norway and 0.8 in Poland and the Slovak Republic. In Denmark, Sweden, United Kingdom,

Australia and Finland the ICT index was about 1.5 while it was below 1 in Japan, Italy and Spain.

Figure 3. Demand for ICT generic skills by country

Economy-wide index of ICT intensity at work

Note: 2011 refers to 2010 for Japan and 2008 for Korea.

Source: OECD, based on PIAAC and national Labour Force Surveys.

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2014 2011


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21. Over 2011-2014, ICT intensity at work increased in all countries except the Slovak Republic (-

3.1%), Denmark (-0.4%), Japan (-0.3%) and Italy (-0.2%). On average, the index increased by 3.1%. The

largest increase occurred in Poland (7.8%), France (6.8%), Norway (6.5%) and Estonia (5%).

3. ICT specialist skills

22. ICT specialists have been among the most dynamic occupations in recent years. “Software

applications developers and analysts” and “ICT operators and user support technicians” are listed among

the top ten growing occupations in EU26 from 2012Q2 to 2013Q2, with an increase of 156,300 and 64,500

employees, respectively (European Commission, 2014a). In Australia, the employment of ICT managers

has increased by 29.7 per cent from 2009 to 2013, according to the Australian Government (Australian

Workforce and Productivity Agency, 2013). In the Unites States, the IT industry lost only 1% of its

workforce during the recession and employment grew by 7.5% from 2009 to 2011 (US Bureau of Labour

Statistics, 2013), exceeding its pre-recession level.

23. Several forecasts suggest that the demand for ICT professionals will grow even faster over the

next years. According to the BLS Employment Outlook (2010) ‘Computer and mathematical occupations’

in the United States “are expected to grow, as a group, more than twice as fast as the average for all

occupations” in the United States. The Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency estimates that job

openings for ICT occupations in Australia will reach 1.18 (million) in 2025, and that the increase is

expected to be driven by new growth instead of replacement demand. A study commissioned by the

Norwegian Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation predicts a shortage of ICT personnel by

about 10,500 persons in Norway by 2030 [DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2014)5]. The European Commission (2014b)

forecasts the gap between demand and supply of ICT professionals in the EU27 to grow on average

by 16.39% a year from 2013 to 2020.

24. These forecasts rely on a scenario-based approach which, by its very nature, is hard to validate.

Yet, they raise some concerns about the ability of the labour market to provide an adequate supply of

workers with the required skills. Indeed, a shortage of ICT specialists would require that countries adopt

policies to develop these skills among workers as well as among new entrants in the labour market.

25. The aim of this Section is to review available statistical evidences about the potential shortage of

ICT specialists. If firms face difficulties to fill vacancies for ICT specialists, such a shortage should result

in at least one of the following: i) an upward trend in the job vacancy rates for ICT specialists; ii) a longer

duration of these vacancies; and iii) an increase in wages for ICT specialists.

26. Unfortunately, available statistics on job vacancies and on wages do not permit to address these

issues thoroughly. Official statistics on job vacancies and on wages are mostly available at the level of

industries, not occupations. More recently, information on the number and the duration of ICT vacancies

have been computed based on vacancies published on the Internet (online vacancies). While online

vacancies are useful to detect and measure trends in the labour market, they seem less appropriate to

measure labour shortages due to their limited coverage and low international comparability.

27. The approach of this analysis, therefore, is to compose a picture of the demand for ICT specialists

based on the different statistical sources available, each of which provides only a partial measurement of

the issue. Bearing in mind these limitations, the evidence presented in this section confirms that the

demand for ICT specialists is growing fast but it suggests that the potential shortage in ICT skills is limited

to a small number of countries.

http://www2.oecd.org/oecdinfo/info.aspx?app=OLIScoteEN&Ref=DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2014)5


8

28. The analysis is organised as follows. Section 3.1 provides new evidence on the demand for ICT

specialist skills at work by linking data from the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of

Adult Competencies (PIAAC) and the national Labour Force Surveys. Section 3.2 and Section 3.3 review

recent trends in, respectively, job vacancies and wages in the information industries while Section

3.4 examines trends in online vacancies for ICT occupations and their duration. The findings from

employers’ surveys are summarised in Section 3.5.

3.1. The demand for ICT specialist skills

29. The frequency at which PIAAC respondents “use programing languages”5 provides a measure of

the demand for ICT specialist skills. As indicated in Section 2 above, the answer to this question is not

included in the ICT intensity index, which aims to measure ICT generic skills. By associating an increasing

value to each frequency of use (Never = 0; Less than once a month= 1; Less than once a week but at least

once a month= 2; At least once a week but not every day = 3; Every day = 4), one can compute an index of

the ICT specialist intensity.

30. Figure 4 compares the average ICT specialist intensity across occupations by country, both

adjusted and unadjusted (see above for detail on the adjustment). Before adjustment, the index ranges

between 0.24 in Estonia and 0.71 in Korea. After adjustment, it ranges between 0.15 in Slovak Republic

and 0.44 in Korea. Unlike the ICT generic index, the ICT specialist index is less affected by the

adjustment. This is not surprising because the use of ICT specialist skills tend to be more concentrated in

occupations where experience with a computer is a basic requirement. The largest effects from the

adjustment can be observed in Korea, France, Spain and Poland.

Figure 4. ICT specialist intensity by country

Unweighted average across occupations


31. Table 2 shows the top-20 occupations with the highest adjusted ICT specialist-intensive index

across countries. Interestingly, 13 out of the top-20 occupations (shown in italics) are not commonly

classified as ICT occupations. They include university, higher and vocation education teachers (ISCO-08

5. Question g_q05g.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

ICT specialist intensity adjusted ICT specialist intensity


9

231 and 232); scientists, mathematicians, engineers and architects (211, 212, 213 and 216); physical,

engineering and process control technicians (311 and 313); administration, sales and marketing

professionals (242 and 243) as well as “Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers” (722) and

“Metal processing and finishing plant operators” (812).

Table 2. Top-20 ICT specialist-intensive occupations across countries

Proportion of countries where the occupation is among the top-20

Rank Occupation ISCO-08 Frequency

1 Information and communications technology operations and user support 351 100%

2 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 95%

3 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 95%

4 Information and communications technology service managers 133 89%

5 Database and network professionals 252 89%

6 Physical and earth science professionals 211 79%

7 Electrotechnology engineers 215 79%

8 University and higher education teachers 231 74%

9 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 63%

10 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 63%

11 Vocational education teachers 232 58%

12 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 58%

13 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 53%

14 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 53%

15 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 42%

16 Life science professionals 213 37%

17 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 37%

18 Administration professionals 242 32%

19 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 32%

20 Process control technicians 313 32%


32. Figure 5 shows the economy-wide index of ICT specialist-intensity in 2011 and 2014. The index

is computed by weighting the ICT specialist-intensity by occupation by the employment share of each

occupation. This economy-wide index is a measure of the total demand for ICT specialist skills at work in

a country.

33. Cross-country differences in the demand for ICT specialist skills are much narrower than for ICT

generic skills. In 2014, the ICT specialist index ranged between 0.54 in Korea and 0.14 in the Slovak

Republic and Ireland. The index was 0.37 in France, 0.33 in Denmark while it lies between 0.2 and 0.3 in

the remaining countries.

34. Over 2011-2014, ICT specialist intensity increased in all countries except the Slovak Republic (-

6.6%). On average, the index increased by 3.7%, more than the index of ICT generic skills (2.2%). The

largest increase in the ICT specialist index occurred in Norway (9.6%), Poland (9.3%) and the

Netherlands (7.6%).


10

Figure 5. Demand for ICT specialist skills by country

Economy-wide index of ICT specialist intensity

Note: 2011 refers to 2010 for Japan and 2008 for Korea.

Source: OECD, based on PIAAC and national Labour Force Surveys.

3.2. Job vacancies in the Information and Communication services: recent trends

35. Job vacancies rates are the most commonly used measure of unbalances between demand and

supply in the labour market. Vacancy rates for a given occupation are defined as the ratio of the number of

vacancies to the number of unfilled and filled positions, i.e.: vacancies plus employment, in that

occupation. An increase in the job vacancy rate indicates that demand for the skills required in a given

occupation is growing faster than its supply. If the required skills are available in the labour force, such an

imbalance would disappear over time as higher employment opportunities and higher wages attract people

from inactivity or from other occupations. On the contrary, an upward trend in vacancy rates signals that

the required skills are not available in the labour force, i.e.: a skill shortage.

36. While the above argument applies to IT occupations, official statistics only collects vacancy rates

for Information and Communication services (activity J in ISIC Rev. 4 and 51 in NAICS 2007). Their

coverage, therefore, is narrower than ICT occupations for two reasons. First, ICT industries,

i.e.: manufacturing and services, employ about a half of all ICT occupations [DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2013)6].

Second, official statistics do not include job vacancies in ICT manufacturing industries.

37. Data for this Section have been collected from many different sources. As primary data, official

figures published online by national statistics offices have been used, together with the database of the

International Labour Organization and Eurostat. Reports, articles and surveys about job vacancies,

contributed as secondary sources to give a comprehensive overview about the perceived ICT skills

shortage across member States. Data coverage spans from 2009 to 2014, with some exceptions for specific

countries for which data were available only for a limited period of time within this window.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

2014 2011



11

Figure 6. Average vacancy rates in ICT services (2009 -2014)

Annual average of quarterly rates

Notes: ISIC Rev.4, Sector J. The first year available is 2010 for Austria, Denmark and Norway; 2011 for Germany; 2012 for Belgium and 2013 for Spain.

Source: OECD, based on Eurostat, Job vacancy statistics, May 2015.

38. Figure 6 reports yearly vacancy rates in Information and Communication Services in 2014 and

2008 (or the earliest available year) in Europe. The Figure shows large cross-country differences in

vacancies rates. In 2014, ICT vacancy rates ranged between 4.2% in Belgium and 0.3% in Slovenia and

Latvia. Vacancy rates were above 3% in Netherlands and Norway, between 3 and 2% in Denmark,

Sweden, the United Kingdom, Austria, Germany Switzerland, Ireland, Portugal and Luxembourg, and

below in all other observed countries.

39. Changes over time show a mixed picture. In Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania,

Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Sweden ICT job vacancy rates grew significantly between 2009 and

2014. On the contrary, they decreased in Finland, Germany, Greece, and, to a lesser extent, in Austria,

Belgium, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia.

40. The observed differences in vacancies across countries and over time are likely to be related to

the business cycle (Figure 7). Vacancy rates in ICT services were at their peak in 2007, i.e.: before the

crisis, reached the bottom at the end of 2009, showed some recovery until early 2011 and, apart from

seasonal fluctuations, remained stable afterwards.

41. To control for the effects of the business cycle, Figure 8 plots the vacancy rates ratio between

ICT services and the total business sector (ISIC Rev. 4, B to S) in 2009 (or the earliest available year) and

2014. Job vacancy rates in ICT services tend to be much higher than in the total business sectors. In 2014,

the ratio between the two indicators exceeded 3.5 in Portugal and Poland, was no less than 2.5 in Ireland

and the Netherlands and above 2 in Luxembourg and Switzerland. However, vacancy rates in ICT services

were about the same as in the total business sector in the United Kingdom, Estonia and Finland and even

lower in Latvia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and the Slovak Republic. Therefore, the potential skills

shortage in ICT services seem to be limited to a few countries.

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

2014 2009


12

Figure 7. Job vacancy rates in ICT services in the European Union (2006-2014)

Quarterly

Note: ISIC Rev.4, Sector J.


42. The vacancy rate ratios grew in majority of countries for which data are available, with the

exception of the United Kingdom, Estonia, Finland, Czech Republic, Slovenia and Slovakia. Therefore, in

countries on the downturn of the cycle, vacancies rates decreased in ICT services less than in the rest of the

economy while the opposite occurred in countries on the upturn. The increase in ICT vacancy rates was

particularly large in Poland and the Netherlands.

Figure 8. Average vacancy rates in ICT services relative to the total business sector (2009-2014)

Annual average of quarterly rates

Notes: ISIC Rev.4, Sector J. The first year available for Austria and Norway is 2010.


1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

EA-18 EU-28**%

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

2014 2009


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3.3. Wages in ICT Services: recent trends

43. Labour shortages of specific skills should also result into an increase in real wages for the

occupations using these skills intensively. If ICT skills are scarce in the labour market, firms have to pay

higher real wages to attract workers with such skills.

44. Changes in real wages, however, are not always a good measure for skills shortage. On the one

hand, skill shortage may not translate immediately in higher wages due to adjustment lags, e.g.: collective

wage bargaining. On the other, wages may increase as a result of higher labour demand, e.g.: due to a

positive productivity shock. As a result, an increase in real wages may be regarded as a sign of skills

shortage only if i) it is persistent over time and ii) exceeds the increase in labour productivity6.

45. Figure 9 compares the average growth rates of wages – relative to average labour productivity –

in ICT services and the total business sector over 2000-2014. In one-third of the 24 countries for which

data are available, wages grew less in ICT services than in the total business sector; in another one-third,

wage growth was higher in ICT services but the difference was limited, i.e.: less than 1% a year. The wage

growth differential in favour of ICT services exceeded 2% a year only in the remaining third of countries,

particularly in Luxembourg (3.1%), Estonia (4.6%) and Lithuania (10.1%). These trends confirm that the

demand for ICT specialists is growing fast but they suggest that the potential shortage in ICT skills is

limited to a small number of countries, at least in Europe.

Figure 9. Changes in wages relative to labour productivity (2001-2014)

Annual averages

Source: OECD, based on Eurostat, Annual National Account, May 2015.

6. The relevant productivity measure is marginal labour productivity, which is not observable, while this

paper looks at average labour productivity, which is observable. These two productivity measures are

perfectly correlated only under specific production functions, e.g.: a Cobb-Douglas.

-4%

-2%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

ICT Total business


14

3.4. Trends in ICT occupations: evidence from online job vacancies

46. While official statistics on job vacancies are available at the level of industries, online vacancies

provide such information by occupation. In recent time, a number of private firms and a few National

Statistical Offices have started to collect and to analyse online job postings in order to compile statistics on

job vacancies. This section will rely mainly on proprietary data from Burning Glass (www.burning-

glass.com) and Jobfeed (www.jobfeed.com), two leading companies specialised in online vacancies.7

47. Online job vacancies have a big potential as a source of information on the characteristics of job

offers, job seekers and the duration of job postings. They are able to track labour market movements in real

time, providing high frequency data. Furthermore, they permit to analyse shifts in job profiles based on a

large range of job requirements on skills, education and experience.

48. For the purpose of this paper, however, online vacancies seem to have some shortcomings that

future development may be able to overcome. First, the total number of online vacancies tend to be

significantly lower (about 50%) than the number of vacancies from official sources8. Second, only a small

share of online vacancies can be classified by industry, preventing a closer comparison with official data.

Third, the classification of ICT occupation, which is a complex operation in itself, is not fully consistent

across countries. Finally, coverage is limited to a few countries.

49. The fact that the classification of online vacancies does not always match national and

international classifications of occupations, e.g. ISCO, US SOC, etc., makes it difficult to compute vacancy

rates. In what follows, vacancy rates have been calculated using the number of ICT specialists, defined

according to DSTI/ICCP/IIS(2013)6. As the numerator and the denominator are not defined in the same

way, this statistics should be regarded as a proxy of the actual vacancy rates.

50. Figure 10 shows the job vacancies for ICT occupations as a proportion of all vacancies over

2012-2015. In 2014, ICT job postings accounted for between 13% (United Kingdom) and 7% (France) of

all job postings. This share has decreased in Australia (-4 percentage points), New Zealand (-12), the

United Kingdom (-2) and the United States (-3) in 2012-2014; it has increased in France (1) and Germany

(2) as compared to 2012 while it has remained stable in the Netherlands. The first 5 months of 2015 show a

faster increase in ICT job postings, although this may reflect seasonality to some extent.

7. We would like to thank Burning Glass and Jobfeed for the use of their data sets. In particular, we would

like to thank Matt Sigelman, Davor Miskulin, Will Markow and Hal Bonella (Burning Glass); Jakub Zavrel

and Bauke Visser (Jobfeed).

8. Brown and Souto-Otero (2016) have compared vacancy rates data in the UK based on Burning Glass and

the labour force survey. Burning Glass rates are significantly higher for Professional occupations (11.5

percentage point) and Associate professional & technical (8.3) while they are lower for Elementary

occupations (-7.1) and Caring, leisure & other services (-5.3).

http://www.burning-glass.com/

http://www.burning-glass.com/

http://www.jobfeed.com/



15

Figure 10. ICT online job postings (2012-2015a)

As a percentage of all online postings

a 2015 refers to the period 01.01.2015-26.05.2015

Source: OECD, based on Burning Glass and Jobfeed.

51. Figure 11 shows the ICT online vacancy rates in 2013. ICT vacancies rates appear the highest in

the United Kingdom (20.1%) while they range between 4.7% in Australia and 10.2% in France.

Figure 11. Vacancies rates for ICT occupations- 2013

Annual average quarterly rates

Source: OECD, based on Burning Glass and Jobfeed

52. In the United States, ICT vacancy rates can be computed for a longer period (2010-2014) and

show an upward trend from 5.5% in 2010 to 7.3% in 2014.

53. As for Australia, the Australian Internet Vacancy Index computed by the Department of

Employment shows a strong downward trend in online vacancies for ICT professionals. The index fell in

the aftermath of the crisis and, despite a partial recovery in mid-2009, continued to decrease from 2010 on

(Figure 12).

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Australia Canada France Germany Netherlands New Zealand UnitedKingdom

United States

2012

2013

2014

2015

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

United Kingdom New Zealand France United States Netherlands Germany Australia


16

Figure 12. Online vacancies for ICT professionals in Australia (2007-2015)

Australian Internet Vacancy Index

Source: Department of Employment, Australia.

54. Vacancy duration, i.e.: the time it takes for the vacancy to be filled, provides a further indicator

of labour market unbalances. If ICT skills were scarcer than other skills, one would expect vacancy

duration to be higher for ICT occupations.

55. Online vacancies permits to measure the time that a given vacancy remained posted on the

Internet. However, the reasons for withdrawing a vacancy are unknown, i.e.: the vacancy may have been

filled or the firm cannot find a suitable candidate for that position. Although these two events are of

different nature, in both cases longer duration is associated to higher difficulty to fill a position.

56. Figure 13 shows the mean duration of ICT online vacancies in France, Germany and the

Netherlands over the period 2011-2014. In the Netherlands, the mean duration fell from 54.5 days in 2011

to 33.3 days in 2014. Between 2013 and 2014, the mean duration increased from 29.8 to 34 days in

Germany while it remained almost unchanged in France.


17

Figure 13. ICT vacancy duration

Median number of days

Source: OECD, based on Jobfeed.

3.5 Evidence from the employers’ surveys

57. Employers’ surveys provide complementary information about potential skills shortages. In the

European Union, the percentage of enterprises reporting hard-to-fill vacancies for ICT specialists has not

changed between 2102 to 2014, remaining stable around 3% (Figure 14). This share decreased or remained

stable in most EU countries and increased only in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia.

Figure 14. Enterprises that reported hard-to-fill vacancies for ICT specialists

As a percentage of all enterprises

Source: OECD, based on Eurostat Information Society Statistics, May 2015.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Netherlands Germany France

2011

2012

2013

2014

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

2014 2012


18

58. The Australian Government carried out a similar study in 2014. On average, employers found it

easy to recruit ICT professionals, with an increased competition among qualified candidates as compared

to previous years. Employers added that “there were few applicants with strong non-technical skills, like

business acumen, project management and problem solving” and “they noticed increased demand for

positions with emerging technologies (such as web-based applications)”. Some enterprises “suggested

there may be a potential skill gap for workers with web development, mobile applications and cloud

computing experience in the future”.

59. As for New Zealand, the Business Operations Survey (2014) reports that 39% of the respondents

did not have any difficulty to obtain computer skills from job applicants while only 6% of them did.9

60. Table 3 shows that “IT staff” are among the top 10 jobs that employers are having difficulty

filling, according to the Talent Shortage Survey carried out on over 40 countries worldwide

(ManpowerGroup, 2015). However, “IT staff” rank 9 out of 10, just above “Production/Machine

operators” and well behind “Skilled Trade Workers”, “Engineers”, “Sales Representatives”, “Technicians”

and “Accounting & Finance Staff”. Therefore, IT skills may be relative difficult to find but they do not

seem the main source of skills shortage for firms.

Table 3. Top 10 jobs that employers are having difficulty filling

Rank Job

1 Skilled Trade Workers

2 Sales Representatives

3 Engineers

4 Technicians

5 Drivers

6 Management/Executives

7 Accounting & Finance Staff

8 Secretaries, PAs, Administrative Assistants & Office Support Staff

9 IT Staff

10 Production/Machine operators

Source: Talent Shortage Survey (Manpower, 2015).

4. The demand for ICT complementary skills

61. The diffusion of ICT at the workplace is not only raising the demand for ICT specialist and

generic skills. It is also changing the way work is carried out and raising the demand for ICT

complementary skills. These are skills that are not related to the capability to use the technology effectively

but to carry out the work within the new environment shaped by ICTs, i.e.: a “technology-rich

environment”. For instance, higher frequency of information made available by ICTs calls for better

capability to plan in advance and to adjust quickly. More horizontal work organisations enabled by ICTs

call for more cooperation and stronger leadership. Wider diffusion of information among a larger number

of workers increases the importance of management and coordination. The sales skills required in face-to-

face commercial transaction are not the same as those involved in an anonymous e-commerce sale.

9. However, only 0.8% of surveyed businesses were in the Information sector. The remaining did not have

open vacancies or did not require computer skills.


19

62. An implication of the above trends is that the set of skills required to perform the tasks involved

in a certain occupation – the skills profile – are changing as a result of the diffusion of ICTs at work. While

there is a general awareness that the education curricula have to evolve to adjust to these changes, little is

known about what type of skills should become more important in the curricula. The aim of this section is

to start to identify the skills that are likely to become more important in a working and business

environment increasingly permeated by ICTs.

63. The analysis is organised as follow. Section 4.1 provides a brief overview of the recent economic

literature on ICTs and skills. Section 4.2 examines what tasks are most frequently associated in

occupations using ICTs more intensively, based on the PIAAC database. The findings of this Section,

which covers several countries in just one point in time, will be complemented in Section 4.3 by the

examination of changes in tasks and in ICT intensity over time, based on the O*NET survey carried out in

the United States.

4.1. ICT complementary skills: a brief review of the literature

64. A key finding of the large literature on innovation, productivity and growth is that effective use

of ICTs requires changes in the firm organisation. Given the existence of complementarities among

organizational practices, a range of organizational choices may have to be altered together for a particular

technological advance to improve efficiency (Garicano, 2010).

65. Organisational change at the firm level has implications on the tasks that workers have to

perform and the skills necessary to perform such tasks. Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson and Hitt (2002) provide

firm-level evidence that IT-enabled organisational increases demand for high-skill workers, thus

confirming the findings of earlier studies (Goldin and Katz 1999; Autor, Katz, and Krueger 1998). Caroli

and Van Reenen (2001) find that organisational change has a stronger impact on productivity in firms with

highly skilled workers, and that the complementarity between ICT and organisational innovation

disappears when skills are taken into account. Arvanitis (2005) and Bartel et al. (2007) find that firms

increase their demand for skilled workers when they invest in ICT. Pabilona and Zoghi (2013) provide

evidence for ICT and skills complementarities by looking at productivity growth and wage premia. Finally,

Hagsten and Sabadash (2014) present cross-country micro-level evidence from various European countries

supporting the view that higher education complements the usage of ICT in the production process.

66. A more recent line of research has examined the complementarity between ICTs and tasks (see

Autor, 2013 and 2014 for an overview). Levy and Murnane (1996) show that in the 1980’s and 1990’s

computers reduced the time bank clerks spent on routine tasks, e.g.: data transfer, data entry and

computations, while increasing the time they spent on more difficult tasks, e.g.: data rework, valuation,

communication, and analysis. Autor, Levy, and Murnane (2003) analyse data from the US Dictionary of

Occupational Titles (DOT), the ancestor of O*NET, to examine how tasks associated with different

occupations have changed over time. They argue that computers substitute for workers in carrying simple

cognitive and manual activities following explicit rules (“routine” tasks), while computers complement

workers in carrying out problem-solving and complex communication activities (“non-routine” tasks).

Non-routine tasks can either be associated to conceptual jobs, such as managerial and professional

positions, at the top end of the wage distribution, or manual jobs, such as manual services, at the bottom

end of the wage distribution.

67. A number of recent studies find evidence of declining demand for routine tasks in the United

States and in Europe (Autor et al., 2006 and 2008; Goos et al., 2011; Van Reenen, 2011; Autor and

Dorn, 2012; Hynninen et al., 2013; Michaels et al., 2013). Firpo, Fortin, and Lemieux (2011) find that

technological change and de-unionization played a central role in job polarisation in the 1980s and 1990s

but not in the following years.


20

68. Handel (2012) argues that there is no strong evidence of a general acceleration in skill upgrading

in OECD countries following the diffusion of ICTs. He finds no evidence of within-occupation skill

change in either the United States or the European countries in 1997-2009. Furthermore, his findings

suggest that, contrary to the “routinization” hypothesis, craft skills and the frequency of repetitive physical

tasks have declined over the same period.

69. On the basis of the German Qualification and Career Survey conducted over four waves, Spitz-

Oener (2006) shows that most of the changes in skill requirements over time resulted from changes in tasks

within occupations rather than in the occupational structure of employment. Her findings also underline

that the increased prevalence of computer use within occupations is associated with increases in analytical

and interactive task requirements.

70. Using the 1997, 2001 and 2006 British skills surveys which provide information on self-reported

job requirements, Green et al. (2007) show that computing skills have recently become more

complementary to an index of “influence skill” that they derive from the survey items on the importance of

persuading or influencing others, instructing, training, or teaching people, making speeches or

presentations, writing long reports, analysing complex problems in depth and planning the activities of

others.

71. The soundness of the task approach is still a matter of debate. Green (2012) questions the

assumptions in Autor, Levy, and Murnane (2003) and Spitz-Oener (2006) about the classification of tasks

into routine and non-routine and argues that this may affect their results. Autor (2013) himself discusses

the shortcomings of the current definitions of tasks, e.g.: overlap among tasks’ attributes, broad

classification schemes that collapse distinctions among attributes, etc. and raises “the concern that the

emerging task literature may be significantly inside the frontier of what is feasible in terms of precise

terminology and consistent measurement. Addressing these shortcomings should therefore be a high

priority on the research agenda”.

4.2. What skills are complementary to ICTs? Evidence from PIAAC

72. The PIAAC survey collects information on the frequency at which respondents:

1. Performs a set of tasks at work;

2. Carry out activities that involve the use of cognitive skills.

73. Tasks performed at work are organised in the following groups:

Cooperation:

Cooperating or collaboration with co-workers (question f_q01b)

Horizontal interaction:

Sharing work-related information with co-workers (f_q02a)

Instructing, training or teaching people, individually or in groups (f_q02b)

Making speeches or giving presentations in front of five or more people (f_q02c)

Client interaction:

Selling a product or a service (f_q02d)

Advising people (f_q02e)


21

Self-direction:

Planning of own activities (f_q03a)

Organising own time (f_q03c)

Managerial tasks:

Planning the activities of others (f_q03b)

Influence:

Persuading or influencing people (f_q04a)

Negotiating with people inside or outside the organisation (f_q04b)

Problem solving:

Problem solving in less than 5 minutes (f_q05a)

Thinking about a solution for a problem for at least 30 minutes (f_q05b)

Physical tasks:

Working physically (f_q06b)

Skilled manual tasks:

Using skill or accuracy with hands or fingers (f_q06c).

74. Individuals currently employed or unemployed for less than 12 months are asked how often they

perform the above tasks. For instance, the question “How often does your current/last job usually involve

sharing work-related information with co-workers” can be answered “Never”; “Less than once a month”;

“Less than once a week but at least once a month”; “At least once a week but not every day”; and “Every

day”.

75. While the answers to the above questions are not a measure of the skills required in an

occupation, the frequency at which the respondent performs certain tasks can be regarded as a proxy for

the skills that he/her is expected to have to carry out his/her work. These answers, however, do not provide

any measure of the level of skills held by the respondent. The survey, therefore, provides information on

the demand for certain skills at work, based on the self-assessment of workers.

76. Two assumptions underpin the use of this approach (PIAAC, 2011). First, it is assumed that the

individual is a well-informed person to report about the activities involved in the job he or she is doing. All

jobs differ, even within quite narrowly categorised occupations, and one would normally expect the job-

holder to know best. Nevertheless, this might not always be true, and where the job-holder has only been in

a post for a short time, the assumption might be questioned. In the case of out-of-work respondents, the

field trial has tested the reliability of respondents’ ability to recall the activities of their most recent job in

the previous months. No indications were found that there was a serious recall bias.

77. Second, it is assumed that the individual reports these activities in an unbiased way. This

assumption might also be questioned: individuals might talk up their jobs to boost their self-esteem.

However, it is held that they are less likely to do so when reporting their activities than reporting how good

they are in the performance of these activities. To minimise bias, the general principle is to ask respondents

to report actual behaviour, such as frequency of use and proportion of time spent on using different skills,

rather than often-used alternatives such as the importance of these skills for the job.


22

78. Activities that require the use of cognitive skills are grouped in three sets:10

Numeracy:

Calculate prices, costs or budgets; use or calculate fractions, decimals or percentages; use a

calculator - either hand-held or computer based; prepare charts, graphs or tables; use simple

algebra or formulas; use more advanced math or statistics, e.g.: such as calculus, complex

algebra, trigonometry or use of regression techniques;

Reading:

Directions or instructions; letters, memos or e-mails; articles in newspapers, magazines or

newsletters; articles in professional journals or scholarly publications; books; manuals or

reference materials; bills, invoices, bank statements or other financial statements; diagrams,

maps or schematics.

Writing:

Letters, memos or e-mails; articles for newspapers, magazines or newsletters; reports; fill in

forms.

79. Respondents are asked to report the frequency at which they carry out each of the above activities

at work. Possible answers to the above sets of questions are: 1. Never; 2. Less than once a month; 3. Less

than once a week but at least once a month; 4. At least once a week but not every day; and 5. Every day.

80. For each of these three groups of activities, non-missing answers have been combined into a

synthetic indicator, according to the same methodology used for the ICT index and discussed in Section

2.1. The resulting indexes are continuous variables, which should be interpreted as a measure of the

intensity of these activities at work. For instance, individuals with a higher level of the numeracy index

carry out more frequently activities that require the use numeracy skills.

81. In order to identify ICT complementary skills, correlation coefficients were computed between

the ICT intensity index (see Section 2.1) and: i) the frequency at which the above tasked are performed at

work; and ii) the value of the intensity indexes for numeracy, reading and writing at work. A positive

(negative) correlation between the ICT intensity index and a given task/activity means that an individual

using ICT more performs that task/activity more (less) often that an individual that does not use ICT. The

sign of the correlation, therefore, can be interpreted as a measure of the degree of complementarity

between ICT and other tasks/activities at work. In addition, the higher the value of the correlation

coefficients, the stronger the complementarity between ICT and these tasks/activities.

82. Figure 15 reports the average correlation coefficients between ICT and other tasks/activities

across all occupations and countries. On average, intensive use of ICT at work is associated with tasks that

require higher use of influence (Negotiating with people), problem solving (Thinking about a solution for

at least 30 minutes) and horizontal interactions (Giving presentations) as well as less physical work

(Working physically). Higher frequency of activities requiring numeracy, writing and reading skills is also

correlated to ICT, the highest correlation being with reading.

10. A fourth group is use of ICT, which was already discussed in Section 2.1.


23

Figure 15. Pairwise correlation between ICT intensity and tasks/activities frequency

Average across occupation and countries


-0.3

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me

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Cooperation Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Managerialskills

Influence Problem solving Physicalskills

Manual skills Cognitive skills at work


24

Figure 16. Pairwise correlations between ICT intensity and other task/activities frequency - by education

Average across countries


-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.10.00.10.20.30.40.50.6

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Cooperation Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Managerialskills

Influence Problem solving Physicalskills

Manual skills Cognitive skills at work

High education Medium education Low education


25

83. In Figure 16, the correlation coefficients between ICT and other tasks/activities are broken down

by three occupational groups: high, medium and low education. The groups are based on the

correspondence between the occupational classification (ISCO-08) and the educational classification

(ISCED-97), as illustrated in Annex C. Therefore, each occupational group reflects the typical educational

attainment of the individuals employed in the occupations within that group.

84. For most tasks, correlations to ICT tend to increase with the typical educational attainments of

the occupation. This implies that differences in the task set associated to the use of ICTs would be larger

for low-education occupations than for middle and high-education ones. In other words, the skill profile of

a worker in a high-education occupation is likely to change little with the use of ICT. On the contrary, the

skill profile of a worker in a low-education occupation would change more as the use of ICT at work

increases.

85. For low-education occupations, differences are particularly large for horizontal interactions

(Giving presentations and Training others), client interaction (Advising others), managerial skills (Planning

activities of others) as well as reading.

86. For medium-education occupations, differences in skills requirement are narrower than for low-

education and larger than for high-education ones. Exceptions include problem solving (Thinking about a

solution for at least 30 minutes) and influence (Negotiating with people), which have lower correlations

than for low-education occupations; physical work and skilled manual work, where correlations are

negative and, respectively, lower and higher than both low and high-education occupations. Use of ICT

seems also less correlated to numeracy skills for medium-education occupations than for the other two

educational levels.

87. The main difference for high-education occupations is only in some client interaction (Selling a

product or a service), where correlation with ICT is higher than for the other two educational levels.

88. Table 4 reports the average correlation coefficients between ICT and other tasks/activities by

major occupation (1-digit ISCO-08) across countries. For sake of simplicity, the three highest correlations

coefficients for each task/activity are highlighted.

89. The occupations where ICT use is likely to have the largest effects on the tasks profiles are

“Elementary occupations”, “Skilled agriculture, forestry and fishery workers”, “Plant and machinery

operators and assemblers”, “Clerical support workers” and “Craft and related trade workers”.

90. In “Elementary occupations”, ICT use is correlated to higher Horizontal interaction (Giving

presentations), Problem solving (all tasks), Self-direction (all tasks), Managerial tasks as well as to lower

Physical and Skilled manual work.

91. For “Skilled agriculture, forestry and fishery workers”, the correlation to ICT use is the highest

for Influence (all tasks), Client interaction (all tasks), Horizontal interaction (all tasks) and Problem

solving. “Plant and machinery operators and assemblers” follows a similar pattern but they show no

correlation to Problem solving and a positive correlation to Managerial tasks.

92. Higher ICT use among “Clerical support workers” is associated to higher frequency of

Collaboration, Horizontal interaction, Self-direction (all tasks) and Problem solving (all tasks). “Craft and

related trade workers” show a positive correlation between ICTs and Self-direction (all tasks), Managerial

tasks and Influence (all tasks) as well as a negative correlation to Physical and Skilled manual work.


26

93. Figure 17 reports the correlation coefficients between ICT intensity, on the one hand, and

numeracy, reading and writing intensity, on the other, by occupational groups and by country. While for

high-education occupations the correlation to numeracy is the highest in most countries (panel a), the

picture is less clear-cut for medium-education occupations (panel b). In over half of the countries, the

correlation is the highest to reading while in the others the highest correlation is to writing, e.g.: Austria,

Korea, the United States and the Czech Republic or to numeracy, e.g.: Germany, Finland and France. No

clear pattern emerges for low-education occupation (panel c). These figures suggest that the tasks content

of common occupation groups vary significantly across countries and that ICT complementary skills may

be country-specific to some extent.

94. Correlations between ICT intensity and all tasks by country and by occupation (1-digit ISCO-08)

are reported in Annex C.


27

Table 4. Pairwise correlations between ICT intensity and tasks/activities frequency - by occupation

ISCO-08 1 digit - Average across countries

Cooperation Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Managerial

tasks Influence Problem solving Physical skills

Skilled manual work

Cognitive skills at work

Collaboration Information

sharing Training others

Giving presentations

Selling a product or

service

Advising others

Planning of own activities

Organising own time

Planning activities of

others

Persuading people

Negotiating with people

Problem solving in less than 5 minutes

Thinking about a solution for at

least 30 min.

Working physically

Using skill or accuracy with

hands or fingers Numeracy Reading Writing

Managers -0.001 0.079 0.115 0.195 0.043 0.149 0.140 0.116 0.071 0.149 0.206 0.116 0.241 -0.212 -0.031 0.416 0.401 0.396

Professionals 0.049 0.098 -0.023 0.046 0.172 0.064 0.113 0.146 0.084 0.056 0.200 0.089 0.266 -0.216 -0.085 0.408 0.346 0.327

Technicians and associate professionals

-0.064 0.063 0.093 0.171 0.159 0.124 0.189 0.200 0.125 0.154 0.248 0.149 0.261 -0.250 -0.095 0.393 0.392 0.314

Clerical support workers

0.059 0.147 0.175 0.200 0.076 0.173 0.228 0.216 0.178 0.187 0.237 0.210 0.295 -0.151 -0.011 0.392 0.454 0.418

Service and sales workers

-0.013 0.056 0.168 0.210 0.089 0.138 0.180 0.172 0.201 0.167 0.272 0.172 0.279 -0.208 -0.049 0.363 0.464 0.407

Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers

0.199 0.132 0.275 0.313 0.244 0.295 0.112 0.195 0.188 0.259 0.311 0.190 0.231 -0.186 0.048 0.447 0.395 0.518

Craft and related trades workers

0.050 0.024 0.127 0.240 0.217 0.210 0.203 0.209 0.206 0.243 0.300 0.117 0.236 -0.224 -0.091 0.358 0.498 0.415

Plant and machine operators and assemblers

0.107 0.122 0.190 0.264 0.179 0.267 0.193 0.205 0.269 0.292 0.220 0.167 0.221 -0.118 0.032 0.375 0.473 0.405

Elementary occupations

0.036 0.115 0.246 0.296 0.065 0.261 0.239 0.238 0.247 0.227 0.266 0.187 0.295 -0.265 -0.101 0.426 0.499 0.410

Average 0.047 0.093 0.152 0.215 0.138 0.187 0.177 0.189 0.174 0.193 0.251 0.155 0.258 -0.203 -0.043 0.397 0.436 0.401

Variance*100 0.504 0.145 0.692 0.558 0.460 0.524 0.191 0.127 0.416 0.455 0.139 0.145 0.068 0.189 0.280 0.079 0.258 0.304



28

Figure 17. Pairwise correlation between ICT, numeracy, reading and writing

a) High-education occupations

b) Medium-education occupations

c) Low-education occupations


0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Numeracy Reading Writing

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6


-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8



29

4.2. What skills are complementary to ICTs? Evidence from O*NET

95. The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) is a project conducted by the US Department

of Labor since 1998. The latest revision of the O*NET database (July 2014) covers about 1100 occupations

defined on the basis of the US Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system. Every occupation

requires a different mix of knowledge, skills, and abilities, and is performed using a variety of activities

and tasks. These distinguishing characteristics of an occupation are described by the O*NET Content

Model, which defines the key features of an occupation as a standardized, measurable set of variables

called "descriptors". These descriptors are organised into six major domains:

Worker Characteristics;

Worker Requirements;

Experience Requirements;

Occupation-Specific Information;

Workforce Characteristics;

Occupational Requirements.

96. Each descriptor in O*NET is associated with a scale, e.g.: Importance, Level, and Extent of the

activity.

97. This section focuses on one descriptor “Generalised Work Activities” and one scale

“Importance”. “Generalized Work Activities” consists of 41 work activities that are common across a very

large number of occupations. They are performed in almost all job families and industries. The scale

“Importance” indicates the degree of importance a particular descriptor is to the occupation. The scale has

been standardized and ranges from 0 (Not Important) to 100 (Extremely Important).

98. The O*NET database was initially populated by data collected from occupation analysts; this

information is updated by ongoing surveys of each occupation's worker population and occupation experts.

This data is incorporated into new versions of the database on an annual schedule, to provide up-to-date

information on occupations as they evolve over time. To date, 940 occupations have been comprehensively

updated since the beginning of the survey in 1998. 509 of these occupations have more than one update.

99. By linking these updates over time, one can examine how the set of work activities involved in

each occupation have been changing. In particular, changes in the importance of the ICT use at work can

be correlated to changes in the importance of the other 40 work activities. ICT use is measured by the

importance of the work activity “Interacting with Computers.11

A positive (negative) correlation means that

in occupations where ICT has become more (less) important certain activities have also become more

(less) important. The sign of the correlation, therefore, can be interpreted as a measure of the degree of

complementarity between ICT and other activities at work. In addition, the higher the value of the

correlation coefficients, the stronger the complementarity between ICT and these activities.

100. Figure 18 shows the results of the correlation analysis. To facilitate the interpretation, activities

have been grouped in five groups according to the O*NET classification:

Information Input - Where and how are the information and data gained that are needed to

perform this job?

11. Variable 4.A.3.b.1 in the O*NET Data Dictionary.


30

Figure 18. Correlations between changes in the importance of ICT and changes in the importance of all work activities

Source: OECD, based on O*NET

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships

Performing for or Working Directly with the Public

Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates

Selling or Influencing Others

Training and Teaching Others

Communicating with Persons Outside Organization

Provide Consultation and Advice to Others

Resolving Conflicts and Negotiating with Others

Monitoring and Controlling Resources

Assisting and Caring for Others

Interpreting the Meaning of Information for Others

Performing Administrative Activities

Coordinating the Work and Activities of Others

Coaching and Developing Others

Guiding, Directing, and Motivating Subordinates

Developing and Building Teams

Staffing Organizational Units

Scheduling Work and Activities

Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work

Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge

Developing Objectives and Strategies

Thinking Creatively

Processing Information

Making Decisions and Solving Problems

Analyzing Data or Information

Evaluating Information to Determine Compliance with Standards

Judging the Qualities of Things, Services, or People

Repairing and Maintaining Mechanical Equipment

Drafting, Laying Out, and Specifying Technical Devices, Parts,…

Documenting/Recording Information

Repairing and Maintaining Electronic Equipment

Estimating the Quantifiable Characteristics of Products, Events,…

Identifying Objects, Actions, and Events

Getting Information

Monitor Processes, Materials, or Surroundings

Inspecting Equipment, Structures, or Material

Operating Vehicles, Mechanized Devices, or Equipment

Performing General Physical Activities

Controlling Machines and Processes

Handling and Moving Objects

Inte

ract

ing

wit

h O

the

rsM

en

tal P

roce

sse

s

Wo

rk O

utp

ut

(co

mp

lex,

tech

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al)

Info

rmat

ion

Inp

ut

Ww

ork

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tpu

t(p

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ical

,m

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31

Mental Processes - What processing, planning, problem-solving, decision-making, and

innovating activities are performed with job-relevant information?

Interacting with Others - What interactions with other persons or supervisory activities occur

while performing this job?

Work Output (complex, technical) - What skilled activities using coordinated movements are

done to perform this job?

Work Output (physical, manual) - What activities using the body and hands are done to perform

this job?

101. The strongest correlations are found between ICT and activities related to “Interacting with

Others”, in particular “Establishing and Maintaining Interpersonal Relationships” (correlation coefficient

equal to 0.6), “Performing for or Working Directly with the Public” (0.59), “Communicating with

Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates” (0.67) and “Selling or Influencing Others” (0.53).

102. “Mental Processes” are the second group of activities with the highest correlation to ICTs:

“Scheduling Work and Activities” (0.53), “Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work” (0.49) as well as

“Updating and Using Relevant Knowledge” and “Developing Objectives and Strategies” (0.48).

103. Interestingly, the correlation between ICT and the activity “Operating Vehicles, Mechanized

Devices, or Equipment” (0.46) is positive and higher than for any activity in the group “Information

Input”. The other activities in the group “Work output (physical, material)”, however, show the lowest

correlations to ICTs.

104. “Estimating the Quantifiable Characteristics of Products, Events, or Information” shows the

highest correlation (0.34) within the group “Information Input” while “Repairing and Maintaining

Mechanical Equipment” (0.33) and “Drafting, Laying Out, and Specifying Technical Devices, Parts, and

Equipment” show the highest correlation within the group “Work Output (complex, technical)”.

105. Figure 19 breaks down the above correlations by “job zones” defined by O*NET. The O*NET

“job zones” classify occupations into five categories according to the typical level of skills required by the

occupation, including work experience, education, and/or vocational training. Zone 1 denotes the lowest

level of preparation and Zone 5 the highest level.

106. Consistent with the findings in Figure 18, the highest correlations are found between ICTs and

activity group “Interacting with Others” and the lowest correlations between ICTs and “Work output

(physical, material)” as well as with “Information Input”. In addition, the correlations show a similar

ranking across different job zones, i.e.: skill levels. The one exception is job zone 1, i.e.: the lowest skill

level, where “Work Output (complex, technical)” and “Interacting with Others” are most equally correlated

to ICTs. This suggests that, for low-skill occupations, increasing use ICT is associated to an upgrade in the

skill content of the manual work.

107. Finally, the strength of the correlations tends to decrease with skill levels. This observation

confirms the finding of the previous section based on PIAAC data that that changes in the tasks set

associated to increasing use of ICTs tend to be larger for people in low-skill occupations than for those in

middle and high-skill occupation


32

Figure 19. Correlations between changes in the importance of ICTs and changes in the importance of the activity groups

By typical skill level of occupations (job zone)

Source: OECD, based on O*NET.

5. Conclusions and directions for further work

108. This paper has presented new evidence on how the use of ICTs at work is changing the demand

for skills. Three sets of ICT-related skills have been examined: generic skills, specialist skills and

complementary skills.

109. The demand for ICT generic skills, as measured by the PIAAC ICT intensity index at work, has

increased in a large majority of countries. On average, the index has increased by 3.1%, the largest increase

being in Poland (7.8%), France (6.8%), Norway (6.5%) and Estonia (5%). Yet, ICT intensity continues to

differ significantly across countries, ranging between 1.6 in the United States and Norway and 0.8 in

Poland and the Slovak Republic.

110. The demand for ICT specialists has been growing fast over the last years but the available

evidence on wage premia, vacancy rates and vacancy duration suggests that the potential shortage in ICT

skills is not very large and limited to a small number of countries. However, available statistics do not

permit to fully address these questions and the development of better measures – based on both official

statistics and online vacancies – is an important step for future work.

111. The diffusion of ICTs is also changing the way work is carried out, raising the demand for ICT

complementary skills. These are skills that are not related to the capability to use the technology effectively

but to carry out the work in the “technology-rich environment” environment shaped by ICTs.

112. The paper has shown a simple and replicable approach to identify work tasks complementary to

ICTs and measure the demand for skills required to perform such tasks. A major finding of the analysis is

that changes in the tasks set associated to increasing use of ICTs tend to be larger for people in low-skill

occupations than for those in middle and high-skill occupation. On average, intensive use of ICT at work is

associated with tasks that require more interaction with co-workers and clients, more problem solving as

well as less physical work.

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Work Output (physical, manual)

Information Input

Work Output (complex, technical)

Mental Processes

Interacting with Others

job zone 1 job zone 2 job zone 3 job zone 4 job zone 5


33

113. While the above results offer some new and interesting insights, there are various avenues for

further analysis. First, the analysis is based on single or predefined combinations of skills or tasks,

according to the setups of the original surveys. It is worthwhile to explore whether there is evidence in the

data that particular combinations of skills are often used together, for example by means of a principal

component analysis. Possibly such combinations may be different across different skill groups as well. The

ultimate interest would then be to see how these profiles of clusters of skills by skill group of workers

relate to ICT skills.

114. Another issue that the PIAAC data allows to explore is the potential distinction between ICT

tasks performed at work and the available ICT skills. The exploitation of the results of the direct

assessment carried out in PIAAC would provide useful evidence on the degree of the ICT skills shortage in

the workplace.

115. Finally, it is worth to complement the analysis with other national datasets that may collect a

richer set of information over time. The German IAB/BIBB dataset and the British Skills Survey, for

example, collect information on cross-sections of workers over one or two decades (Spitz-Oener, 2006;

Felstead et al. 2007). In addition, the Dutch Skills Survey (Ter Weel and Kok, 2013) has information on

the quality of the match between skills demand and supply, based on the workers’ self-assessment, as well

as on the whether the required skills have been acquired in formal education or ‘on the job’.


34

ANNEX A

Top-20 ICT-intensive occupations by country, adjusted and unadjusted

ICT intensity ICT intensity adjusted

Australia

ISCO ISCO

Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.95 Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.95

Administrative and commercial managers 12 2.93 Administrative and commercial managers 12 2.93

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 2.83 Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 2.83

Business and administration professionals 24 2.81 Business and administration professionals 24 2.78

Information and communications technicians 35 2.72 Information and communications technicians 35 2.72

Science and engineering professionals 21 2.62 Science and engineering professionals 21 2.60

Production and specialised services managers 13 2.54 Business and administration associate professionals 33 2.48

Business and administration associate professionals 33 2.53 Legal, social and cultural professionals 26 2.39

Legal, social and cultural professionals 26 2.48 Numerical and material recording clerks 43 2.36

Numerical and material recording clerks 43 2.39 Production and specialised services managers 13 2.30

Customer services clerks 42 2.32 General and keyboard clerks 41 2.12

Teaching professionals 23 2.21 Customer services clerks 42 2.11

Science and engineering associate professionals 31 2.19 Teaching professionals 23 2.06

Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 2.18 Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 1.97

General and keyboard clerks 41 2.16 Science and engineering associate professionals 31 1.94

Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 2.13 Health professionals 22 1.66

Other clerical support workers 44 1.92 Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 1.56

Protective services workers 54 1.82 Health associate professionals 32 1.49

Electrical and electronic trades workers 74 1.78 Protective services workers 54 1.49

Health associate professionals 32 1.77 Electrical and electronic trades workers 74 1.27

Austria

ISCO ISCO

Life science professionals 213 2.95 Veterinarians 225 2.92

Veterinarians 225 2.92 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.83

Business services and administration managers 121 2.86 Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 2.81

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.83 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.79

Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 2.81 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.74

Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.79 Business services and administration managers 121 2.74

Administration professionals 242 2.75 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.72

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.74Information and communications technology operations and

user support technicians351 2.70

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.72 Administration professionals 242 2.67

Information and communications technology operations and

user support technicians351 2.70 Database and network professionals 252 2.67

Database and network professionals 252 2.67 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.64

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.64 Life science professionals 213 2.62

Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 2.62 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.51

Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.61 Business services agents 333 2.51

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.51 Finance professionals 241 2.51

Business services agents 333 2.51 Keyboard operators 413 2.45

Finance professionals 241 2.51 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.41

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.47 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.39

Keyboard operators 413 2.45 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.36

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.36 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.36

Canada

ISCO ISCO

Forestry and related workers 621 4.11 Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.56

Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.56 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.11

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.17 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.09

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.09 Electrotechnology engineers 215 3.00

Managing directors and chief executives 112 3.01 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.94

Electrotechnology engineers 215 3.00 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.90

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.93 Business services and administration managers 121 2.88

Business services and administration managers 121 2.90 Database and network professionals 252 2.84

Database and network professionals 252 2.84 Finance professionals 241 2.76

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.78 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.75

Finance professionals 241 2.76 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.70

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.70 Professional services managers 134 2.64

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.68 Administration professionals 242 2.57

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.67 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.57

Professional services managers 134 2.66 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.55

Administration professionals 242 2.58 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.52

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.57 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.49

General office clerks 411 2.54 University and higher education teachers 231 2.44

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.52 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.43

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.51 Numerical clerks 431 2.43


35


Canada

ISCO ISCO

Forestry and related workers 621 4.11 Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.56


Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.17 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.09

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.09 Electrotechnology engineers 215 3.00


Electrotechnology engineers 215 3.00 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.90

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.93 Business services and administration managers 121 2.88

Business services and administration managers 121 2.90 Database and network professionals 252 2.84



Finance professionals 241 2.76 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.70


Legislators and senior officials 111 2.68 Administration professionals 242 2.57

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.67 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.57


Administration professionals 242 2.58 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.52

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.57 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.49

General office clerks 411 2.54 University and higher education teachers 231 2.44

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.52 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.43

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.51 Numerical clerks 431 2.43

Czech Republic

ISCO ISCO

Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.99 Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.99

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 3.97 Social and religious professionals 263 3.79

Social and religious professionals 263 3.79 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 3.72

Paramedical practitioners 224 3.72 Paramedical practitioners 224 3.72

Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.29 Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.29

Professional services managers 134 3.26 Professional services managers 134 3.26

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.12 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.08

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.00 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.00






Business services and administration managers 121 2.83 Business services and administration managers 121 2.83

Traditional and complementary medicine associate professionals 323 2.82 Traditional and complementary medicine associate professionals 323 2.82

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.77 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.77

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.65 Finance professionals 241 2.64

Finance professionals 241 2.64 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.61

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.61 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.56

Food processing and related trades workers 751 2.58 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.54

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.54 Administration professionals 242 2.49

Administration professionals 242 2.49 Secretaries (general) 412 2.45

Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.48 General office clerks 411 2.41

Denmark

ISCO ISCO

Street vendors (excluding food) 952 5.12 Information and communications technology service managers 133 4.22

Information and communications technology service managers 133 4.22 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.25

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 3.53 Database and network professionals 252 3.04

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.25 Finance professionals 241 3.04

Database and network professionals 252 3.18Information and communications technology operations and


Finance professionals 241 3.04 Librarians, archivists and curators 262 3.01


user support technicians351 3.01 Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 2.99

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 3.01 Veterinarians 225 2.97

Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 2.99 Business services and administration managers 121 2.96

Veterinarians 225 2.97 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.93

Business services and administration managers 121 2.96 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.92

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.94 Process control technicians 313 2.91

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.93 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.91

Process control technicians 313 2.91 Street and market salespersons 521 2.86

Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.91 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.81

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.88 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.77

Street and market salespersons 521 2.86 Professional services managers 134 2.77

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.81 Administration professionals 242 2.75

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.79 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.73

Professional services managers 134 2.77 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.72


36


Estonia

ISCO ISCO

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.57 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.57



Sports and fitness workers 342 3.06 Administration professionals 242 2.99


Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.00 Professional services managers 134 2.95

Administration professionals 242 2.99 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.94

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.99 Sports and fitness workers 342 2.91

Business services and administration managers 121 2.95 Legal professionals 261 2.88

Legal professionals 261 2.88 Business services and administration managers 121 2.88

Numerical clerks 431 2.77 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.72

Other services managers 143 2.76 Other services managers 143 2.66

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.74 Numerical clerks 431 2.64

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.72 Database and network professionals 252 2.64

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.68 Finance professionals 241 2.62

Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.66 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.56

Database and network professionals 252 2.64 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.56

Finance professionals 241 2.62 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.55

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.61 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.53

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.55Information and communications technology operations and


Finland

ISCO ISCO

Information and communications technicians 35 2.85 Information and communications technicians 35 2.85

Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.74 Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.74

Administrative and commercial managers 12 2.71 Administrative and commercial managers 12 2.71

Business and administration professionals 24 2.60 Business and administration professionals 24 2.59

Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 2.59 Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 2.57

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 2.57 Production and specialised services managers 13 2.53

Production and specialised services managers 13 2.53 Science and engineering professionals 21 2.46

Science and engineering professionals 21 2.49 Business and administration associate professionals 33 2.30

Business and administration associate professionals 33 2.33 Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 2.26

Customer services clerks 42 2.21 Customer services clerks 42 2.17

Science and engineering associate professionals 31 2.12 General and keyboard clerks 41 2.10

General and keyboard clerks 41 2.12 Science and engineering associate professionals 31 2.10

Numerical and material recording clerks 43 2.10 Numerical and material recording clerks 43 2.07

Legal, social and cultural professionals 26 2.03 Teaching professionals 23 1.94

Teaching professionals 23 1.99 Legal, social and cultural professionals 26 1.92

Health professionals 22 1.88 Health professionals 22 1.88

Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 1.79 Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 1.55

Other clerical support workers 44 1.73 Health associate professionals 32 1.47

Sales workers 52 1.67 Protective services workers 54 1.39

Protective services workers 54 1.66 Sales workers 52 1.33

France

ISCO ISCO


Life science professionals 213 2.82Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 2.77 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.76

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.76 Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 2.67

Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 2.67 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.65

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.67 Administration professionals 242 2.63

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.65 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.61

Administration professionals 242 2.63 University and higher education teachers 231 2.57

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.61 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.55

Other personal services workers 516 2.58 Business services and administration managers 121 2.49

University and higher education teachers 231 2.57 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.49

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.55 Life science professionals 213 2.46

Business services and administration managers 121 2.49 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.46

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.46 Finance professionals 241 2.44

Finance professionals 241 2.44 Database and network professionals 252 2.40

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.43 Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.37

Database and network professionals 252 2.40 Professional services managers 134 2.37

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.37 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.29

Professional services managers 134 2.37 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.27

Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.34 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.18


37


Germany

ISCO ISCO

Car, van and motorcycle drivers 832 3.93 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.99

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.99 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.85

Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.85 Database and network professionals 252 2.83


Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.59 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.52

Finance professionals 241 2.57 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.51

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.52Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 2.50 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.48

Professional services managers 134 2.48 Business services and administration managers 121 2.48

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.48 University and higher education teachers 231 2.45

Business services and administration managers 121 2.48 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.44

University and higher education teachers 231 2.45 Administration professionals 242 2.43

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.44 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.39

Administration professionals 242 2.43 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.38

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.39 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.37

Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.38 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.36

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.37 Professional services managers 134 2.35

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.37 General office clerks 411 2.27

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.36 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.27

General office clerks 411 2.35 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.24

Ireland

ISCO ISCO




Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 3.44 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 3.33

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 3.42 Vocational education teachers 232 3.16

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 3.33 Business services and administration managers 121 3.14

Vocational education teachers 232 3.16Information and communications technology operations and


Business services and administration managers 121 3.14 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.95


user support technicians351 3.05 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.95

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.02 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.89

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.96 Finance professionals 241 2.84

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.95 Administration professionals 242 2.69

Administration professionals 242 2.87 Life science professionals 213 2.66

Building finishers and related trades workers 712 2.86 Business services agents 333 2.66

Finance professionals 241 2.84 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.55

Life science professionals 213 2.66 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.52

Business services agents 333 2.66 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 2.51

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 2.65 General office clerks 411 2.41

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.56 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.37

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.55 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.37

Italy

ISCO ISCO


Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.53 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 3.43

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 3.49 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.39

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.39 Administration professionals 242 3.15

Finance professionals 241 3.17 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.14

Administration professionals 242 3.15 Finance professionals 241 3.10

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.14 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.93

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.99 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.91

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.94 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.85

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.92Information and communications technology operations and


Vocational education teachers 232 2.89 Business services agents 333 2.74

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.85 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.71



Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.80 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.63

Business services agents 333 2.74 Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 2.62

Creative and performing artists 265 2.70 Business services and administration managers 121 2.61

Database and network professionals 252 2.69 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.49

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.63 Legal professionals 261 2.48

Veterinarians 225 2.62 Other services managers 143 2.41

Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 2.62 Vocational education teachers 232 2.40


38

Japan

ISCO ISCO




Life science professionals 213 2.68 Life science professionals 213 2.68

Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.53 University and higher education teachers 231 2.52

University and higher education teachers 231 2.52 Administration professionals 242 2.51

Administration professionals 242 2.51 Other services managers 143 2.50

Other services managers 143 2.50 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.49

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.49Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 2.47 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.46

Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 2.47 Legal professionals 261 2.42

Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.46 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.39

Legal professionals 261 2.42 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.38

Business services and administration managers 121 2.40 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.31

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.38 Business services and administration managers 121 2.27

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.38 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 2.24

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.31 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.23

Professional services managers 134 2.27 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.23

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 2.24 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.22

Medical doctors 221 2.24 Database and network professionals 252 2.22

Korea

ISCO ISCO


Database and network professionals 252 4.00 Database and network professionals 252 4.00





Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 3.67 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.53

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 3.53 Finance professionals 241 3.42

Finance professionals 241 3.42 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.37

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.37 Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.16


Managing directors and chief executives 112 3.23 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.87

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 3.20 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.84

Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.16 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.80

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.88 Numerical clerks 431 2.73

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.87 Veterinarians 225 2.73

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.84 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.73

Numerical clerks 431 2.80 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.72

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.73 Administration professionals 242 2.62

Veterinarians 225 2.73 General office clerks 411 2.62

General office clerks 411 2.73 Secondary education teachers 233 2.61

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.73 Professional services managers 134 2.59

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.72 Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 2.57

Netherlands

ISCO ISCO

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 3.11 Database and network professionals 252 3.08

Database and network professionals 252 3.08 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.99

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.99 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.94

Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.94 Business services and administration managers 121 2.82

Business services and administration managers 121 2.82 Finance professionals 241 2.81

Finance professionals 241 2.81 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.70

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.70 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.70

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.70 Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.69

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.69 Administration professionals 242 2.61

Administration professionals 242 2.61 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.60

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.60Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 2.59 Life science professionals 213 2.51

Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.56 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.49

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.54 Business services agents 333 2.49

Business services agents 333 2.53 Other services managers 143 2.48

Life science professionals 213 2.51 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.46


Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.49 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.42


Other services managers 143 2.48 Numerical clerks 431 2.37


39

Norway

ISCO ISCO



Sports and fitness workers 342 3.03 Finance professionals 241 2.99

Finance professionals 241 2.99 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.93

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.93 Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.93

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 2.93 Professional services managers 134 2.88

Professional services managers 134 2.88 Business services and administration managers 121 2.87

Business services and administration managers 121 2.87 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.83

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.83 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.83

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.83 Life science professionals 213 2.82

Life science professionals 213 2.82 Administration professionals 242 2.76

Administration professionals 242 2.76 Business services agents 333 2.75

Business services agents 333 2.75 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.75

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.75 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.73

Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.74Information and communications technology operations and


Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.73 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.68


user support technicians351 2.71 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.64

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.68 Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 2.61

Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 2.61 University and higher education teachers 231 2.61

University and higher education teachers 231 2.61 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.59

Poland

ISCO ISCO

Street and related service workers 951 3.36 Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.10

Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.10 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.98

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.98Information and communications technology operations and


Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.92 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.86


user support technicians351 2.90 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.72

Locomotive engine drivers and related workers 831 2.86 Business services agents 333 2.67

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.86 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.64

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.76 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.62

Business services agents 333 2.67 Administration professionals 242 2.56


Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.62 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.51

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.62 Business services and administration managers 121 2.42

Administration professionals 242 2.56 Professional services managers 134 2.41



Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.51 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.33

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.51 Numerical clerks 431 2.31

Business services and administration managers 121 2.49 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.31

Other health associate professionals 325 2.48 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.29

Finance professionals 241 2.48 Life science professionals 213 2.27

Slovak Republic

ISCO ISCO

Vehicle, window, laundry and other hand cleaning workers 912 4.31 Veterinarians 225 3.37

Veterinarians 225 3.37 Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.15

Physical and earth science professionals 211 3.15 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.11

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.11Information and communications technology operations and




user support technicians351 2.90 Secretaries (general) 412 2.76

Secretaries (general) 412 2.76 Database and network professionals 252 2.74

Database and network professionals 252 2.74 Legislators and senior officials 111 2.71

Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.72 Administration professionals 242 2.67

Other sales workers 524 2.72 University and higher education teachers 231 2.67

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.71 Social and religious professionals 263 2.64

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.71 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.62

Social and religious professionals 263 2.70 Finance professionals 241 2.59

Administration professionals 242 2.67 Business services and administration managers 121 2.57

University and higher education teachers 231 2.67 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.56

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.64 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.53

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.62 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.45

Business services and administration managers 121 2.62 Business services agents 333 2.44

Creative and performing artists 265 2.61 Keyboard operators 413 2.44

Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 2.59 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.41


40

Spain

ISCO ISCO

Handicraft workers 731 4.24 Business services and administration managers 121 3.85

Business services and administration managers 121 3.85 Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.29

Information and communications technology service managers 133 3.29Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 3.29 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.27

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.27 Finance professionals 241 2.95

Finance professionals 241 2.95 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.79

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.94 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.76

Artistic, cultural and culinary associate professionals 343 2.84 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 2.73

Legislators and senior officials 111 2.79 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.71

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.79 Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 2.57

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.76 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.52

Other services managers 143 2.76 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.51

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.71 Database and network professionals 252 2.50


Life science professionals 213 2.62 Professional services managers 134 2.49


Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 2.57 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 2.42

Other personal services workers 516 2.56 University and higher education teachers 231 2.42

Numerical clerks 431 2.53 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.41

Other craft and related workers 754 2.52 Administration professionals 242 2.36

Sweden

ISCO ISCO


Database and network professionals 252 3.03 Database and network professionals 252 3.03


Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.80 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.80

Finance professionals 241 2.77 Finance professionals 241 2.77

Secretaries (general) 412 2.73 Secretaries (general) 412 2.73

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.63 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.63

Keyboard operators 413 2.62 Keyboard operators 413 2.62


Business services and administration managers 121 2.60 Business services and administration managers 121 2.60





Administration professionals 242 2.53 Administration professionals 242 2.53

Business services agents 333 2.51 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.51

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.51 Other services managers 143 2.49

Other services managers 143 2.49Information and communications technology operations and



user support technicians351 2.47 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.45

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.45 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.43

England/N. Ireland (UK)

ISCO ISCO



Process control technicians 313 3.18 Process control technicians 313 3.18





Printing trades workers 732 3.07 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.06

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 3.06 Business services and administration managers 121 2.99

Business services and administration managers 121 2.99 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.97

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 2.97 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.88

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.88 Administration professionals 242 2.86

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.87 Finance professionals 241 2.79

Administration professionals 242 2.86 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.78

Finance professionals 241 2.80 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.74

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 2.78 Database and network professionals 252 2.71

Database and network professionals 252 2.71 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.67


Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.67 Life science professionals 213 2.50

Artistic, cultural and culinary associate professionals 343 2.66 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.48

Other services managers 143 2.66 Artistic, cultural and culinary associate professionals 343 2.47

Business services agents 333 2.62 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.45

Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 2.53 Other services managers 143 2.45


41

Note: Australia and Finland available at 2-digit level only.


United States

ISCO ISCO





Managing directors and chief executives 112 3.08Information and communications technology operations and




Database and network professionals 252 3.04 Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.92

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.97 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.91

Electrotechnology engineers 215 2.92 Professional services managers 134 2.91

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.91 Ships' deck crews and related workers 835 2.91

Professional services managers 134 2.91 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 2.85

Ships' deck crews and related workers 835 2.91 Business services and administration managers 121 2.81

Business services and administration managers 121 2.86 Managing directors and chief executives 112 2.80

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.71 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 2.71


Administration professionals 242 2.69 Administration professionals 242 2.69

Finance professionals 241 2.68 Finance professionals 241 2.68

Vocational education teachers 232 2.67 Vocational education teachers 232 2.67

Business services agents 333 2.66 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 2.58

Secretaries (general) 412 2.60 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 2.54


42

ANNEX B

Top-20 ICT specialist-intensive occupations by country, adjusted

ICT specialist intensity adjusted

Australia Austria

ISCO index ISCO index

Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.74 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.97

Information and communications technicians 35 1.91 Database and network professionals 252 1.86

Science and engineering professionals 21 0.70Information and communications technology operations and user

support technicians351 1.86

Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 0.36 University and higher education teachers 231 1.85

Administrative and commercial managers 12 0.35 Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.20

Production and specialised services managers 13 0.34 Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.18

General and keyboard clerks 41 0.32 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 1.00

Science and engineering associate professionals 31 0.32 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.83

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 0.28 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.76

Business and administration professionals 24 0.28 Information and communications technology service managers 133 0.72

Electrical and electronic trades workers 74 0.28 Handicraft workers 731 0.72

Customer services clerks 42 0.25 Process control technicians 313 0.63

Business and administration associate professionals 33 0.25 Vocational education teachers 232 0.62

Teaching professionals 23 0.23 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.60

Metal, machinery and related trades workers 72 0.22 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.59

Legal, social and cultural professionals 26 0.17 Keyboard operators 413 0.57

Numerical and material recording clerks 43 0.14 Other services managers 143 0.55

Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 0.14 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.46

Sales workers 52 0.11 Electrical equipment installers and repairers 741 0.43

Drivers and mobile plant operators 83 0.10 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 0.42

Canada Czech Republic



Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.31 Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.84

Database and network professionals 252 2.04 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 1.83

Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.41Information and communications technology operations and user


Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.00 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 1.58

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 1.00 Other health associate professionals 325 1.27

University and higher education teachers 231 0.94 Database and network professionals 252 1.00

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.84 Legislators and senior officials 111 0.98

Handicraft workers 731 0.81 Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.81

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 0.68 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.64

Information and communications technology operations and user support

technicians351 0.67 Secondary education teachers 233 0.62

Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.63 University and higher education teachers 231 0.61

Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.60 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.57

Chemical and photographic products plant and machine operators 813 0.52 Creative and performing artists 265 0.57

Sales, marketing and development managers 122 0.52 Life science professionals 213 0.56

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.43 Other services managers 143 0.51

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.43 Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 0.48

Managing directors and chief executives 112 0.38 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.48

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 0.37 Social and religious professionals 263 0.47

Administration professionals 242 0.35 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 0.43


43


Denmark Estonia


Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 3.19 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.84



technicians351 1.97 Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.47

Keyboard operators 413 1.95 Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.39

Database and network professionals 252 1.61Information and communications technology operations and user


Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 1.51 Electrotechnology engineers 215 0.90

Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.46 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 0.89

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 1.30 Process control technicians 313 0.58

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 1.22 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.57

Handicraft workers 731 1.13 University and higher education teachers 231 0.47

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 1.09 Life science professionals 213 0.45

Process control technicians 313 1.00 Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries 131 0.38

Street and market salespersons 521 1.00 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 0.34

University and higher education teachers 231 0.99 Hotel and restaurant managers 141 0.31

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 0.80 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.31

Vocational education teachers 232 0.73 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.28

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.71 Sports and fitness workers 342 0.27

Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 0.71 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 0.27

Regulatory government associate professionals 335 0.69 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.26

Hotel and restaurant managers 141 0.63 Handicraft workers 731 0.26

Finland France


Information and communications technology professionals 25 2.19 Keyboard operators 413 4.00

Information and communications technicians 35 1.81 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.20

Science and engineering professionals 21 0.84 Database and network professionals 252 2.92

Production and specialised services managers 13 0.48Information and communications technology operations and user


Science and engineering associate professionals 31 0.44 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.14

Business and administration professionals 24 0.42 Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.54

Electrical and electronic trades workers 74 0.40 Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.32

Hospitality, retail and other services managers 14 0.36 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 1.29

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 11 0.33 Wood processing and papermaking plant operators 817 1.15

Metal, machinery and related trades workers 72 0.32 Rubber, plastic and paper products machine operators 814 1.07

Customer services clerks 42 0.27 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.97

Teaching professionals 23 0.25 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 0.95

Business and administration associate professionals 33 0.23 University and higher education teachers 231 0.92

General and keyboard clerks 41 0.23 Locomotive engine drivers and related workers 831 0.85

Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals 34 0.22 Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 421 0.78

Other clerical support workers 44 0.22 Medical and pharmaceutical technicians 321 0.76

Assemblers 82 0.21 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 0.73

Numerical and material recording clerks 43 0.19 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.70

Stationary plant and machine operators 81 0.18 Creative and performing artists 265 0.70

Handicraft and printing workers 73 0.17 Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 0.65

Germany Ireland


Software and applications developers and analysts 251 3.42 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 1.31

Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.79 Street and market salespersons 521 1.30


technicians351 1.99

Information and communications technology operations and user



Database and network professionals 252 1.81 Printing trades workers 732 0.97

University and higher education teachers 231 1.63 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.96

Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 1.39 Vocational education teachers 232 0.91

Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.23 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.64

Vocational education teachers 232 0.97 Business services and administration managers 121 0.61

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.84 Business services agents 333 0.61

Printing trades workers 732 0.84 Life science professionals 213 0.55

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.75 Electrotechnology engineers 215 0.52

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.67 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 0.49

Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 0.60 General office clerks 411 0.45

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.59 Managing directors and chief executives 112 0.41

Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.55 Medical doctors 221 0.40

Keyboard operators 413 0.51 Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 0.40

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.50 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 0.39

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 0.45 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.36

Other craft and related workers 754 0.43 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.32


44


Italy Japan




technicians351 1.69 Database and network professionals 252 2.27

Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.38 Legislators and senior officials 111 1.79

Database and network professionals 252 1.27 Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.68

Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.12Information and communications technology operations and user


Process control technicians 313 1.10 Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 1.47

Printing trades workers 732 1.04 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 1.09

Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 1.00 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.94

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 0.85 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.91

Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 0.79 University and higher education teachers 231 0.76

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.71 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 0.71

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 0.65 Creative and performing artists 265 0.65

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.56 Secretaries (general) 412 0.64

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 0.47 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 0.57

Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.46 Life science professionals 213 0.56

Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 421 0.46 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 0.53

Administration professionals 242 0.44 Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 0.52

Vocational education teachers 232 0.41 Printing trades workers 732 0.48

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 0.40 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 0.46

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.38 Retail and wholesale trade managers 142 0.43

Korea Netherlands


Traditional and complementary medicine professionals 223 4.00 Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.80


Other craft and related workers 754 3.37 Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.92


technicians351 2.01 Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.65

Database and network professionals 252 1.97 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 1.23

Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.90 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 1.23

Veterinarians 225 1.84 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 1.22

Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.84 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 0.97

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 1.67Information and communications technology operations and user


Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 1.34 Life science professionals 213 0.95

Financial and mathematical associate professionals 331 1.29 Artistic, cultural and culinary associate professionals 343 0.91

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 1.28 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.76

Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.19 Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 752 0.70

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 1.14 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.60

Authors, journalists and linguists 264 1.12 Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 0.59

Vocational education teachers 232 1.12 Medical and pharmaceutical technicians 321 0.46

Legal, social and religious associate professionals 341 1.07 Process control technicians 313 0.44

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 1.00 Librarians, archivists and curators 262 0.42

Professional services managers 134 0.99 Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 0.41

General office clerks 411 0.99 Administration professionals 242 0.41

Norway Poland


Electrotechnology engineers 215 3.00 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 4.00


Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 1.89 Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.35

Life science professionals 213 1.81 Database and network professionals 252 2.10


technicians351 1.39 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.00

Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.35Information and communications technology operations and user


Legislators and senior officials 111 0.86 Vocational education teachers 232 0.94

Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.84 Other craft and related workers 754 0.91

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.72 Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution managers 132 0.68

Chemical and photographic products plant and machine operators 813 0.69 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.66

Business services agents 333 0.63 University and higher education teachers 231 0.57

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.61 Business services agents 333 0.56

University and higher education teachers 231 0.60 Finance professionals 241 0.53

Librarians, archivists and curators 262 0.60 Client information workers 422 0.49

Vocational education teachers 232 0.55 Authors, journalists and linguists 264 0.44

Regulatory government associate professionals 335 0.54 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.44

Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.53 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 0.39

Client information workers 422 0.45 Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 0.39

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.42 General office clerks 411 0.38

Electrical equipment installers and repairers 741 0.40 Keyboard operators 413 0.37


45

Note: Australia and Finland available at 2-digit level only.



Slovak Republic Spain




technicians351 2.09 Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 2.54

Database and network professionals 252 1.80Information and communications technology operations and user


Administration professionals 242 1.32 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 2.10

Information and communications technology service managers 133 0.96 Physical and earth science professionals 211 2.00


Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.89 Database and network professionals 252 1.44

Secondary education teachers 233 0.80 Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.00

University and higher education teachers 231 0.71 Handicraft workers 731 0.89

Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.56 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.83

Administrative and specialised secretaries 334 0.49 Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 0.82

Vocational education teachers 232 0.46 University and higher education teachers 231 0.71

Mining, manufacturing and construction supervisors 312 0.46 Finance professionals 241 0.69

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 0.45 Metal processing and finishing plant operators 812 0.67

Legislators and senior officials 111 0.41 Printing trades workers 732 0.62

Managing directors and chief executives 112 0.39 Other craft and related workers 754 0.59

Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 421 0.37 Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 421 0.52

Sales and purchasing agents and brokers 332 0.34 Travel attendants, conductors and guides 511 0.49

Legal professionals 261 0.31 Other services managers 143 0.45

Keyboard operators 413 0.29 Other personal services workers 516 0.44

Sweden England/N. Ireland (UK)



Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.84Information and communications technology operations and user


Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.50 Database and network professionals 252 1.89


technicians351 1.44 Information and communications technology service managers 133 1.36

Mathematicians, actuaries and statisticians 212 1.28 Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 1.32

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 1.08 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 1.23

Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.88 Physical and earth science professionals 211 1.08

Handicraft workers 731 0.79 Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.88

Life science professionals 213 0.74 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.84

University and higher education teachers 231 0.70 Life science technicians and related associate professionals 314 0.61

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.70 Process control technicians 313 0.59

Vocational education teachers 232 0.66 Administration professionals 242 0.57

Database and network professionals 252 0.64 Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.48

Other services managers 143 0.59 Business services and administration managers 121 0.46

Architects, planners, surveyors and designers 216 0.54 Medical and pharmaceutical technicians 321 0.46

Sales, marketing and public relations professionals 243 0.50 Other sales workers 524 0.46

Electrical equipment installers and repairers 741 0.49 Sales, marketing and development managers 122 0.45

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 0.48 Textile, fur and leather products machine operators 815 0.43

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.46 Ship and aircraft controllers and technicians 315 0.42

Chemical and photographic products plant and machine operators 813 0.44 Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.41

United States

ISCO index

Software and applications developers and analysts 251 2.57

Information and communications technology service managers 133 2.28

Database and network professionals 252 2.13Information and communications technology operations and user support

technicians351 1.98

Electrotechnology engineers 215 1.69

Telecommunications and broadcasting technicians 352 1.34

Physical and engineering science technicians 311 1.11

Vocational education teachers 232 0.99

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology) 214 0.75

Physical and earth science professionals 211 0.64

Electrical equipment installers and repairers 741 0.64

Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 722 0.64

Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 421 0.62

Other services managers 143 0.60

Administration professionals 242 0.52

Business services and administration managers 121 0.52

Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers 742 0.49

University and higher education teachers 231 0.48

Locomotive engine drivers and related workers 831 0.48

Finance professionals 241 0.47


46

ANNEX C

Table C1. Correspondence between ISCO-08 and ISCED-97 categories

ISCO-08 code ISCO-08 label ISCED-97 code Educational attainment level

1 Managers 5-6 High

2 Professionals 5A/6 High

3 Technicians and associate professionals 5B High

4 Clerical support workers 2-4 Medium

5 Service and sales workers 2-4 Medium

6 Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers 2-4 Medium

7 Craft and related trades workers 2-4 Medium

8 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 2-4 Medium

9 Elementary occupations 1 Low


47

Table C2. PIAAC-based PAIRWISE correlation tables at the 1-digit ISCO groups

The colour coding reflects the significance of the coefficients.

CooperationManagerial

skills

Physical

skills (stama)Manual skills

Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c

Numwork Readwork Writwork

Australia 0.013 0.114 0.087 0.208 0.021 0.094 0.149 0.103 -0.009 0.077 0.184 0.141 0.217 -0.248 -0.019 0.335 0.384 0.373

Austria -0.072 0.093 0.041 0.151 0.061 0.130 0.118 0.104 -0.030 0.231 0.322 0.120 0.300 -0.286 -0.165 0.451 0.370 0.365

Belgium 0.023 0.191 0.146 0.234 0.038 0.205 0.088 0.019 0.194 0.217 0.228 0.135 0.313 -0.329 -0.156 0.473 0.456 0.396

Canada -0.008 0.070 0.041 0.182 -0.019 0.111 0.198 0.111 0.009 0.162 0.202 0.123 0.305 -0.295 -0.080 0.370 0.451 0.333

Czech Republic 0.085 -0.292 0.013 0.241 0.076 0.201 0.072 0.032 0.016 0.245 0.140 0.139 0.270 0.006 0.127 0.462 0.608 0.521

Denmark 0.092 0.039 0.089 0.102 0.128 0.128 0.148 0.168 0.077 0.187 0.278 0.184 0.341 -0.216 -0.112 0.543 0.381 0.350

Estonia -0.036 0.154 0.135 0.186 0.073 0.176 0.160 0.109 0.105 0.203 0.253 0.177 0.260 -0.253 -0.092 0.411 0.344 0.337

Finland -0.061 0.183 0.188 0.181 0.198 0.080 0.204 0.158 0.194 0.189 0.216 0.160 0.185 -0.224 -0.064 0.459 0.257 0.406

France 0.061 0.036 0.069 0.193 0.079 0.075 0.165 0.098 0.156 0.130 0.171 0.149 0.258 -0.069 -0.097 0.341 0.342 0.353

Germany -0.081 -0.022 0.205 0.251 0.154 0.226 0.189 0.200 0.017 0.276 0.243 0.113 0.201 -0.203 -0.033 0.477 0.378 0.353

Ireland -0.086 0.071 0.171 0.287 -0.009 0.209 0.201 0.244 0.141 0.133 0.183 0.176 0.266 -0.354 0.091 0.345 0.382 0.359

Italy -0.170 -0.006 0.068 0.046 0.165 0.137 0.288 0.263 0.043 -0.133 0.364 -0.031 0.174 -0.089 -0.074 0.357 0.320 0.315

Japan 0.101 0.084 0.096 0.179 0.060 0.145 0.097 0.084 0.175 0.108 0.175 0.062 0.100 -0.214 0.077 0.377 0.322 0.300

Korea 0.121 0.105 0.137 0.066 -0.180 0.071 0.182 0.094 -0.062 -0.008 0.019 -0.155 0.097 -0.184 0.326 0.576 0.408 0.461

Netherlands -0.065 0.070 0.087 0.263 -0.011 0.157 0.127 0.163 -0.049 0.112 0.259 0.199 0.293 -0.351 -0.121 0.438 0.392 0.356

Norway 0.044 0.141 0.124 0.291 0.081 0.185 0.072 0.085 0.087 0.263 0.172 0.098 0.292 -0.222 -0.118 0.440 0.488 0.407

Poland 0.139 0.099 0.115 0.138 0.044 0.147 0.076 0.133 0.049 0.187 0.250 0.192 0.344 -0.218 0.018 0.420 0.420 0.424

Russian Federation 0.020 0.110 0.145 -0.002 0.161 0.163 0.162 0.087 0.034 0.131 0.216 0.073 0.283 -0.115 0.008 0.306 0.455 0.420

Slovak Republic -0.068 0.153 0.135 0.165 -0.011 0.190 0.021 0.030 0.093 0.174 0.155 0.086 0.169 -0.181 0.005 0.522 0.470 0.481

Spain -0.036 -0.062 -0.012 0.293 -0.089 0.102 0.139 0.083 0.049 0.229 0.243 -0.046 0.133 -0.170 -0.255 0.419 0.455 0.391

Sweden -0.054 0.255 0.293 0.233 0.016 0.270 0.042 0.149 0.128 0.198 0.253 0.268 0.411 -0.223 -0.024 0.381 0.386 0.448

United Kingdom -0.044 0.092 0.074 0.236 0.099 0.113 0.201 0.132 0.077 0.110 0.179 0.074 0.168 -0.256 -0.015 0.351 0.304 0.458

United States -0.018 0.174 0.141 0.285 -0.067 0.160 0.133 0.102 0.119 0.128 0.217 0.187 0.350 -0.285 -0.071 0.444 0.387 0.434

Derived variables

ISCO1

Managers

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Influence Problem solving


48



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia 0.071 0.106 -0.023 0.118 0.162 0.054 0.088 0.121 0.039 0.046 0.081 0.092 0.208 -0.166 -0.005 0.413 0.311 0.313

Austria 0.110 0.099 0.064 0.090 0.215 0.117 0.095 0.247 0.148 0.062 0.301 0.011 0.313 -0.277 -0.163 0.447 0.392 0.387

Belgium -0.032 0.054 -0.037 0.135 0.189 0.152 0.192 0.151 0.198 0.154 0.217 0.100 0.288 -0.325 -0.217 0.421 0.429 0.288

Canada 0.053 0.111 -0.004 0.059 0.187 0.050 0.083 0.116 -0.011 0.050 0.143 0.040 0.276 -0.244 -0.012 0.367 0.364 0.309

Czech Republic -0.076 0.073 -0.077 -0.010 0.173 -0.011 0.137 0.114 0.137 -0.104 0.056 0.099 0.336 -0.221 0.097 0.430 0.308 0.304

Denmark -0.028 0.039 -0.009 0.100 0.253 0.091 0.165 0.194 0.092 0.081 0.226 0.059 0.280 -0.335 -0.105 0.456 0.448 0.321

Estonia 0.067 0.205 0.104 0.057 0.196 0.109 0.064 0.140 0.087 0.067 0.237 0.169 0.286 -0.110 -0.059 0.441 0.252 0.335

Finland 0.159 0.196 0.009 0.064 0.241 0.052 0.051 0.108 0.080 -0.034 0.085 0.089 0.235 -0.239 -0.180 0.461 0.400 0.392

France 0.059 0.115 -0.088 -0.065 0.186 -0.010 0.040 0.085 -0.031 0.075 0.126 0.085 0.203 -0.246 -0.281 0.368 0.236 0.367

Germany 0.057 0.092 -0.097 -0.001 0.169 0.132 0.095 0.207 0.073 0.039 0.270 0.043 0.303 -0.226 -0.055 0.408 0.291 0.331

Ireland 0.064 0.034 -0.055 0.108 0.189 0.025 0.146 0.195 -0.010 0.026 0.230 0.113 0.277 -0.274 -0.103 0.363 0.280 0.286

Italy 0.095 0.031 -0.095 -0.045 0.217 0.032 0.133 0.157 0.090 0.059 0.303 0.041 0.277 -0.098 -0.061 0.402 0.206 0.407

Japan -0.174 0.062 0.074 0.195 0.149 0.058 0.055 0.141 0.203 0.092 0.297 0.151 0.297 -0.343 -0.191 0.446 0.462 0.348

Korea 0.082 0.161 0.063 0.104 0.019 0.122 0.191 0.154 0.164 0.137 0.232 0.240 0.395 -0.131 0.150 0.334 0.375 0.425

Netherlands 0.096 0.146 0.060 0.114 0.198 0.165 0.187 0.216 0.140 0.157 0.255 0.188 0.359 -0.277 -0.111 0.419 0.390 0.291

Norway -0.003 0.122 -0.036 0.055 0.241 0.052 0.132 0.266 0.030 0.076 0.242 0.096 0.289 -0.343 -0.197 0.476 0.458 0.250

Poland 0.129 0.131 -0.046 -0.104 0.160 0.051 0.176 0.085 0.079 0.060 0.257 0.099 0.280 -0.218 -0.075 0.395 0.287 0.302

Russian Federation 0.049 0.045 0.077 0.097 0.008 0.048 0.085 0.059 0.148 0.052 0.239 0.096 0.183 0.007 -0.004 0.278 0.375 0.376

Slovak Republic 0.183 0.091 -0.062 -0.057 0.132 0.167 0.116 0.175 0.020 0.083 0.246 0.033 0.179 -0.111 0.034 0.419 0.363 0.332

Spain 0.091 0.106 -0.095 0.045 0.191 0.066 0.022 0.030 0.083 -0.017 0.252 0.062 0.215 -0.103 -0.158 0.423 0.367 0.248

Sweden -0.100 0.070 -0.055 0.083 0.222 0.045 0.151 0.162 0.131 0.059 0.210 0.072 0.308 -0.299 -0.220 0.458 0.446 0.446

United Kingdom 0.033 0.080 -0.067 0.029 0.089 0.001 0.103 0.138 0.001 0.052 0.051 0.083 0.211 -0.174 -0.084 0.464 0.202 0.261

United States 0.036 0.146 -0.022 0.064 0.134 0.070 0.226 0.197 -0.005 0.051 0.109 -0.005 0.173 -0.235 -0.072 0.304 0.304 0.269

Derived variables

ISCO2

Professionals

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Influence Problem solving


49



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia -0.072 0.020 0.024 0.138 0.162 0.062 0.179 0.119 0.061 0.162 0.140 0.115 0.245 -0.255 -0.108 0.306 0.354 0.329

Austria -0.125 0.031 0.064 0.140 0.174 0.084 0.085 0.203 0.131 0.058 0.316 0.157 0.290 -0.417 -0.211 0.484 0.401 0.285

Belgium -0.042 0.101 0.134 0.219 0.271 0.246 0.271 0.250 0.142 0.203 0.250 0.147 0.199 -0.244 -0.121 0.390 0.382 0.302

Canada -0.050 0.068 0.048 0.189 0.064 0.109 0.197 0.171 0.113 0.121 0.179 0.155 0.306 -0.281 -0.027 0.352 0.366 0.354

Czech Republic 0.053 0.104 0.149 0.188 0.239 0.144 0.217 0.064 0.149 0.243 0.242 0.037 0.194 -0.110 -0.083 0.377 0.496 0.322

Denmark 0.006 0.113 0.197 0.219 0.121 0.125 0.275 0.247 0.173 0.207 0.316 0.196 0.280 -0.182 -0.121 0.427 0.376 0.235

Estonia -0.152 0.113 0.103 0.157 0.332 0.152 0.127 0.169 0.091 0.122 0.343 0.132 0.250 -0.153 -0.101 0.389 0.384 0.332

Finland -0.107 0.078 -0.005 0.147 0.193 0.005 0.146 0.199 0.003 0.039 0.196 0.116 0.308 -0.231 -0.172 0.481 0.362 0.228

France -0.035 0.039 0.078 0.077 0.133 0.101 0.263 0.267 0.135 0.126 0.231 0.108 0.274 -0.304 -0.301 0.330 0.324 0.302

Germany -0.092 0.015 0.056 0.177 0.134 0.099 0.110 0.275 0.085 0.155 0.347 0.016 0.300 -0.410 -0.278 0.492 0.366 0.162

Ireland -0.027 0.072 0.122 0.146 0.105 0.138 0.255 0.266 0.139 0.149 0.251 0.089 0.201 -0.291 -0.060 0.377 0.319 0.227

Italy -0.058 -0.064 0.128 0.242 0.269 0.130 0.174 0.200 0.237 0.195 0.291 0.109 0.220 -0.164 -0.104 0.402 0.456 0.405

Japan -0.009 0.088 0.093 0.178 0.070 0.215 0.199 0.264 0.148 0.163 0.241 0.202 0.291 -0.192 -0.007 0.438 0.482 0.476

Korea -0.112 0.211 0.146 0.155 -0.071 0.142 0.224 0.185 0.230 0.159 0.248 0.177 0.366 -0.200 0.273 0.456 0.424 0.483

Netherlands -0.170 0.050 0.075 0.188 0.248 0.177 0.242 0.339 0.115 0.140 0.285 0.209 0.334 -0.381 -0.082 0.388 0.518 0.298

Norway -0.087 0.000 0.110 0.211 0.215 0.103 0.192 0.292 0.065 0.120 0.217 0.082 0.285 -0.376 -0.211 0.438 0.380 0.187

Poland -0.049 0.048 0.130 0.116 0.073 0.021 0.141 0.105 0.197 0.105 0.241 0.217 0.225 -0.203 -0.091 0.434 0.349 0.300

Russian Federation -0.061 0.060 0.058 0.190 0.108 0.073 0.178 0.137 0.122 0.190 0.216 0.223 0.246 -0.233 -0.098 0.397 0.302 0.161

Slovak Republic -0.084 -0.014 0.054 0.115 0.232 0.199 0.244 0.202 0.099 0.170 0.262 0.147 0.267 -0.267 -0.043 0.452 0.426 0.229

Spain -0.075 0.076 0.079 0.138 0.281 0.194 0.213 0.202 0.217 0.243 0.389 0.137 0.253 -0.180 -0.134 0.323 0.426 0.386

Sweden -0.024 0.123 0.141 0.220 0.077 0.093 0.068 0.114 0.099 0.173 0.242 0.200 0.274 -0.226 -0.111 0.384 0.407 0.442

United Kingdom -0.168 0.024 0.037 0.168 0.188 0.052 0.172 0.085 0.024 0.124 0.106 0.112 0.203 -0.276 -0.115 0.339 0.365 0.330

United States -0.087 0.076 0.090 0.201 0.114 0.200 0.136 0.249 0.073 0.156 0.213 0.213 0.264 -0.241 0.033 0.289 0.359 0.360

Derived variablesClient interaction Self-direction Influence Problem solving

ISCO3

Technicians and

associate

professionals

Horizontal interaction


50



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia 0.063 0.107 0.142 0.187 0.067 0.210 0.313 0.276 0.194 0.194 0.247 0.197 0.303 -0.112 0.015 0.349 0.458 0.450

Austria 0.066 0.196 0.193 0.225 0.155 0.272 0.258 0.180 0.247 0.191 0.326 0.188 0.297 -0.204 0.011 0.460 0.482 0.447

Belgium -0.028 0.068 0.072 0.192 0.133 0.191 0.307 0.308 0.129 0.255 0.195 0.193 0.202 -0.221 -0.166 0.401 0.490 0.386

Canada 0.066 0.163 0.118 0.242 -0.035 0.103 0.178 0.160 0.153 0.087 0.123 0.187 0.317 -0.218 0.048 0.253 0.348 0.368

Czech Republic 0.079 0.073 0.155 0.165 0.042 0.154 0.234 0.239 0.105 0.211 0.272 0.183 0.303 -0.197 -0.029 0.444 0.451 0.423

Denmark 0.190 0.186 0.140 0.160 0.172 0.202 0.170 0.183 0.168 0.264 0.284 0.235 0.250 -0.113 0.042 0.356 0.425 0.470

Estonia -0.086 0.095 0.232 0.141 0.167 0.258 0.248 0.226 0.293 0.259 0.313 0.303 0.316 -0.223 0.038 0.445 0.530 0.464

Finland 0.024 0.228 0.289 0.271 0.167 0.226 0.328 0.322 0.193 0.235 0.277 0.242 0.340 -0.247 0.020 0.460 0.456 0.483

France 0.043 0.184 0.071 0.063 -0.065 0.028 0.180 0.190 0.063 0.084 0.083 0.042 0.186 -0.166 -0.066 0.274 0.371 0.354

Germany 0.040 0.116 0.141 0.256 0.165 0.192 0.216 0.213 0.230 0.191 0.258 0.140 0.243 -0.233 -0.014 0.431 0.377 0.326

Ireland 0.003 0.195 0.177 0.272 -0.045 0.224 0.232 0.159 0.215 0.181 0.258 0.229 0.322 -0.158 0.009 0.336 0.430 0.447

Italy 0.039 0.193 0.165 0.179 0.091 0.165 0.192 0.202 0.179 0.132 0.224 0.201 0.288 -0.063 0.086 0.443 0.550 0.409

Japan 0.042 0.136 0.122 0.199 -0.105 0.169 0.243 0.257 0.191 0.222 0.239 0.203 0.231 -0.057 -0.060 0.341 0.439 0.359

Korea 0.079 0.174 0.229 0.239 0.053 0.184 0.180 0.181 0.142 0.270 0.294 0.230 0.348 -0.079 0.110 0.471 0.407 0.472

Netherlands 0.030 0.167 0.186 0.167 0.182 0.205 0.304 0.337 0.219 0.226 0.287 0.237 0.350 -0.210 -0.073 0.436 0.497 0.490

Norway -0.062 0.211 0.223 0.217 0.135 0.265 0.264 0.173 0.124 0.191 0.342 0.263 0.223 -0.259 -0.158 0.475 0.440 0.387

Poland 0.123 0.160 0.111 0.192 -0.050 0.073 0.159 0.259 0.113 0.027 0.084 0.198 0.207 -0.222 -0.099 0.354 0.490 0.448


Slovak Republic 0.089 0.127 0.022 0.137 -0.051 0.031 0.194 0.190 0.196 0.062 0.255 0.193 0.327 -0.184 0.012 0.349 0.427 0.378

Spain -0.006 0.055 0.176 0.161 0.135 0.122 0.313 0.263 0.267 0.147 0.150 0.179 0.291 -0.181 -0.169 0.401 0.391 0.430

Sweden 0.082 0.151 0.289 0.257 0.006 0.171 0.151 0.150 0.296 0.298 0.377 0.203 0.431 -0.175 -0.078 0.535 0.547 0.481

United Kingdom 0.089 0.074 0.233 0.230 0.059 0.155 0.321 0.276 0.179 0.227 0.250 0.202 0.346 -0.133 0.015 0.411 0.459 0.463

United States -0.069 0.055 0.173 0.189 0.121 0.174 0.145 0.122 0.169 0.143 0.131 0.185 0.326 0.083 0.173 0.349 0.455 0.410

ISCO4

Clerical support

workers

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Influence Problem solving Derived variables


51



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia -0.009 0.045 0.103 0.293 0.042 0.091 0.229 0.202 0.151 0.142 0.245 0.130 0.317 -0.225 0.002 0.300 0.445 0.468

Austria -0.024 0.090 0.271 0.250 0.021 0.040 0.119 0.202 0.264 0.161 0.367 0.131 0.241 -0.263 -0.153 0.406 0.525 0.569

Belgium -0.050 0.010 0.247 0.264 0.159 0.138 0.325 0.281 0.252 0.244 0.380 0.238 0.331 -0.261 -0.248 0.479 0.400 0.388

Canada -0.020 0.063 0.183 0.229 0.023 0.137 0.244 0.203 0.280 0.159 0.282 0.161 0.280 -0.187 -0.091 0.309 0.463 0.476

Czech Republic -0.096 0.075 0.185 0.155 0.281 0.190 0.054 0.088 0.115 0.140 0.251 0.245 0.280 -0.321 -0.117 0.469 0.439 0.385

Denmark 0.023 0.047 0.177 0.281 0.181 0.153 0.245 0.184 0.191 0.275 0.405 0.109 0.288 -0.216 -0.048 0.424 0.509 0.432

Estonia -0.051 0.102 0.142 0.225 0.082 0.150 0.188 0.186 0.232 0.218 0.317 0.251 0.319 -0.128 -0.060 0.322 0.455 0.465

Finland -0.089 0.097 0.148 0.169 0.270 0.157 0.054 0.071 0.123 0.069 0.237 0.133 0.282 -0.232 -0.068 0.474 0.415 0.323

France 0.125 0.051 0.124 0.225 0.194 0.189 0.166 0.185 0.219 0.258 0.344 0.217 0.335 -0.208 -0.179 0.497 0.473 0.384

Germany 0.035 0.146 0.155 0.091 0.129 0.214 0.189 0.141 0.255 0.146 0.320 0.164 0.240 -0.200 -0.053 0.509 0.442 0.385

Ireland 0.082 0.068 0.080 0.294 -0.138 0.081 0.129 0.203 0.141 0.004 0.311 0.266 0.420 -0.314 -0.015 0.376 0.391 0.449

Italy 0.020 0.145 0.209 0.249 0.092 0.033 0.183 0.164 0.228 0.243 0.168 0.239 0.285 -0.194 -0.087 0.326 0.465 0.447

Japan -0.138 -0.094 0.152 0.259 0.063 0.111 0.223 0.224 0.213 0.231 0.307 0.247 0.358 -0.180 0.018 0.449 0.539 0.324

Korea 0.079 0.237 0.229 0.240 -0.015 0.215 0.142 0.129 0.224 0.206 0.248 0.178 0.301 -0.199 0.271 0.390 0.488 0.475

Netherlands -0.010 0.133 0.092 0.237 -0.059 0.026 0.210 0.226 0.210 0.175 0.331 0.258 0.275 -0.354 -0.074 0.258 0.492 0.398

Norway -0.052 0.012 0.236 0.183 0.118 0.255 0.240 0.261 0.314 0.260 0.368 0.200 0.323 -0.226 -0.062 0.343 0.468 0.344

Poland -0.089 -0.123 0.104 0.086 0.178 0.118 0.079 0.154 0.137 0.103 0.233 0.179 0.335 -0.304 -0.076 0.344 0.449 0.285

Russian Federation -0.054 -0.032 -0.025 -0.002 0.050 0.182 0.230 0.160 0.072 0.094 0.174 0.054 0.071 -0.134 -0.091 0.116 0.442 0.424

Slovak Republic -0.048 -0.048 0.145 0.003 0.080 0.137 0.194 0.236 0.006 0.113 0.092 0.035 0.169 -0.174 -0.038 0.310 0.425 0.293

Spain 0.113 0.128 0.259 0.336 0.006 0.066 0.170 0.105 0.356 0.065 0.183 0.158 0.280 -0.158 -0.167 0.287 0.541 0.377

Sweden 0.024 0.037 0.286 0.227 0.187 0.249 0.149 0.151 0.313 0.186 0.276 0.140 0.259 -0.136 0.005 0.405 0.474 0.284

United Kingdom 0.023 0.086 0.191 0.254 -0.003 0.068 0.290 0.246 0.219 0.151 0.253 0.164 0.289 -0.188 0.030 0.273 0.441 0.483

United States -0.055 0.017 0.119 0.256 0.076 0.224 0.211 0.174 0.242 0.204 0.228 0.110 0.274 -0.125 0.032 0.405 0.513 0.533

Problem solving

ISCO5

Service and sales

workers

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Influence Derived variables


52



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia -0.101 0.160 0.376 0.376 0.302 0.341 0.155 0.155 0.392 0.270 0.225 0.185 0.254 -0.287 0.088 0.540 0.379 0.636

Austria 0.064 0.008 -0.057 0.484 0.208 0.200 0.090 0.080 0.052 0.231 0.289 0.160 0.183 -0.137 0.323 0.641 0.652 0.616

Belgium -0.159 0.133 0.321 -0.005 0.130 0.303 0.141 0.464 0.214 0.336 0.379 0.222 0.255 -0.399 -0.254 0.339 0.447 0.718

Canada 0.181 0.152 0.308 0.394 0.393 0.334 0.268 0.080 0.368 0.306 0.279 0.194 0.199 0.081 0.035 0.484 0.632 0.612

Czech Republic 0.360 0.544 0.003 0.216 -0.154 -0.172 0.681 0.332 0.149 0.078 0.718 0.660 0.543 0.406 0.103 0.381 0.616 0.755

Denmark 0.190 0.088 0.199 0.242 0.308 0.361 0.119 0.206 0.205 0.364 0.334 0.178 0.487 -0.116 -0.045 0.598 0.533 0.527

Estonia 0.190 0.210 0.011 0.020 0.169 0.212 0.063 0.505 0.185 0.251 0.289 0.272 0.031 0.079 0.039 0.225 0.144 0.616

Finland 0.049 0.220 0.354 0.336 0.502 0.416 0.297 0.164 0.442 0.382 0.335 0.017 0.096 -0.091 -0.007 0.477 0.448 0.366

France 0.211 0.071 -0.072 0.042 0.271 0.112 0.270 0.318 0.262 0.348 0.339 0.312 0.403 -0.202 -0.177 0.381 0.208 0.402

Germany 0.259 0.195 0.193 0.279 0.491 0.263 0.398 0.288 0.414 0.481 0.550 -0.065 -0.039 -0.022 0.329 0.472 0.245 0.302

Ireland 0.200 0.239 0.044 0.317 -0.105 -0.006 -0.004 0.024 -0.120 0.125 0.055 0.015 0.071 -0.139 -0.117 0.315 0.145 0.381

Italy 0.572 0.293 0.654 0.681 0.584 0.515 -0.568 #N/A 0.668 0.478 0.640 0.457 0.119 -0.619 #N/A 0.674 0.738 0.766

Japan -0.082 -0.011 0.179 0.195 0.280 0.078 0.147 0.570 0.012 -0.117 0.142 0.431 0.230 0.119 0.201 0.354 0.520 0.036

Korea -0.188 0.023 0.341 0.425 -0.296 0.180 0.065 0.084 0.150 0.440 0.146 0.444 0.553 -0.532 0.262 0.748 0.477 0.403

Netherlands 0.166 0.200 0.341 0.154 0.147 0.473 0.212 0.129 0.155 0.345 0.356 0.464 0.514 -0.561 -0.145 0.628 0.456 0.604

Norway 0.217 0.203 0.091 0.276 0.173 0.182 0.223 0.164 0.329 0.345 0.297 -0.028 0.275 -0.077 -0.247 0.382 0.368 0.456

Poland 0.334 -0.024 0.501 0.467 0.220 0.436 0.155 0.046 0.114 0.584 0.441 0.248 0.447 -0.135 -0.140 0.377 0.350 0.515

Russian Federation #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A #N/A

Slovak Republic #N/A 0.509 0.509 -0.781 0.293 -0.028 -0.684 #N/A 0.434 -0.993 -0.684 -0.293 -0.781 -0.261 -0.684 0.999 0.975 0.175

Spain 0.030 0.392 -0.016 0.194 0.127 0.480 -0.058 0.072 -0.260 0.291 0.492 0.158 -0.163 -0.358 -0.552 0.433 0.681 0.805

Sweden -0.073 0.057 0.409 0.549 0.409 0.275 0.283 0.222 0.405 0.517 0.596 0.314 0.547 -0.144 -0.159 0.681 0.638 0.628

United Kingdom 0.598 0.543 0.779 0.874 0.342 0.591 0.179 0.062 0.571 0.547 0.515 0.416 0.696 -0.714 0.009 0.803 0.726 0.832

United States 0.425 0.232 0.426 0.535 0.386 0.447 -0.350 0.048 0.044 0.469 0.589 0.177 0.344 0.076 0.073 0.832 -0.141 0.483

Influence Problem solving

ISCO6

Skilled

agricultural,

forestry and

fishery workers

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Derived variables


53



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia 0.108 0.140 0.104 0.335 0.123 0.248 0.240 0.251 0.235 0.292 0.300 0.142 0.292 -0.269 -0.088 0.343 0.368 0.520

Austria -0.151 0.040 0.161 0.285 0.206 0.372 0.192 0.250 0.372 0.264 0.361 0.184 0.190 -0.367 -0.272 0.450 0.594 0.494

Belgium 0.054 -0.017 0.090 0.342 0.205 0.198 0.403 0.321 0.264 0.288 0.359 0.205 0.230 -0.126 -0.137 0.391 0.505 0.357

Canada 0.107 0.026 0.017 0.341 0.054 0.193 0.169 0.167 0.220 0.177 0.260 0.051 0.268 -0.234 -0.129 0.249 0.372 0.385

Czech Republic 0.192 -0.134 0.025 0.096 0.355 0.029 0.238 0.161 0.103 0.376 0.375 -0.090 0.272 -0.301 0.039 0.446 0.486 0.391

Denmark 0.071 0.021 0.113 0.368 0.350 0.301 0.280 0.197 0.323 0.338 0.394 -0.019 0.078 -0.312 -0.199 0.514 0.502 0.296

Estonia -0.022 -0.025 0.221 0.257 0.371 0.226 0.245 0.128 0.341 0.286 0.344 0.249 0.160 -0.186 -0.017 0.391 0.526 0.481

Finland 0.007 -0.016 0.188 0.198 0.395 0.284 0.107 0.189 0.203 0.272 0.316 0.120 0.174 -0.180 -0.228 0.387 0.457 0.409

France 0.119 0.032 0.186 0.140 0.299 0.289 0.312 0.376 0.213 0.311 0.326 0.161 0.215 -0.016 -0.010 0.435 0.495 0.442

Germany -0.043 -0.042 0.136 0.356 0.212 0.294 0.078 0.243 0.194 0.169 0.379 0.161 0.279 -0.221 -0.187 0.376 0.454 0.342

Ireland 0.069 -0.019 0.046 0.278 0.245 0.287 0.175 0.279 0.147 0.157 0.254 0.199 0.377 -0.338 -0.192 0.458 0.553 0.374

Italy 0.203 -0.086 0.144 0.379 0.285 0.257 0.220 0.078 0.118 0.371 0.529 0.162 0.269 -0.076 0.008 0.288 0.628 0.541

Japan -0.093 0.084 0.100 0.217 0.076 0.143 0.094 0.121 -0.067 0.218 0.353 0.100 0.272 -0.276 -0.181 0.339 0.554 0.511

Korea 0.077 0.092 0.176 0.324 0.031 0.126 0.198 0.214 0.052 0.178 0.121 0.167 0.250 -0.160 0.281 0.337 0.551 0.361

Netherlands 0.166 0.148 0.211 0.211 0.263 0.308 0.161 0.218 0.164 0.289 0.303 0.359 0.309 -0.320 -0.021 0.339 0.576 0.529

Norway -0.026 -0.021 0.117 0.337 0.161 0.227 0.267 0.288 0.314 0.276 0.320 0.106 0.305 -0.403 -0.296 0.530 0.578 0.432

Poland 0.023 -0.100 -0.050 0.076 0.205 0.049 -0.044 0.085 0.027 0.073 0.183 0.062 0.091 -0.300 -0.098 0.380 0.455 0.362


Slovak Republic -0.125 -0.010 0.248 0.298 0.105 0.126 0.360 0.317 0.263 0.164 0.314 -0.077 0.271 -0.158 0.029 0.200 0.508 0.396

Spain 0.172 -0.124 0.103 0.335 0.243 0.202 0.213 0.141 0.341 0.252 0.273 0.059 0.194 -0.041 -0.004 0.556 0.563 0.510

Sweden 0.045 0.116 0.145 0.181 0.318 0.295 0.222 0.239 0.204 0.176 0.212 0.160 0.230 -0.254 0.001 0.380 0.467 0.419

United Kingdom -0.028 0.035 0.034 0.222 0.003 0.130 0.189 0.173 0.279 0.146 0.226 0.153 0.201 -0.313 -0.144 0.217 0.324 0.363

United States 0.188 0.129 0.187 0.266 0.210 0.156 0.137 0.013 0.257 0.196 0.266 -0.107 0.231 -0.336 -0.178 0.174 0.504 0.447

ISCO7

Craft and related

trades workers



54



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia 0.055 0.181 0.114 0.315 0.264 0.276 0.155 0.129 0.257 0.330 0.347 0.066 0.342 -0.130 0.106 0.478 0.495 0.464

Austria 0.300 0.222 0.368 0.309 0.392 0.363 0.277 0.157 0.470 0.390 0.358 0.151 0.263 -0.097 0.129 0.516 0.485 0.461

Belgium 0.265 -0.201 0.057 0.414 0.158 0.280 0.050 -0.117 0.205 0.199 0.271 0.312 0.334 -0.382 0.080 0.367 0.560 0.451

Canada -0.087 0.069 0.106 0.249 0.036 0.106 0.307 0.219 0.246 0.160 0.159 0.165 0.370 -0.118 -0.083 0.491 0.428 0.369

Czech Republic -0.273 0.094 0.473 0.337 0.118 0.321 0.306 0.272 0.476 0.447 0.288 0.470 0.236 0.022 0.107 0.163 0.393 0.463

Denmark 0.110 0.190 0.090 0.377 0.037 0.217 0.302 0.248 0.365 0.289 0.439 0.257 0.292 -0.236 0.040 0.229 0.543 0.569

Estonia 0.008 0.070 0.180 0.225 0.283 0.284 0.107 0.131 0.245 0.348 0.332 0.067 0.056 0.000 -0.043 0.278 0.472 0.142

Finland 0.166 0.063 0.233 0.325 0.177 0.234 0.256 0.220 0.193 0.287 0.059 0.175 0.229 0.096 0.091 0.268 0.436 0.429

France 0.098 0.108 0.212 0.291 0.161 0.131 0.141 0.175 0.252 0.288 0.236 0.030 0.216 -0.227 -0.070 0.227 0.391 0.337

Germany -0.069 0.072 0.194 0.262 0.323 0.320 0.364 0.325 0.387 0.277 0.342 0.261 0.109 0.005 0.034 0.422 0.554 0.403

Ireland -0.022 0.002 0.114 0.226 0.128 0.211 0.152 0.153 0.198 0.247 0.075 0.204 0.181 -0.165 -0.048 0.455 0.205 0.245

Italy -0.034 -0.163 0.009 0.361 0.356 -0.192 -0.018 0.067 0.137 -0.049 -0.056 -0.104 0.074 0.046 -0.373 0.299 0.149 0.562

Japan -0.029 0.162 0.102 0.321 -0.011 0.202 0.238 0.128 0.197 0.192 0.203 0.131 0.403 -0.184 -0.026 0.393 0.521 0.348

Korea 0.106 0.135 0.345 0.241 -0.084 0.231 0.157 0.140 0.235 0.100 0.250 0.122 0.122 -0.186 0.256 0.312 0.505 0.329

Netherlands -0.027 0.175 0.145 0.290 0.127 0.395 0.355 0.301 0.132 0.309 0.247 0.350 0.239 -0.322 0.031 0.520 0.314 0.544

Norway 0.117 -0.070 0.281 0.311 0.051 0.172 0.207 0.317 0.372 0.348 0.221 0.199 0.309 0.007 0.121 0.290 0.598 0.420

Poland -0.110 0.083 -0.110 0.053 -0.047 -0.134 0.242 0.293 0.096 0.262 0.390 -0.038 0.284 -0.320 0.060 0.297 0.400 0.208

Russian Federation 0.318 0.430 0.535 0.113 -0.048 0.599 0.037 0.117 0.344 0.303 0.391 0.380 0.102 -0.332 0.628 0.241 0.379 0.126

Slovak Republic 0.206 0.036 0.295 0.066 0.406 0.280 0.063 0.184 0.180 0.100 -0.011 -0.130 0.096 -0.077 -0.164 0.406 0.473 0.412

Spain 0.228 0.290 0.183 0.360 0.212 0.423 0.234 0.093 0.291 0.066 0.130 0.134 0.290 -0.306 -0.003 0.322 0.553 0.195

Sweden 0.331 0.281 0.370 0.452 -0.040 0.289 0.143 0.071 0.267 0.407 0.212 0.287 0.418 -0.137 0.040 0.221 0.555 0.434

United Kingdom 0.149 0.204 0.116 0.258 0.210 0.311 0.147 0.185 0.351 0.534 0.340 0.240 0.322 -0.118 0.020 0.432 0.556 0.514

United States 0.137 0.072 0.133 0.177 0.319 0.224 0.191 0.319 0.569 0.378 0.480 0.274 0.514 0.135 -0.160 0.459 0.490 0.337

ISCO8

Plant and

machine

operators and

assemblers



55



skills

Physical


Collaboration

F_Q01b

Information

sharing

F_Q02a

Training

others

F_Q02b

Giving

presentations

F_Q02c

Selling a

product or

service

F_Q02d

Advising

others

F_Q02e

Planning of

own activities

F_Q03a

Organising

own time

F_Q03c

Planning

activities of

others

F_Q03b

Persuading

people

F_Q04a

Negotiating

with people

F_Q04b

Problem

solving in less

than 5

minutes

F_Q05a

Thinking

about a

solution for at

least 30

minutes

F_Q05b

Working

physically

F_Q06b

Using skill or

accuracy with

hands or

fingers

F_Q06c


Australia 0.015 0.103 0.228 0.334 0.090 0.311 0.272 0.323 0.240 0.310 0.279 0.162 0.355 -0.339 -0.014 0.427 0.481 0.573

Austria 0.187 0.189 0.412 0.068 0.481 0.241 0.135 0.058 0.316 0.158 0.463 0.182 0.362 -0.169 0.041 0.564 0.505 0.391

Belgium 0.051 0.005 0.247 0.351 0.074 0.234 0.309 0.270 0.274 0.243 0.165 0.345 0.276 -0.333 0.002 0.485 0.610 0.605

Canada -0.006 0.019 0.231 0.380 -0.066 0.223 0.097 0.163 0.316 0.249 0.183 0.078 0.229 -0.122 -0.026 0.162 0.404 0.539

Czech Republic -0.085 0.003 0.331 0.330 0.200 0.419 0.089 0.184 0.244 0.435 0.510 0.104 0.083 -0.417 -0.110 0.619 0.564 0.440

Denmark 0.088 0.085 0.176 0.125 0.025 0.048 0.164 0.100 0.174 0.227 0.179 0.229 0.347 -0.117 0.006 0.543 0.510 0.537

Estonia 0.027 0.334 0.345 0.347 0.103 0.209 0.203 0.216 0.460 0.050 0.277 0.264 0.274 -0.469 0.089 0.590 0.571 0.368

Finland -0.018 0.092 0.242 0.096 0.071 0.069 0.195 0.212 0.208 -0.024 0.236 0.280 0.251 -0.053 -0.055 0.452 0.365 0.413

France 0.204 0.176 0.119 0.241 0.004 0.190 0.226 0.114 0.441 0.266 0.234 0.195 0.266 -0.435 -0.351 0.519 0.350 0.318

Germany -0.073 -0.031 0.080 0.331 0.112 0.296 0.097 0.321 0.015 0.236 0.078 0.172 0.449 -0.335 -0.143 0.416 0.555 0.349

Ireland 0.002 0.122 0.231 0.330 -0.140 0.201 0.293 0.300 0.277 0.283 0.316 0.317 0.352 -0.305 -0.016 0.305 0.432 0.433

Italy -0.451 0.068 0.291 -0.010 0.195 -0.018 0.108 0.043 0.320 0.417 0.166 0.301 0.542 0.105 -0.052 0.647 0.254 0.461

Japan -0.275 -0.006 0.307 0.562 -0.036 0.215 0.306 0.237 -0.062 0.129 0.436 0.227 0.372 0.060 -0.158 0.333 0.358 0.305

Korea 0.334 0.344 0.264 0.321 -0.060 0.116 0.100 0.053 0.324 0.260 0.198 0.224 0.298 0.103 0.206 0.650 0.432 0.364

Netherlands 0.029 0.124 0.234 0.349 0.034 0.203 0.160 0.169 0.352 0.176 0.337 0.170 0.021 -0.377 0.053 0.511 0.481 0.465

Norway -0.104 0.135 0.208 0.418 0.095 0.306 0.215 0.352 0.204 0.292 0.328 0.282 0.444 -0.366 -0.286 0.461 0.556 0.498

Poland 0.070 -0.035 0.136 0.104 -0.201 0.308 0.443 0.423 0.409 0.270 0.162 0.099 0.329 -0.399 -0.408 0.260 0.672 0.421

Russian Federation 0.130 -0.054 0.091 0.129 0.288 0.456 0.302 0.090 0.018 0.391 0.327 -0.018 0.338 -0.516 -0.251 0.449 0.542 0.385

Slovak Republic -0.137 -0.109 0.060 0.307 0.018 0.182 0.315 0.258 0.101 0.169 0.328 0.008 -0.105 -0.288 -0.238 0.308 0.524 0.499

Spain 0.149 -0.066 0.021 0.322 0.461 0.396 0.302 0.216 0.059 0.335 0.282 -0.055 0.200 -0.245 -0.122 0.130 0.486 -0.055

Sweden 0.105 0.226 0.469 0.554 0.039 0.401 0.310 0.337 0.323 0.390 0.466 0.439 0.493 -0.528 -0.387 0.402 0.727 0.619

United Kingdom 0.038 0.244 0.419 0.378 0.111 0.378 0.196 0.269 0.250 0.371 0.187 0.142 0.406 -0.216 0.068 0.366 0.488 0.621

United States 0.063 0.098 0.194 0.205 0.326 0.333 0.183 0.225 0.327 0.271 0.530 0.148 0.397 -0.170 -0.061 0.491 0.646 0.599

Problem solving

ISCO9

Elementary

occupations

Horizontal interaction Client interaction Self-direction Influence Derived variables


56

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