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FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION THROUGH
POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION PERSPECTIVE:
ZHUKOV'S STRATEGIES OF TRANSLATING JAVANESE
CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN PARA PRIYAYI
A Thesis
Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)
in
English Language Studies
by
Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati
166332026
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2019
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION THROUGH
POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION PERSPECTIVE:
ZHUKOV'S STRATEGIES OF TRANSLATING JAVANESE
CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN PARA PRIYAYI
A Thesis
Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)
in
English Language Studies
by
Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati
166332026
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2019
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank God for his countless blessing and for always answering my
prayer. He grants me power mentally and physically to pass all of the difficulties
during my thesis writing process. Surely, my effort means nothing without His
hands. He helps me directly through the kind hands of my thesis supervisor, Dr.
Emanuel Sunarto, M. Hum., who introduced me to foreignization and
domestication and their relation to culture and national identity in translation
class. His explanation inspired me to develop knowledge. I also thank him for his
assistance and patience in every thesis consultation. Without his advice and
suggestion during the process of writing my thesis, I would not be able to write
down my idea. I also would like to express my gratitude to Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D.
for his time and kindness in helping me to understand the postcolonial concept
that never crossed my mind until I was in my third semester. His guidance made
me be able to understand the postcolonial concept so that I could continue to write
my thesis. I also thank Scolastica Wedhowerti, S. Pd, M. Hum. She kindly opened
her arms and spared her time to help me understanding postcolonial translation. I
really appreciate her advice. I also thank Dr. Gregorius Budi Subanar, S.J. and
Prof. Dr. Pranowo, M. Pd., for helping me to validate my data that loaded of
Javanese culture. They also help me reconnecting with Javanese culture and old
traditions. I also send my special thanks to Dra. Novita Dewi M.S., M.A. (Hons.),
Ph.D., for the inspiration and her advice during the thesis review. I also thank F.X.
Mukarto, Ph. D. and Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for the inspiration and support
so that I was able to finish my thesis.
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I also thank Georgius Benardi, Yohanes Marino, and Anna Elfira
Prabandari Assa for all academic discussions and long talks in burjonan and
Whatsapp that gave me insight into the concept and application of postcolonial
theory. I thank them for replying my message that randomly came in. They helped
me to encounter my limitation in understanding postcolonialism and my
uncertainty about my thesis.
My thesis writing process did not only involved lectures and friends, but
also Wikan Satriati from Lontar Publisher. I thank her for her cooperation to
introduce me to Vladislav Zhukov. I send my appreciation to Vladislav Zhukov,
the translator of Para Priyayi, for his willingness to answer the interview
questions that gave a big impact on my analysis. His answer helps me interpreting
the ideology behind the translation strategies. I also thank Sisilia Novena for
inheriting her Javanese Gentry book to me, therefore, I got access to conduct the
research.
My supervisor and coworkers also took parts in the process of finishing
my thesis. I give my special thanks to Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M. Sc. the chairperson of
LISDU and Maria Ananta, S.S, M. Ed., the head of Asian language center, for
granting me the opportunity to take my time and space to finish my study. I would
not have enough time and energy to complete my study without their support and
understanding. I also thank the awesome ILCIC teachers: Mbak Atta, Mbak
Aning, Rosendi, Mbak Friska, Thomas, Emma, Mbak Esti, Tiyar, Mbak Ajeng,
Nano and Mbak Kitin for the support and togetherness that warm my heart and
ease my stress. Especially, I thank Mas Fendi, for his understanding and
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
viii
willingness to manage the teaching schedule so I had my time to finish my study
while I was working.
My deepest gratitude goes to the love of my life, my Mamah, M. M. Lies
Supriyantini and Papah, A. W. Topo Aji, for always putting my name in their
prayer. I am forever grateful for their endless support, love, tears, blood, and
sacrifices that made me who I am and put me here today. I am eternally in debt to
them. There are no words and actions that are comparable and enough to give
back what they had for me. I also thank my brothers Mas Enggar and Dek Bayong
for their support.
I send my appreciation to a man whose name is not written here but
always dearly by my heart. I thank him for always taking such good care of me
even though we are miles apart. He provided food supplement, the large size of
French fries, cups of gelato, and jacket, for me. I really appreciate his effort to
keep me smiling and make my thesis writing time was easier and bearable.
My special thanks go to my best friends Ria, Rinda, Bang Willy, Yona,
and Rio for sincere friendship and endless support. I also thank the Avengers:
Mbak Tusty, Vero, Mas Yos, and Mas Rifki. Their support made me not feel so
alone during the thesis writing process. They made thesis defense feasible and
graduate from ELS is possible. I also thank Resya, James, Detha, and Mas Ceper.
I appreciate all the discussions, help, support, laugh, and kindness.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ............................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF CHARTS ............................................................................................ xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES..................................................................................... xv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ xvi
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Background .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research Benefits ........................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................. 5
2.1 Review of Related Theories ........................................................................ 5
2.1.1 Culture-Specific Items ....................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Translation Techniques ...................................................................... 9
2.1.3 Ideology in Translating .................................................................... 14
2.1.4 Language and Culture Relativity in translation practice.................. 23
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2.1.5 Postcolonialism Translation and the Key Concepts......................... 24
2.1.6 Review of Para Priyayi ................................................................... 32
2.2 Review of Related Studies ........................................................................ 34
2.3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 37
3.1 Type of Study ............................................................................................ 37
3.2 Research Data ............................................................................................ 38
3.3 Data Collection .......................................................................................... 38
3.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 41
3.5 Data Presentation ....................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ................................................ 45
4.1 Translation Techniques in Translating Javanese CSIs in PP .................... 45
4.1.2 Borrowing ........................................................................................ 53
4.1.3 Calque .............................................................................................. 54
4.1.4 Literal Translation ............................................................................ 56
4.1.5 Adaptation ........................................................................................ 57
4.1.6 Description ....................................................................................... 61
4.1.7 Established Equivalent ..................................................................... 64
4.1.8 Generalization .................................................................................. 66
4.1.9 Linguistic Amplification .................................................................. 67
4.1.10 Modulation ..................................................................................... 69
4.1.11 Transposition .................................................................................. 69
4.1.12 Variation ......................................................................................... 70
4.1.13 Compensation ................................................................................. 72
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4.1.14 Omission ......................................................................................... 74
4.2 Ideology behind Zhukov’s Translation Strategies in Translating Javanese
Culture-Specific Items in Javanese Gentry ............................................... 75
4.2.1 Foreignization Strategy as a Resistance ........................................... 77
4.2.2 Foreignization Strategy as Medium of Exoticization and
Resistance ........................................................................................ 89
4.2.3 Foreignization as Operator of Exoticization, Ethnocentrism, and
Orientalism Attitude ........................................................................ 98
4.2.4 Domestication Strategy as a Bridge of Cultural Differences ......... 104
4.2.5 Orientalist Attitude, Ethnocentrism, and Colonial Ideology
in Domestication Strategy .............................................................. 108
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ..................................... 116
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 116
5.2 Suggestion ............................................................................................... 117
REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 119
APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 126
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of CSI domain......................................................................... 9
Table 2.2 Adoption of Translation Procedure Taxonomies Related to
Domestication and Foreignization Strategies ....................................... 22
Table 3.1 Blue Print of Data Collection Table ...................................................... 38
Table 3.2 Example of Data Distribution in Social Cultue .................................... 40
Table 3.3 Example of Data Analysis in Social Culture ........................................ 42
Table 3.4 The Blue Print of Analysis Result Table .............................................. 44
Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para Priyayi/Javanese Gentry..... 45
Table 4.2 Translation Techniques of Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para
Priyayi/Javanese Gentry....................................................................... 47
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 36
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LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 4.1 Percentage of Translation Technique of CSI in JG ............................... 48
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Amplification.................................................................................. 127
Appendix 2. Borrowing ....................................................................................... 132
Appendix 3. Calque ............................................................................................. 135
Appendix 4. Literal Translation .......................................................................... 136
Appendix 5. Adaptation ...................................................................................... 136
Appendix 6. Description ..................................................................................... 137
Appendix 7. Established Equivalence ................................................................. 143
Appendix 8. Generalization ................................................................................ 145
Appendix 9. Linguistic Amplification ................................................................ 146
Appendix 10. Modulation ................................................................................... 148
Appendix 11. Transposition ................................................................................ 149
Appendix 12. Variation ....................................................................................... 150
Appendix 13. Compensation ............................................................................... 151
Appendix 14. Ommission.................................................................................... 153
Appendix 15. Translation Technique .................................................................. 154
Appendix 16. Translation Strategies ................................................................... 155
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ABSTRACT
Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati. 2019. Foreignization and Domestication through
Postcolonial Translation Perspective: Zhukov's Strategies of Translating
Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Para Priyayi. Yogyakarta: English Language
Studies. Graduate Program. Sanata Dharma University.
Translators do not merely transfer source language to target language in
translation practice. They have to be able to bring the cultural baggage embedded
in source text (ST) into target text (TT). In process of translating, translators also
deal with ideology in ST, ideology of authors, publishers, society of target
language speakers, even their own ideology. Those beliefs may influence
translators’ translation strategy options in translating ST and create complication
in translation practice, especially in text with lot of culture-specific items (CSIs)
such as Para Priyayi (PP). For this reason, this research is targeted to scrutinize
translation techniques, strategies, and ideology of translating applied in rendering
CSIs in PP to Javanese Gentry (JG).
This research is classified into Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) that
applied qualitative approach. The data were elicited using document analysis
technique by scrutinizing PP and JG thoroughly. Moreover, the translator was
also interviewed through email to gain knowledge related to translator’s
background and motivation in choosing such translation techniques.
This research discovered fourteen types of translation technique applied in
401 CSIs from Javanese language. There were amplification, borrowing, calque,
literal translation, adaptation, description, establish equivalence, generalization,
linguistics amplification, modulation, transposition, variation, compensation, and
omission. Those translation techniques were applied in translating twelve domains
of CSIs that consist of ecology, material culture, social culture, organization-
custom-activities-procedure-social conception, gesture and habit, measurement
system, dates, anthroponym, dialect, fictional character, idiom, and metaphor.
Furthermore, this translation study found two strategies of translating, namely:
foreignization and domestication. The translation strategies were examined using
postcolonial theory then compared to translator’s interview answers. The result
suggested that resistance towards target culture domination, exoticization,
orientalist attitude, ethnocentrism, and colonial attitude were reflected in
foreignization and domestication practise.
This study suggests future researchers to conduct rigorous research in
postcolonial translation because postcolonial translation research in Indonesian
context is still limited and still dominated by Arab and Hindi scholars and context.
Development of postcolonial translation studies is also expected to build
translators’ awareness about their role as agents of preserving and presenting local
culture to international audiences
Keywords: CSI, idelogy of translating, foreignization, domestication,
postcolonial translation, Javanese culture
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ABSTRAK
Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati. 2019. Foreignization and Domestication through
Postcolonial Translation Perspective: Zhukov's Strategies of Translating
Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Para Priyayi. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa
Inggris. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Dalam menerjemahkan teks, penerjemah tidak hanya sekedar
menerjemahkan bahasa asal ke bahasa target tapi mereka juga harus mampu
membawa budaya yang tertanam di dalam teks asal ke dalam teks target. Dalam
penerjemahan, penerjemah juga menghadapi ideologi dalam teks asal, penulis,
penerbit, masyarakat penutur bahasa target, bahkan ideology penerjemah itu
sendiri. Hal ini menyebabkan kerumitan dalam proses menerjemahkan khususnya
untuk teks yang memiliki banyak istilah budaya yang spesifik, contohnya Para
Priyayi. Karena itu, penelitian ini ditujukan untuk meneliti teknik dan strategi
penerjemahan dan ideology yang ada dalam penerjemahan Para Priyayi (PP) ke
Javanese Gentry (JG) dengan cermat.
Penelitian ini termasuk dalam studi penerjemahan deskriptif yang
mengimplementasikan pendekatan kualitatif. Data-data penelitian ini
dikumpulkan melalui teknik analisis dokumen dengan cara mencermati PP and
JG secara keseluruhan. Selain itu, wawancara melalui surel juga dilakukan untuk
mengumpulkan informasi yang berhubungan latar belakang penerjemah dan
motivasinya dalam memilih teknik-teknik penerjemahnya.
Penelitian ini menemukan empat belas tipe teknik penerjemahan yang
digunakan untuk menerjemahkan 401 istilah budaya Jawa. Teknik penerjemahan
yang dipakai adalah amplifikasi, penyerapan, calque, terjemahan langsung,
adaptasi, deskripsi, pembentukan kesepadanan, generalisasi, amplifikasi
linguistic, modulasi, transposisi, perubahan variasi bahasa, kompensasi, dan
penghilangan. Teknik-teknik tersebut digunakan untuk menerjemahkan istilah
budaya Jawa berasal dari kategori lingkungan hidup, materil, sosial, organisasi,
kebiasaan, aktivitas, konsep sosial, gestur dan kebiasaan, sistem pengukuran,
penanggalan, anthroponim, dialek, karakter cerita fiksi, idiom, dan metafora.
Penelitian ini juga menemukan dua strategi penerjemahan, yaitu: foreignisasi dan
domestikasi. Ideologi yang dibahas melalui sudut pandang pascakolonialisme dan
hasil wawancara dengan penjemah menujukan bahwa ada resistensi terhadap
dominasi dari budaya target, pengeksotisan, sikap orientalis, sikap kolonialis, dan
etnosentrisme.
Penelitian ini menganjurkan para peneliti di masa depan untuk melakukan
banyak penelitian tentang penerjemahan pascakolonialisme dalam konteks
Indonesia karena penelitian tersebut masih terbatas dan didominasi oleh peneliti
dan konteks dari Arab dan India. Perkembangan studi penerjemahan
pascakolonialisme juga diharapkan bisa menumbuhkan kesadaran penerjemah
akan perannya menjaga dan mempresentasikan budaya lokal kepada pembaca
internasional.
Kata kunci: istilah bermuatan budaya, idelogi dalam penerjemahan, foreignisasi,
domestikasi, penerjemahan pascacolonial, budaya jawa.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The first chapter is divided into four sections. The first section conveys the
research background. It discusses the overview of translating culture-specific
items (CSIs), the relation among language, culture and translation, and preserving
identity in translation products. It also gives brief explanation about this research.
The second section delivers the research questions. The third section explains the
objectives of the research. The fourth part discusses the theoretical and practical
contribution of this research.
1.1 Research Background
Language is a method of human communication. It is used for connecting
each individual thus they are able to convey their ideas to other people around
them. Since humans live geographically separated, they develop different
languages to communicate with people inside the group. However, world
development urges each group to have contact with people outside. People learn
foreign languages or they use translation to maintain contact with the outside
world. Thus, the ability to use a foreign language and translation become a
necessity for the society to understand ideas in other languages that are presented
in news, articles, speech, film, literary work and so forth. In addition, for those
who do not have the opportunity to learn other languages and are required to read
literary works need translation works. Therefore, translators, translation, and
translating hold an important role in developing literacy and understanding other
people ideas from other culture.
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In presenting someone’s idea from other languages, the translator does not
only translate the language. Translation also involves the culture within the source
language (SL) and target language (TL). It is in line with Triverdi in his article
entitled Translating Culture vs Cultural Translation stating that the translation
process of literary work does not only engage SL and TL but also a complex
negotiation between source culture and target culture. It is supported by
Tymoczko (2002, p.23) who states that in the literary translation, the translator
concerns with distinctions not only in language but also cultural factors embedded
in the SL thus the people from a different culture are able to comprehend the
culture from their outside society. She adds that the translator encounters a
definite text including SL cultural and linguistic aspects and it causes constraints
in translating both the language and culture. Therefore, it challenges the translator
to bridge the difference through translation. However, translations are not merely
the process of transferring language, code-switching or negotiation between the
source and target culture because the process is governed by the specific
objectives and translators’ ideology that later leads to the translation technique
choice (Chung-ling, 2010). Translation involves ideology as well, both the
ideology of ST writer or beliefs of the translator. Thus, language, translation,
culture, and ideology cannot be discrete. Moreover, in translating process, where
language contact happens, there is a battle in which the languages struggle for the
survival of themselves also the ethnic and cultural memory attached within
depending (Apter, 2006 as cited in Gentzler, 2013).
The fact that language, culture, and ideology are inseparable in translation
raises the complication in rendering culture-specific items (CSI) within the source
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text. Furthermore, it builds questions of what translators’ ideology presented in
the methods of translating CSI and how preserving the identity of SL users that is
reflected in CSIs. Therefore, it encourages research in translating CSIs contained
in literary work where CSIs becomes prominent because it has a role as an
identity marker of the characters of the story, SL, and source culture. Correspond
to the relation of between translations and culture there with the complication,
scrutinizing ideology of translating CSI and how it preserves SL culture still needs
to be conducted now, especially in translating literary works that are full of
cultural content. Thus, the issues presented in a novel Para Priyayi written by
Kayam and its translation Javanese Gentries translated by Zhukov are possible to
be studied; because CSIs are applied in it intensively by the author to narrate a
family life of Javanese nobleman. CSIs also applied to build the cultural and
historical setting of Javanese people life during Dutch and Japanese colonialism
era.
1.2 Research Questions
This study proposes two questions.
1. What translation techniques are applied in translating CSIs in Kayam’s
Para Priyayi reflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?
2. What ideology is presented in the translation strategies applied to render
CSIs in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?
1.3 Research Objectives
This research is targeted to discover the translation techniques applied to
translate CSIs. It is also aimed to discover the ideology reflected in Zhukov's
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translation strategies in translating Javanese culture-specific items in Javanese
Gentry through postcolonialism translation point of view.
1.4 Research Benefits
This research is expected to be beneficial empirically and practically for
translators, translation scholars, and the targeted readers who might read the
translated literary works. Empirically, this study benefits translators and
translation scholars by providing a broad view of encountering texts with cultural
loads. It may contribute to give in-depth and breadth elaboration of theories in
translating culture in literary works. In addition, it may provide sufficient
discussion in encountering CSIs and methods to translate them. Practically, this
study may increase readers’ awareness of an ideology or hidden agenda within
translated literary works. Thus, readers can be more critical in reading a
translated text and always refer to the source text or other texts in order to gain
more information. Moreover, it gives an overview to the reader that translation
can be one of the means to convey ideology or hegemony.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Chapter two is divided into three parts, namely: reviews of related studies,
reviews of related literature, and theoretical framework. The first part presents
reviews of related studies. In the review of related studies, the writer will review
several studies related to the translation of CSI, ideology in translating, and
translation techniques conducted by other researchers. The second part contains
reviews of related literature. It gives a review of theories that is related to the
studies and employed to analyze the data. The third part of chapter two is the
theoretical framework. This section presents the theories which help to conduct
the study and to answer the research questions.
2.1 Review of Related Theories
Review related theories section discusses theories that are significant and
related to the study of translation techniques, and ideology of translating. It will
review and elaborate theories about translation and culture, culture-specific items,
translation techniques, the ideology of translating, postcolonial translation and its
key concepts. It also provides reviews of Para Priyayi as the source text.
2.1.1 Culture-Specific Items
Culture is defined as a concept, belief, point of view, and way of life of a
group of people dwelling in a certain place together. It presents the identity of a
particular society. According to Kluckhohn (as cited in Geertz: 1973) culture is
defined as “the total way of life of people”; the social legacy individually acquired
from his group; how people think, feel, and believe; “an abstraction from
behavior; how people in fact act; a “storehouse of poled learning”; “learned
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behavior”; a system for normative rule of act; a system to adapt external
environment and to other people; and “a precipitate of history”. Kluckhohn’s
definition is in line Davies (2003, p. 68) who proposes that culture is defined as a
set of complicated beliefs, attitude, values, and rules that are practiced or shared,
and inherited by a school of people. The practice is presented in folk culture,
business culture, cuisine, and so forth, moreover, it includes human community
life characteristics reflected in the patterns of religion, “custom, objects,
institution, technique and language” (Hu, Wenzhong, 1994 as cited by Wang,
2014,p. 2423). Therefore, culture is reflected in many aspects of people’s life. It
can be perceived through several angles of human’s aspect that is manifested in
daily life, for instance, the language applied by society.
Language denotes the way of life and an environment that is unusual to the
native people dwelling in a particular region (Newmark, 2010, p. 173). Since
language is affected by culture and geographical matters, the words in language
articulate the concept and the idea owned by the people. This causes culture
discrepancies because each society encounters and perceive different things on a
daily basis that are portrayed in terms of cultural value words. For the reason,
each society and each language possess their very own terms that may not present
in others. Therefore, it causes complication in the process of rendering words
with a cultural bound.
According to Lefevere (1992), language expresses culture and acts as a
repository of culture. It means that words within the language refer to reality and
related to culture. Therefore, there are terms containing cultural concepts or values
in every language. According to Brasiene (2013), Davies (2003) identifies the
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terms as Culture-Specific Items (CSI), Baker (1992) recognizes it as cultural
words, and Gambier (2004) labels the terms as culture-specific references.
Meanwhile, Florin (1993), Robinson (1997), Schäffner & Wiesemann (2001) and
Mikutytė (2005) identify them as realia (as cited by Janaviciene, 2016: 4834).
Although there are several different terms, they still share a similar definition.
CSIs are defined as a part of a text that is related to particular concepts from
a foreign culture, in instances history, art, and literature which might be
unfamiliar for the target text readers (Aixela, 1996 as cited in Shekoufeh
Daghough & Mahmood Hashemia, 2016). It is in line with Florin (1993: 123)
who states that words and sentences indicate object, way of life, culture, also
social and historical development of a certain nation and it is uncommon to
another (as cited Janaviciene, 2016).
Culture-Specific Items are usually presented in several realms. According to
Newmark (1988), CSIs are discovered in the words that are used for articulating
ideas corresponds to (1) ecology, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4)
organisations, customs, ideas, activities, procedures, concepts, and (5) gestures
and habit. Based on Newmark (1988), CSI is discovered in the words related to
ecology or words that present natural landscape, in instances: animals, plants,
winds, lands, fields, and so forth. He also proposes that material cultures, such as
food, houses and towns, clothes, and transportation. Besides material culture,
words articulating social culture also categorized as CSI. Social culture is
exemplified by works and leisure. Furthermore, culture terms can be discovered in
topics that discuss organization, customs, activities, procedure, and concepts.
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Those topics usually refer to words that are related to political administrative,
religious, and artistic realms. Then, the last CSI denotes to gestures and habit.
Espindola and Vasconcellos (2006) classify CSI into 12 domains. They
propose the cultural bound terms are taken from words that refer to toponyms
(names related to places, parts of earth surface, and earth’s natural or artificial
features), means of transportation, food and drink, forms of entertainment, legal
system (rules to conduct human’s life), local institution (health, education, work,
political, administrative, religious, or artistic organization), scholastic reference
(school and educational system), religious celebration, measurement system,
anthroponym, fictional character (name of characters from prominent literary
works, films, and myth), dialect (speech marker ), date, and idiom. Toponyms
domain refers to features. The classification proposed by Newmark (1988) shares
similarities to Espindola & Vasconcellos (2006). However, the latter is more
detailed and some new domains are added. Espindola & Vasconcellos (2006)
proposes a measurement system, anthroponym, dialect, and fictional character as
CSIs. The aforementioned classifications are supported by Zare-Behtash and
Friroozkoohi (2009). They applied the classifications in their research entitled A
Diachronic Study of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies of Culture-
Specific Items: in English-Persian Translations of Six of Hemingway’s Works.
However, they add two additional domains in CSIs, namely date, and idioms.
According to the preliminary study towards CSIs within the Para Priyayi
and Javanese Gentry, theories related to cultural domains are synthesized.
Therefore they can accommodate the data selection and elicitation. Table 2.1
presents the synthesized culture domain.
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Table 2.1 Summary of CSI domain
No Newmark (1988)
1 Ecology (animal, plants, winds, lands)
2 material culture (architecture, food, and drinks, clothes and costumes,
transportation)
3 social culture (works, leisure, forms of entertainment)
4 Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts (local institution, the
legal system, local institutions, Scholastic reference, and religious)
5 gestures and habit
Espindola and Vasconcellos (2006)
6 Measurement system
7 Anthroponym
8 Fictional character
9 Dialect
Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi (2009)
10 Date
11 Idioms
Additional
12 Metaphor
2.1.2 Translation Techniques
Translation technique is a set of techniques applied to transfer SL to TL.
Translation technique is a particular technique to materialize comprehended ideas,
established conceptual relation, and reformulated TL to translate SL (Molina and
Albir, 2002). Molina and Albir (2002) propose eighteen translation techniques
that are developed from critics and reformulation of translation procedure, the
result of developing translation technique from Vinay and Darblenet (1958), Nida
(1964), Ayora (1977), Delisle (1993), and Newmark (1998). Therefore, based on
the reformulation, they propose adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque,
compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent,
generalization, linguistics amplification, linguistics compression, literal
translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, transposition,
and variation as translation techniques. The techniques are elaborated as follows.
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Adaptation translation technique can be applied in translating CSIs. In the
adaptation technique, SL cultural aspects are changed into TL’s. This is in line
with Molina and Albir (2002) proposing that cultural elements in TL replaced SL.
Adaptation may be selected because particular SL culture is not practiced in TL
context. Moreover, there is culture commonly practiced by SL speakers but it is
uncommon and strange when it is practiced in TL. Therefore, adaptation
establishes situational equivalent which helps the TL readers to understand the TT
(Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958 as cited in Venuti 2002). It is applied in translating
poker in English into gapleh, a game card that is common and familiar in
Indonesia.
In the amplification technique, translators attach further information related
to the term. Amplification assists the target reader to understand cultural terms
that are unfamiliar in the target language. As stated by Molina & Albir (2002),
amplification refers to a process of rendering texts by providing additional
information in TL to make the term comprehensible in TL. It is presented in
Javanese – English translation of Malam 1 Suro into “Malam 1 Suro, Javanese
new year eve”.
When there is no equivalent term in TL, SL term may be borrowed to TL
with very limited adjustment. Therefore, in borrowing a word or expression are
taken directly from SL to TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). The adjustment towards
terms that undergo borrowing can happen in the phonological level. Thus, the
orthographic of words adapted in TL comply how SL terms are pronounced.
Borrowing is aimed to introduce SL cultural nuance through TT (Vinay &
Darblenet, 1958). It is exemplified by borrowing “tempeh” to render tempe.
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There is another type of borrowing in translation technique named calque.
Calque involves the process of borrowing and translating SL words or expression
into TL directly (Molina&Albir, 2002). The translation process occurs in lexical
and structural level. The application of calque technique is exemplified in
translating “kindergarten” into Taman Kanak-Kanak.
Compensation technique is introduced by applying an aspect of information
and stylistic effect of SL in a different part of TT. Molina &Albir (2002) proclaim
compensation happens because TT cannot be presented in the same position as in
the original works. Therefore, the translator embeds TL words as part of the
writing style. An instance of compensation is presented in the utterance “Pak,
boleh saya bicara dengan jenengan sebentar?” that is translated into “He speaks
in very polite Javanese: Pardon me, Sir. May I talk to you for a while, please?”
The description refers to a technique in which SL words are described
according to their characteristics and function. The words are described in TL.
Thus TL readers are able to understand the translated terms easily. It is
exemplified in describing kendhit into “piece of very long cloth to tie sarong”.
According to Deslile (1993), discursive creation “is an operation in the
cognitive process of translating by which a non-lexical equivalence is established
that only works in context” (as cited by Molina & Albir, 2002: 505). It employs
that this technique translates SL into in-equivalent TL. However, TL creates a
discourse that is related to the SL. It is exemplified by translating “Soekarno: An
autobiography” into Soekarno Penyambung Lidah Rakyat.
The established equivalent is a translation technique that uses recognized
terms or expression in TL (Molina&Albir, 2002). The terms exist and can be
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discovered in a dictionary or common language in use. Thus, established
equivalent means that the existed and familiar terms in TL are applied to replace
SL even though the literal meaning is not equivalent. However, the terms usually
appear in the same situation both in SL and TL. It is presented in the translation of
proverbs buah jatuh tak jauh dari pohonnya into “like father, like son”.
Generalization is a process of translating by replacing specific words in SL
with more general terms in TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). SL specific terms are
usually generalized because there are no equivalent terms in TL. This technique
causes a loss in terms of specification characteristics or function. It exemplified
by generalizing padi into rice in English.
Particularization is the opposite form of generalization (Molina &Albir,
2002). In particularization, SL word is translated into more specific terms in TL. It
is exemplified by specifying rice into nasi in translating English to Indonesia.
Linguistic amplification is a technique of translating by adding linguistics
component in TL (Molina &Albir, 2002). The additional linguistic aspect creates
a natural expression that is commonly used in TL. This translation technique is
applied in interpreting or subtitling. Application of linguistics amplification is
presented in translation “How did it happen?” into “kok bisa?”
Vice versa, linguistics compression is a technique of translating SL by
compressing it in TL. The linguistics aspect of SL is synthesized in TT (Molina &
Albir, 2002). Therefore, the discourse becomes brief. It is exemplified in
translating “So, what’s the problem?” into Javanese utterance “njuk?”.
Literal Translation is a translation practiced of word per word directly from
SL to TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). Each element of SL is translated one by one
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grammatically and idiomatically in the target text. According to Vinay &
Darblenet (1958), this technique tends to be applied in translating language from
the same family (as cited in Venuti 2002). However, it can be applied to create
foreignness. In an instance, “you reap what you sow” is translated per word into
“kamu menuai apa yang kamu tabur”.
Modulation refers to translation technique that changes the point of view.
According to Molina & Albir (2002), the alteration of focus occurs in the level of
lexical. Vinay & Darblenet (1958) as cited in Venuti (2002) state that modulation
is still possible to be practiced even though it produces grammatically correct
translation result but it is considered unsuitable or awkward in TL. It is
exemplified by an expression “you will be an uncle” into “kamu akan punya
keponakan”.
The reduction is in contrast to amplification. It is a process of translation
technique that applies the deletion of additional SL in TL is named as a reduction
(Molina & Albir, 2002). It is presented in translation “night of Suro 1st, Javanese
new year” into Malam 1 suro.
Changing of linguistics or paralinguistics aspect defines substitution
techniques of translation (Molina & Albir, 2002). In this technique, particular
utterances are changed into a gesture that indicates the same meaning or vice
versa, such as translating “good” into thumbs-up gesture. This technique is
usually practiced in an interpreting situation. Therefore, it was not discovered and
applied in textual translation.
Transposition is almost similar to modulation. However, change happens at
the grammatical level (Molina & Albir, 2002). It is presented by the change part
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of speech or language structure, in instances: the alteration from a verb into a
noun or active sentence form into the passive voiced structure. Transposition is
applied in translating, “after my father went home” into “setelah kepulangan
bapakku”.
Variation almost shares similarity to substitution techniques. However, the
alteration is not limited in changing linguistics into para linguistics elements.
According to Molina & Albir (2002), in variation technique, alteration happens in
terms of intonation, gestures, and language level. Therefore, it gives impact to
linguistics variation result in TL. Variation technique is applied in translating
“how are you, grandpa?” into ceremonial Javanese “pripun kabare panjenengan,
Mbah?” because the interlocutor was a senior citizen.
This study does not only apply translation techniques proposed by Molina &
Albir. The omission was added into translation technique theory applied in this
study to follow the nature of the data delete some SL words in TT. The omission
is practiced by eliminating and reducing part of the text (Bastin, 1998). It is
exemplified by deleting text or terms that are considered insignificant.
2.1.3 Ideology in Translating
In translating a text, translators consciously or unconsciously bring their
ideology. Any translation processes reflect a particular ideology to manipulate
literature in the targeted community in a given method (Venuti, 1995). According
to Hatim and Mason (1997, p. 144), ideology is defined as e ‘the tacit
assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social
groups’ (as cited in Hatim and Munday, 2009 p. 102). It is in line with Lefevere
(1998) stating that ideology is a conceptual motive consisting of perspectives and
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attitudes that are considered acceptable in a particular society, time, readers and
translators to approach texts (as cited in Baker and Saldana, 2009). It means that
ideology is perspective and belief that live in and society. Ideology influences
how people and translators respond and encounter texts. It affects translators in
deciding what translation technique applied to translate culture or certain ideology
in the text.
In translation studies, Hatim and Mason (1997) cited in Hatim and Munday
(2009) distinguish ideology into two concepts, namely: ‘the translation of
ideology’ and ‘the ideology of translating’. They define the first type as an
approach to examine the mediation chosen by the translator in rendering sensitive
text. The translation of ideology discusses the approach employed to translate
political texts. It studies how political content text is rendered and adjust in TL
and. Moreover, it scrutinizes about translators’ intervention towards political texts
and how their knowledge and beliefs affect the translated text (Hatim & Mason,
1997, as cited in Hatim & Munday, 2009). The translation of ideology is instanced
by the phenomenon of how feminist translators render a text indicating patriarchal
ideology or how conservative translators overcome vulgar text that is not
congenial to their norm. Meanwhile, according to Hatim & Mason (1997)
ideology of translating is an orientation in approaching source texts that are
applied by the translator in the social or cultural setting (as cited by Hatim &
Munday, 2009). They state that the choice of orientation is exemplified by
application of Venuti’s domesticating and foreignizing translation strategy. Thus,
the ideology of translating focuses on translators’ orientation in terms of choosing
translation techniques in rendering a text related to culture. Therefore, the
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ideology of translating that is directly related to translation orientation influences
the application of translation strategies. The ideology that is transferred to the TL
is reflected through applied translation strategies.
Translation practice that involves techniques and strategies is not separated
from other factors. According to Venuti (2001), language strategies that are
affected by the cultural, economy, and political factors may comply to target
culture domination, the use of conservative and assimilationist approach to
encounter SL, the support of domestic canon, publishing trends, and political
alignment. Moreover, Venuti (2001) adds that translation strategy may correspond
to the method of resistance, way of revising the dominant by depicting the
marginal, approach of reconstructing foreign texts apart from domestic canons,
restoring outstanding values from archaic texts and translation method then plant
and emerge the values.
The ideology of translating that is related to foreignization and
domestication strategies is developed based on Schleiermacher’s view about
“verfremdende” (foreignizing) and “einbürgernde” (domesticating), (Myskja,
2013). Frederich Schleiermacher, a lecturer of the Berlin Academy of Sciences,
who is in line with Wilhelm von Humboldt, proclaims that translation can be
treated as an effort of applying certain translation strategies (foreignizing
strategies) that might affect cultural and social function, language development,
literature, and nation (Venuti 2000). Schleiermacher imagines that foreignization
can be a tool to dispel French colonialism towards German literary works. Later,
Schleiermacher’s idea becomes a vantage point for the twentieth-century scholars
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to conduct an experiment about culture revitalization through the literary form
(Venuti, 2000). It also becomes base to develop modern translation study.
Venuti (1995) develops Schleiermacher’s idea into foreignization and
domestication. Foreignization is a strategy of translating that brings TT readers
closer to ST by maintaining the originality of source culture and source text in TT.
Thus, the source culture is more presentable to the TT reader in spite of its
difficulties to be understood by TT readers. Foreignization method emphasizes on
ethnodeviant value to reveal cultural and linguistic distinctions or foreign text
(Venuti, 1995; Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi, 2009). The method delivers target
readers to the original place of source texts. Bernofsky (1997) states that
foreignization allows source language elements to influence the target language.
Foreignization attaches SL in TT in order to indicate the distinction of the foreign
text (Venuti, 1995 as cited in Myskja, 2013). The language employed in the target
text is disrupted in order to mark the otherness by the mean of foreignization
(Myska, 2013). It implies that foreignization maintain the non-dominant culture
thus the SL culture is distinctive. The strangeness in the form of syntax, cultural
terms, and writing style appearing in the identity of the source text is let to sit in
the translated text.
Foreignization is an agent of resistance in maintaining cultural identity
embedded in source language because it does not cover SL culture. Foreignizing
act gives chances to the less dominant culture or what is called as peripheral
culture by Ozbot (2016) to present their cultural identity to the TL readers.
Venuti (2010) claims that foreignization may resist the oppression towards
minority culture in form of ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism, and
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imperialism. It implies that culture domination and power imbalance between SL
and TL in TT can be obstructed through foreignization translation approach. It is a
strategic intervention against the hegemonic English-language nations and cultural
exchanges that are not equal (Venuti, 1993). The resistant presents in the
perseverance of “the other’s” culture by maintaining SL words that indicate the
specified culture when they engage in the global context.
Vice versa, domestication is one of the strategies of translating that moves
ST closer to TT readers. The strategy adopts the transparent and fluent style to
minimize the foreignness of SL for the TL readers thus the foreign culture is
moved closer to the target audiences by making it recognizable and familiar
(Zare-Behtash & Firoozkoohi, 2009). This strategy domesticates foreign terms to
make the readers comprehend the text easily. According to Venuti (1995, p.20),
domestication is “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target cultural
values that brings the author back to the TL” (as cited in Zhang, Feng, Wang,
2018, p. 22). It implies that domestication balances the cultural value so that the
translated text does not maintain ethnocentrism towards SL culture. However,
domestication also can be a method that supports ethnocentrism towards TL
culture. It is because according to Venuti (1993), domestication performs
ethnocentric violence rested on a dual fidelity between the SL text and TL culture.
He adds that it is impossible and deceitful because domesticating SL and its
culture causes a loss in foreign text and culture. Therefore, domestication erases
the SL foreignness and its culture but make it acceptable in TL situation
Domesticating the foreign terms is aimed to present SL in TT in a style that
is natural for TL. It is in line with Myska (2013) stating that domestication
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emphasizes the naturalness and fluency of target text. It minimizes the foreignness
of ST for TT readers by assimilating SL according to the target language and its
cultural values (Venuti, 1995; Ajtony, 2017). The text assimilation in
domestication can be practiced through several domestication strategies enlisted
by Ajtony (2017) namely: the texts which are going to be translated using
domestication should be selected carefully; adopting natural TL writing style that
presents fluency; obeying target discourse rules to adapt the TT; the insertion of
explanatory material; deleting SL elements; harmonize TT with TT assumption
and choice. However, insertion explanatory material can be classified into
foreignization because the practice maintains the foreignness of SL. Moreover,
adding an explanation about SL that can be practiced by attaching glossary or
amplification translation technique is classified into foreignization by Zare-
Behtash and Firoozkoohi (2009).
Domestication does not merely create fluency and harmonization in TT. It
also has been enlisted in the service of the specific domestic agendas, such as
imperialism, evangelical, and professional that serves cultural and political agenda
(Venuti, 2001, p. 241). It is considered as imperialist and containing political
agenda because it strengthens TL domination by covering SL culture which is
unfamiliar to TL culture. Domestication prevents TL readers to know SL culture
that is contained in the culture-specific items. Therefore, target readers only know
SL culture reality according to their point of view.
The role of foreignization as colonial resistance and domestication that
serves colonial depends on the context of the SL and TL and the aim of translation
practice. Foreignization translating may act as imperialism material or
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imperialism hegemony. Domesticating translation may serve as resistance to the
TL culture domination. Therefore, Venuti’s notion about foreignization,
domestication, and imperialism may work differently. The inverse of Venuti’s
notion is practiced in translating Old Irish epics. Tymockzo (1999) states that
domestication was applied to support the decolonization of Ireland in order to
raise Irish epic heroes through the central literary medium to improve Irish culture
(as cited in Golluch, 2013). In addition, foreignizing practice by rebuilding the
strangeness of Irish epic might strengthen the grip of British colonialism in
Ireland (Tymockzo, 1999 cited by Golluch 2013). Therefore, the context of the
relationship between the ideology of translating and imperialism needs to be
observed. In this study, the notion of foreignization and domestication developed
by Venuti may work accordingly or it may imply other meaning because based on
Tymockzo and Gentzler (2002) translation strategy could not be rigidly connected
with oppression or resistance.
In another situation, foreignization strategy may present exoticism. Myskja
(2017) gives her criticism towards Venuti through Tarek Sharma’s findings in
Translation and the Manipulation of Difference (2009), which scrutinizes the
domestication and foreignization of 19th-century translation from Arabic into
English. Sharma (2009) claims that foreignizing would be prone to substantiate
English prejudices towards source culture (as cited in Myskja, 2017). In his
analysis of Arabian Nights translated by Edward Burton, he founds that Burton’s
translation strategy indicates exoticism by over-emphasizing on the culturally
foreign phenomena, introducing the customs although they are not present in the
source text (cited in Myskja, 2017). In addition, Sharma discovers that Burton
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gives more emphasis on the details of the bloodcurdling violence and sexual (as
Myskja, 2017). Sharma’s findings and Myskja critic towards Venuti indicate
foreignization is fluid in terms of its context and translation purpose.
Albeit foreignization and domestication have been defined by Venuti (1995)
and explained by Bernofsky (2014), Myska (2013), Zhang, Feng, Wang (2018),
and Ajtony (2017) there is still a problem in defining those approach in detail.
Tymockzo (2000) criticizes that Venuti’s concept of foreignization and
domestication are not strictly defined and the absolute criteria are never developed
(as cited in Myska, 2013). However, it opened an opportunity for translators or
scholars to create their own stance and criteria. As stated by Venuti (1991)
foreignization and domestication are heuristics concepts which means promote
thinking and research (as discussed in Munday, 2009 and cited in Myskja, 2017).
Since the proposed foreignization and domestication strategy encourage
independence discovery, scholars may use their own freedom to classify
translation techniques into foreignization and domestication strategies according
to the definition of foreignization and domestication and translation techniques.
Zare-Behtash & Sepideh (2009) summarize theories of taxonomies of translation
procedures in corresponding to domestication and foreignization translating
strategies. Their taxonomies are adopted from Bastin (1998), Laviosa-Braithwaite
(1998), and Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) that is cited in Munday (2001).
According to the aforementioned definition of foreignization, domestication, and
translation techniques, this study adopts the taxonomy of techniques that is
initiated by Molina & Albir (2002). The taxonomy of domestication and
foreignization strategies from Zaree-Behtash and Sepideh, 2009 is juxtaposed to
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the translation techniques proposed by Molina& Albir (2002). The substance
presents in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Adoption of Translation Procedure Taxonomies Related to
Domestication and Foreignization Strategies
Foreignization Domestication
Bastin (1998)
Transcription of the original
Expansion
Omission
Exoticism
Updating situational equivalence
Proposed by Laviosa-Braithwaite (1998)
Simplification
Avoidance of repetition
Explication
Normalization
Discourse transfer
Distinctive distribution of lexical items
Proposed by Vinay & Darblenet (1995) as cited in Munday (2001)
Borrowing
Calque
Literal Translation
Transposition
Modulation
Equivalence
Adaptation
Proposed by Molina & Albir (2002)
Borrowing
calque
literal translation
amplification
Transposition
modulation
established equivalent
adaptation
description
generalization
particularization
compensation
reduction
omission
variation
linguistics amplification
Translation techniques are classified into foreignization and domestication
strategies according to the basic goal of each strategy and effect that are caused by
the application of those techniques. Translation techniques preserving source
text’s characteristics, source culture, and SL foreignness in target text are
classified into foreignization strategy. Then, other techniques that focus on TL
fluency and naturalness of TT are grouped as domestication strategy. Application
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of translation strategies and techniques correspond to the translation orientation.
The orientation may carry ideology of translators and their patron behind the
application of translation strategies.
2.1.4 Language and Culture Relativity in translation practice
Culture relativity perceives all languages and culture are equal. There is no
standard that determines that particular culture is better than others or a particular
culture is more civilized than others. “The contemporary relativistic view is that
language and culture only differ from one another and implies a realization that
there are no universal yards stick against which all could be measured and ranked”
(Edwards, 2009, p. 49). The view respects differences within each culture.
The relativity occurs because each society encounters, witnesses and
experiences different daily reality. The differences are affected by nature,
geographic and social condition. They give impacts to the culture and to the
languages. As stated by Lucy (1997), language represents how society interprets
reality. It is exemplified by the Javanese language which is used by Javanese
people who live agrarian culture. Javanese people plant rice and eat rice as their
staple food and encounter the cultivation process and the preparation process until
it is ready to be consumed. Thus, it gives an impact to Javanese language in terms
of specific vocabularies related to rice. In instances, the language has damen (the
rice plant stalk), pari (rice seeds that are still adhered to the plants), gabah (rice
seeds that have just harvested and unattached to its stalk, beras (raw rice), and so
forth. However, in English, there are no specific terms to denote every stage and
part of rice because English people do not grow rice and rarely consume rice.
Therefore, the difference in portraying reality presents in the terminologies.
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Because all language and culture are equal, they have rights to exist and be
represented. Therefore, translation practice is expected to support languages and
cultural representation in the world. It is in line with the ethics of translation
which is proposed by Antoine Berman. Berman claims that translation is not
merely the transmission of meaning because the extract of translation is to respect
others however it opens, performs dialogue and cross-breeding, and decenters
ethnocentric view that may be affected by translation (cited in Kristal, 2014, p.
36). Translation ethics is supported by a postcolonial translation that is expected
to encounter linguistic asymmetry that cannot be encountered by a declaration
stating all language are equal (Baer, 2014, p. 237). It implies that tangible action
through translation can be taken to present equality position of all languages and
culture.
2.1.5 Postcolonialism Translation and the Key Concepts
Postcolonialism emerged as the effect of colonialism. Colonialism is a
practice involving “territorial, economic, political and cultural
subjugation, appropriation, and exploitation of another country and people,
with the aim of establishing one's dominance in the world” (Wolf, 2000, p. 127).
The colonial annexed other countries’ territory to attain an economic advantage.
Exploitation practice influences the politics and culture of the dominated country.
It also makes the colonized country suffer from oppression from the colonizer.
The distress of being colonized brings postcolonialism idea to against colonialism
practice.
According to Ashcroft, Griffith, and Tiffin (1998), post-colonialism is
related to the impact of colonization on culture and societies. It attempts to
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identify the changes of way of life and views as the effect of colonialism practice.
The postcolonialism studies scrutinize cultural gap, national identity, the relation
between colonizers and colonized, and the oppression of the colonized nation by
the colonizers. It is in line with Quayson (2012) stating that postcolonial studies
focus on the cultural distinction, marginalization, and exclusion. Postcolonial also
search for identity (Dewi, 2016). In addition, postcolonial attempts to discover
power imbalance between the colonizer and colonized. Post colonialism tries to
make sense the practices that captivated the native inhabitants and the settlers
from other places into the most complicated and traumatic events in the history;
tries to reason the processes of un-structuring or re-structuring the existed
community in which the attempts involved trade, pillage annexation, war, and
massacre (Loomba, 2005). Postcolonialism dismantles and challenges colonialism
and its hegemony. It helps the victim of colonialism to be subversive towards the
power imbalance.
Translation and colonialism practices are inseparable. It is in line with
Bassnet and Triverdi stating that translation and colonialism walk hand in hand, it
is an act that facilitates colonization by “grammartizing, domesticating, and
appropriating colonizer’s language and culture” (as cited in Baer, 2014, p.233).
According to Bassnet and Triverdi, translation is defined as a one-way process for
most of the translation processes are conducted for European consumption, rather
than the mutual process of language and cultural exchange. It is in par with Hatim
& Munday (2004) who claims “translation depends on the western philosophical
notions of reality, representation, and knowledge (Hatim and Munday, 2004: 108).
Therefore, translation inclines to the west both in terms of the aims of translating
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certain text to west languages and the strategy of translating that is selected
according to west’s knowledge and belief towards reality. The tendency raises
power imbalance between SL that comes from the east or peripheral culture and
TL that comes from the west or center culture.
The inequality and un-reciprocal relationship in translation indicate
colonialism practice, which is called by Niranjana (1992) as the relationship of
unequal languages (cited in Baer, 2014, p. 234). Niranjana also states that
translation is never practiced in neutral places that apply absolute equality (as
cited by Merrill, 2013). According to Merrill (2013), the statement of Niranjana
applies to the relationship between European language, such as English and Latin,
and colonizer or colonized exchange.
The inequality in translation practice can be dismantled through
postcolonialism. Niranjana (1992) proposes that postcolonial attempts to discover
colonized past and histories constituting colonial discourse in the translation
works (1992, p.43). It destabilizes colonized culture that is constructed in
translation. Moreover, it also gives colonized culture and language changes to
introduce and be introduced thus the colonized is not perceived as an exotic other.
In addition, it prevents imperial practice through translation.
Postcolonialism in translation scrutinizes intercultural challenges in context
indicated by power relation imbalance and the issue of “identity representation
and difference central to any cultural central to any cultural framework of
translation” (Shamma, 2009, p. 185). Postcolonial study in translation attempts to
dismantle that western translation expands colonial expansion. It reveals how the
“orient” language and culture are colonized and suppressed by western language
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and culture through translation practices. According to Bandia (2009),
postcolonial translation studies specifically focus on scrutinizing the effect of
translation practice on the source culture of the colonized country; it also attempts
to investigate impacts of homogenizing and colonizing language culture. It may
assist to find the implication of translation study that is based on linguistics
approach. Thus, the study is not limited to a description of linguistics data or
discussion of equivalence and translation technique itself. However, it helps to see
the linguistics data beyond. This is in line with Bandia proclaims that postcolonial
study “makes it possible to transcend the limitations of a purely linguistic
approach to translation studies, and allows us to have a broader view of language
in use as well as to account for linguistic variation within the postcolonial text ”
(2009, p. 129-130).
Colonialism practice may be recognized through linguistic inequality and
forestalled by linguistics resistance. Approaches to encounter colonialism in the
translation are proposed Gupta (1998). According to Gupta (1998), there are three
kinds of linguistics inequality, namely political inequality, surface inequality, and
deep inequality. Political inequality is power imbalance that is established through
the economic power of the target language. The power arises from the economic
power of British and USA. Surface inequality is imbalance power that is
presented by the range of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and phonology. The
domination through the size of language may influence the word choices in
translation. It may enhance the more application of TL to domesticate ST.
Therefore, the SL meaning can be expressed with various nuances of TL. TT with
bigger language size also may dominate the SL, which is from third world
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country, by economizing the original. Deep inequality refers to the mode of
intentions that try to be conveyed through translation text.
To encounter those inequalities, resistance may be practiced in translation.
Gupta (1998) also introduces three tiers of resistance in translation, namely:
political resistance, surface resistance, and deep resistance. Political resistance is
related to what text is translated, translator identity, and for whom the translation
is aimed. Surface and deep resistance which are classified into linguistic
resistance try to resist colonialism by applying certain words and stylistic.
Resistance towards inequality of linguistics may be done by disrupting
domestication culture living in translation. Steiner (1992) states domestication
tends to be practiced when the more remote linguistics-cultural source is applied
(as cited by Gupta, 1998). The disruption of domestication can be practiced
through foreignization. It is in line to Gupta (1998) states one way of resisting
domestication is by avoiding the use of easily recognizable codes and foreignizing
the code in an innovative way.
Besides discussing imbalances in translation, postcolonialism also discusses
orientalism that is proposed by Edward Said. Postcolonialism resists and averts
orientalism. Orientalism describes and emphasizes the distinction of the east as
the Orient and the west as the occident (Said, 1978). Orientalism is also a concept
that is applied by the occident to encounter the orient, in terms of creating a
remark about the Orient, authorizing picture about it, describing it by instilling the
idea, arrange it, and govern over it (Said, 1978). It implies that orientalism that
emerges in Europe made statements about the characteristics and culture of Asia,
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the Middle East, and Africa dwellers. Then, they justify the idea by spreading it
and colonized the orient.
The occident establishes and manipulates the imagery of the orient
characteristics. The occident portrays the Orient as “irrational, depraved (fallen),
childlike, different” vice versa, the occident is “rational, virtuous, mature, normal”
(Said, 1978: 40). The self-claim also states that the west is biologically superior to
the east; therefore, the west perceived that they developed faster and be able to
create sophisticated civilization than others. In addition, Said (1978) states that the
occident justified the orient as lazy, lustful, irrational, and violent but also exotic
and mysterious.
Orientalist perceives that the Orient is an object that needs to be freed from
their belief through the occident’s religion. It is the object of redemption and
missionary work (Hart, 2004). The Orient was also considered as an ignorant and
superstitious believer by the occident missionaries, therefore, they really need
Christian conversion (Weir, 2011).
The occident’s claim of its superiority towards the east also brings the idea
that the occident is been able to understand the orient better than the orient itself
(Said, 1978). Therefore, it argues that the Orient is innocent and pure and justify
the west to control and help it, for its own sake. This conception puts west in the
level which is higher than east and leads to the acts that may oppress the east. This
is in line to Said’s (1978/ 1995) statement that orientalism helped in the
emergence of imperialist, racist, and ethnocentric mindset when they encounter
other culture (Said, 1978/ 1995: 204, as cited by Hatim and Munday, 2004: 108).
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Orientalism is reflected in writing, ideology, and study that is Orientalized
by dominating them with imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases of the
orients (Said, 1979). Therefore, Orientalism as one of the colonial acts can be
traced in the works of occident’s that are related to orients, such as literary work,
paintings, and translation works. It interprets orients civilization, people and its
vicinity through the occident’s point of view. Since translation is a practice of
colonialism discursive from west to colonize the east, orientalism interpretation
can be reflected in translation work in which the SL is originated from the
language of the east. Example of the orientalism in translation practice has
happened in Indian texts translated by Europeans (Niranjana, 1990).
Ethnocentrism is also one of the key notions that are discussed in
postcolonialism translation. Ethnocentrisms “implies a set of
structures that position one’s own culture as a center for the production and
distribution of knowledge of other culture, which are to various degrees
peripheral to it” (Benson, 2001, p. 4). It means that ethnocentrism sets a standard
of judgment about other culture. It is formed according to the assumption towards
other culture developed by one culture’s language, behavior, custom, beliefs, and
religion. Ethnocentrism may lead to racism and oppression to other cultures that
are subjugated by the dominator.
Ethnocentrism may be reflected in translation work. It is presented in the
application of foreignization and domestication. According to Berman (1992),
ethnocentrism is covered by transmissibility and it serves a systematic negation of
foreignness of the foreign works (as cited by Asadzadeh and Abbasi, 2012). It
implies that ethnocentrism is hidden in the notion of fluency in conveying SL and
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it presents disagreement in maintaining the original terms. Another notion that is
important to be observed in searching ethnocentrism within translation works is
by considering non-ethnocentric translation criteria. Asadzadeh & Abbasi (2012)
propose three requirements that do not reflect ethnocentric ideas. Firstly, it does
not present an imbalance application between foreignization and domestication.
Secondly, translation work must maintain foreign terms and meaning correctly.
Thirdly, the translation work changes a peripheral culture that is not presented in
foreign work correctly and undermined the domestic constituencies other than the
one that is dominated.
Postcolonialism study also tries to dismantle exoticization, the attempts of
the west to create the image of the east that has different culture as exotic. The
culture is perceived as something that is exciting and unusual just because it
comes from the other part of the world, especially outside the west. Therefore,
east culture can be a commodity to be enjoyed by the west. Exoticism loves
remote culture for the remoteness (Tadarov as cited in Hugan, 1994). Colmeiro
defines exoticism as “signifying an exoticness essential to radical otherness” and
“the process whereby such radical otherness is either experienced by a traveler or
translated, transported, represented for consumption at home” (2002, p. 4).
Said proposes that exoticism is a part of orientalism discourse that is a
western way to dominate, restructure, and have authority over the Orient (cited by
Colmeiro, 2002). The Orient is “exoticized” by the occident. The exoticism
restructures the orient through fantasy; an imagination built by enjoyable self-
reassurance also expansionism towards others through the apparently innocuous
exploitation covered as it is playful and delirious (Savigliano, 1995 cited in Shay
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and Sellers-Young, 2003). Exoticism is practiced by representing the other’s
identities in frivolously; powering over the other; practicing
“indiscriminately combining fragments, crumbs of knowledge and fantasy in
disrespectful, sweeping gestures justified by harmless banality” (Savigliano, 1995,
p. 189 in Shay and Sellers-Young, 2003). It implies that exoticism is an image of
the orient built from the imagination of the occident. The occident creates
exoticism by creating the representation of others according to what is on the
orient’s daydreaming. In translating, exoticism is practiced by substituting SL
slang, dialect, and insignificant words using TL rough equivalents (Bastin, 1998).
2.1.6 Review of Para Priyayi
Para Priyayi is an Indonesian literary work written by Umar Khayam. It
was published in 1992. The novel presents about the daily life of Sastrodarsono’s
family, Javanese gentries living in Wanagalih, a small regency in East Java, the
Indonesian war of Independence era, Gestapu, the old order and new order of
Indonesia.
Para Priyayi involves Sastrodarsono and Lantip as the main characters of
the novel. Sastrodarsono was a Javanese peasant’s son who was able to achieve a
higher social level because of the support from wealthy gentry from Kedungsimo
named Ndoro Seten. Sastrodarsono attained higher education and became a
teacher. Then, he became a priyayi baru or a gentry’s status that was received not
according to descendant but educational experience. Sastrodarsono and his family
lived a typical life of Javanese noblemen. They lived comfortably and had good
access to education and culture.
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One day, The Sastrodarsonos decided to foster Wage a fatherless son of
poor tempeh seller from Wanalawas so that Wage would have an opportunity for
a better life. Then, Sastrodarsono gave Wage a new name, Lantip, and decided to
send him to school. Lantip was an intelligent and kind-hearted boy. He served and
helped Sastrodarsono’s family very well as his gratitude.
The life of Sastrodarsono, as a Javanese gentry, and Lantip represents the
life of traditional Javanese gentries and peasants in the rural area of East Java
during the Dutch Colonialism until the new order era. Their lifestyle in the novel
reveals the daily life culture of Javanese people. Therefore, the novel contains rich
Javanese cultural loaded terms.
Para Priyayi (PP) was translated into English in 2013. The novel was
rendered into Javanese Gentry (JG) to introduce Indonesian culture and literature
under Lontar Publisher, an independent and non-profit organization based in
Jakarta, Indonesia. The translation of PP made the novel accessible to
international readers. They can obtain JG by buying it through websites, such as
the official website of Lontar publisher or amazon.com. The book also can be
purchased in Periplus bookstore.
PP was translated by Vladislav Zhukov. He is an Australian with Ukraine
descendant. He was a rifleman-interpreter with the Australian Army in South
Vietnam. Then, he began learning the Indonesian language with the New Zealand
army when he was posted in South East Asia. Zhukov has a degree in languages
and Asian Studies and a master degree in defense strategy. He also studied in
Gadjah Mada University in 1992, the year of PP publication and when Umar
Kayam was a literature lecturer there. Zhukov did not only translate PP, but also
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translate Vietnamese literature entitled The Kim Van Kieu of Nguyen Du, Italian
novel entitled Pescara Tales (1902): Spirit and Flesh: Images of Abruzzo, and
Russian literary work Old Hunting Grounds and Other Stories: Volume One and
Volume Two.
2.2 Review of Related Studies
The significance of the review of related study is aimed to see what aspects
that had been elaborated by other researchers and parts that need to be scrutinized.
In the review of related studies section, four studies related to the translation
ideology and translating culture-specific bound.
A translation study about translating culture-specific items has been
conducted previously by Brasiene, a Lithuania scholar in 2013. In her study, she
scrutinizes the translation procedures practiced in a literary work entitled Down
and Out in Paris and London translated by Orwell. Her study focuses on the
translation procedures applied in translating cultural bound terms. She employs a
theory about translation procedures proposed by Davies (2003) that classifies the
procedures into 7 types. After analyzing the procedures, Brasiene groups the
translation strategies into foreignization and domestication. Her study discovers
that the translator retains French culture. It is indicated through the foreignization
strategy that is more prevailed than domestication. According to Brasiene (2013),
the French CSIs from the novel are translated using preservation, localization, and
addition strategies.
A similar study about cultural specific items in translation is also conducted
by Nurhantoro (2013). He analyzes words with Javanese cultural concept in
Indonesian novel Mangunwijaya’s Durga Umayi that is translated into English.
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The culturally loaded words are analyzed using translation techniques proposed
by Molina and Albir (2002). Then, he analyzes the dominant ideology of
translation using foreignization and domestication theory proposed by Venuti’s
(2009). His study discovers that domestication is outnumbered foreignization in
the English translation of Durga Umayi.
Translation study related to cultural specific bound is also conducted by
Fitriyani. The study describes foreignization and domestication also meaning
equivalence in translating culturally bound expressions in Para Priyayi and
Javanese Gentry. The result indicates that foreignization is prevalent in the study.
Moreover, according to the discovery, the meaning of culturally bound
expressions in the object of the study is highly transferred.
Previously, in 2009, two Iranian scholars, Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi
also conduct a translation study in transferring cultural specific items in translated
Ernest Hemingway’s works from 1950 until 2000 diachronically. The result of
their study indicates that domestication is the major translation strategy implied to
translate CSI. The result indicates that domestication is highly applied.
Although the aforementioned studies above indicate that translation study
about CSIs, foreignization, and domestication, and Javanese cultural terms have
been conducted, there is another part of translating CSIs in Para Priyayi (PP) and
Javanese Gentry that still can be scrutinized, in an instances the ideology behind
the application of translation strategies through postcolonial translation point of
view. Therefore, the difference of this study is that it scrutinizes translation
techniques and ideology behind translation strategy through postcolonial study.
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2.3 Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework section provides an overview of the logic flow
implemented in this study. It presents the application of theories that are written in
the review of related theories to answer the proposed research questions. Theory
about culture-specific items was applied in eliciting Javanese culture-specific
words and phrases. Theory related to translation techniques was employed to
discover applied translation techniques in rendering Javanese CSIs in Para
Priyayi and Javanese Gentry. Then, the theory about domestication and
foreignization and postcolonialism was used to scrutinize the ideology if
translating employed in rendering Javanese CSIs. The flow of thought is presented
in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework
PP
JG
CSI Translation
Techniques
Translation
Strategy
Domestication
Foreignization
Postcolonial Translation
Orientalist
Attitude
Ethnocentricsm
Exoticism
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Chapter three discusses the methodology applied in conducting this
research. It consists of a type of study, research data, data collection, and data
analysis. The first section explains the type of study and the analysis approach.
The second part is about the research data that were analyzed in this study. The
third part is about the step of collecting the data. The fourth section is about the
elaboration about data presentation in the study.
3.1 Type of Study
The type of this study is descriptive translation study (DTS) proposed by
Toury (1995) because this study tries to describe, explain and predict phenomena
happens in the translation work as the object of study. It elaborates the translation
technique and strategies in PP and JG by comparing them. Then, the study
explains the phenomena in the techniques and strategies of translation. Moreover,
it predicts the colonial discourse and traces within the translation works. Then,
this study describes and explains colonial phenomena occur in the translation of
PP and JG. Therefore, it is in line to Cheung’s (2013) statement declaring that
DTS searches the established probable outcome of translation behavior by
controlling translation practice as an empirical discipline with a hierarchical
organization and a structured research program” (as cited in Castello, 2014). It is
also in line with Toury (1995) proposing that DTS is a translation study approach
involving “the empirical, non-prescriptive analysis of STs and TTs“ to identify
characteristics and laws of translation” (as cited by Hatim and Munday, 2004, p.
338).
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3.2 Research Data
In order to discover the findings in this study, the writer chose Para Priyayi
as the source of ST and its English translation work entitled Javanese Gentry as
the TT. The ST was written by Umar Kayam. The TT was translated by Vladislav
Zhukov. The book was chosen because it provides a rich source of culture-
specific items. There were 401 culture-specific items presented in the ST that
were scrutinized. In addition, this study also used the interview with translator
result to find colonial ideology behind the applied translation techniques and
strategies.
3.3 Data Collection
In the process of collecting the data, the writer applied document analysis
technique. According to Leedy and Ormrood (2005), document analysis is a
detailed and systematic process to examine the contents of books, newspaper film,
video, and so forth. In collecting the data, firstly, the writer read the ST and TT
thoroughly to discover the CSIs. Secondly, the writer selected sentences
containing CSIs from ST. Thirdly; all of the selected data were distributed into the
table. Table 3.1 presents the model of data distribution in the table.
Table 3.1 Blue Print of Data Collection Table
Material Culture
No Data
code
ST
ST
sentence
Data
code
TT
TT Strategies
Foreignization Domestication
B P R LT C A Ad EE G LD V Co DC LA LC M S
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Table Information
Translation Procedures
B : borrowing G : generalization
P : particularization LD : literal domestication
R : reduction V : variation
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Firstly, data inform of culture-specific terms were selected from ST.
Secondly, data were coded according to the chapter, page, and line. Code C
presents the chapter, P presents the line, and numbers indicate the number of the
line where the data were found.
It is exemplified by ST/C1/P10 which means that the data was taken from
the source text chapter 1 page 10. Third, the ST sentence column was filled by
distributing selected CSI from Para Priyayi. Fourth, the translated CSIs were
selected from Javanese Gentry, then, they were coded according to the chapter,
page, line where they were discovered. The process is exemplified by TT/C1/P
10/13. The code indicates that the datum was discovered in the target text, chapter
one, page ten, and line thirteen.
Every selected item form ST and TT was distributed into twelve data
collection tables. The classification of the table is according to the twelve domains
of CSI. Therefore, in this process the data were distributed into several tables
based on the topic, in an instance, CSIs related to entertainment activity were
distribute to the data collection table for social culture. The whole process of data
collection and the process of table entry are exemplified by Table 3.2.
LT : literal translation Co : compensation
C : calque DC : discursive creation
A : amplification LA : linguistic amplification
Ad : adaptation LC : linguistics compression
EE : established equivalent M :modulation
S : substitution
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Table 3.2 Example of Data Distribution in Social Cultue
Social Culture
No Data
code
ST
ST sentence Data
code
TT
TT Strategies
Foreignization Domestication
B P R LT C A Ad EE G LD V Co DC LA LC M S
1 C1/p1
0/20
Sesungguhnya
permainan kartu
yang disebut kesukan oleh para
priyayi itu bukanlah
perjudian dalam arti
besar-besaran
C1/P
15/7
Not that the teacher
was addicted to the
serious gambling, not at all, cards being
merely one of the
habitual minor
pleasures indulged
in by the lower
gentry of his circle,
a past time
institutionalized in
the word kesukan,
or simply diversion.
2
Table Information
Translation Procedures
B : borrowing G : generalization
P : particularization LD : literal domestication R : reduction V : variation
LT : literal translation Co : compensation
C : calque DC : discursive creation
A : amplification LA : linguistic amplification
Ad : adaptation LC : linguistics compression
EE : established equivalent M :modulation
S : substitution
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In the example above, the boldly written word kesukan was selected to be CSI.
The word was taken from chapter one of the ST, page ten, line twenty. Thus,
kesukan was coded ST/C1/P10/20. After the data from ST was selected, the
translation of the selected CSI was chosen form TT. The translated CSI was
founded in the TT chapter one, page fifteen, and line seven. In TT kesukan is
translated into kesukan, or simply diversion.
Data elicitation was not only conducted by collecting CSIs from both PP
and JG but also by conducting an interview via email with the translator. The
interview is defined as a one-way information exchange by which the interviewer
extract essential information from the interviewee (Edley and Litosseliti, 2010).
Interviewed can open access to the information that cannot be obtained by
observing the object of study directly (Patton, 1980 in Litosseloti, 2010). Since
direct observation towards the translation techniques and strategies in the object
of study was not enough to retrieve the ideology behind the translation of CSIs in
PP and JG, the interview was necessary to be conducted to discover the ideology
of translating. Therefore, during the interview, the questions given were about the
translator’s background and his reasons to practice such translation technique in
encountering and bridging the cultural difference. The question lists can be
referred to in Appendix 17.
3.4 Data Analysis
After eliciting and putting the data accordingly, the data were analyzed by
comparing CSI in ST and TT and scrutinized according to translation techniques.
The example of data analysis is presented in Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3 Example of Data Analysis in Social Culture
Material Culture
No Data
code
ST
ST sentence Data
code
TT
TT Strategies
Foreignization Domestication
B P R LT C A Ad EE G LD V Co DC LA LC M S
1 C1/p1
0/20
Sesungguhnya
permainan kartu
yang disebut kesukan oleh para
priyayi itu bukanlah
perjudian dalam arti
besar-besaran
C1/P
15/7
Not that the teacher
was addicted to the
serious gambling, not at all, cards being
merely one of the
habitual minor
pleasures indulged
in by the lower
gentry of his circle,
a past time
institutionalized in
the word kesukan,
or simply diversion.
1
2
Table Information
Translation Procedures B : borrowing G : generalization
P : particularization LD : literal domestication
R : reduction V : variation
LT : literal translation Co : compensation C : calque DC : discursive creation
A : amplification LA : linguistic amplification
Ad : adaptation LC : linguistics compression
EE : established equivalent M :modulation S : substitution
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Then, according to the translation techniques, they were classified into
foreignization and domestication. In addition, the translation techniques and
strategies were juxtaposed with the interview result. The process was continued
by analyzing them through a postcolonial point of view.
3.5 Data Presentation
In this research, the data are presented in tables and sets of code related to
the CSI classifications, and translation technique and translation strategy. Table
3.3 presents the domain of CSI and translation techniques discovered in the
objects of the study. The total occurrences of translation technique and translation
strategies in every domain are written in Table 3.4. Then the result interview is
presented in the appendix 17.
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Table 3.4 The Blue Print of Analysis Result Table
No Domain
Domestication Foreignization TO
TA
L
Br LT Cal Amp Prt Rdc Adp Eq Gen LD Var Com DC LA LC Mod Sub Desc omit trans
Ecology
material culture
social culture
Organization,
Custom, Activities,
Procedure, social
conception
Gesture and habit
Measurement
system
Anthrophonym
Dialect
fictional Character
Date
Idiom
Metaphor
Translation
technique Total
Ideology of
translation total
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Chapter IV discusses the analysis result of the study. It elaborates the
translation techniques applied in translating culture-specific items in ST: Para
Priyayi and TT: Javanese Gentry. It also presents the ideology of translating in
the object of the study.
4.1 Translation Techniques in Translating Javanese CSIs in PP
Before analyzing the translation techniques, the selected CSIs are classified
into twelve culture domains. There are 401 CSIs classified into ecology, material
culture, social culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social
conception, gesture and habit, measurement system, anthroponym, dialect,
fictional character, date, idiom, and metaphor. The detailed of Javanese CSIs in
Javanese Gentry culture domain classification is presented in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para Priyayi/Javanese Gentry
No Domain Numbers of
Data
Percentage
1. Anthroponym 92 23%
2. Material Culture 65 16%
3. Organization, Custom, Activities,
Procedure, social conception
49 12%
4. Social Culture 40 10%
5. Gesture and Habit 40 10%
6. Dialect 40 10%
7. Fictional Character 35 9%
8. Metaphor 14 3%
9. Idiom 11 3%
10. Ecology 5 1%
11. Date 4 1%
12. Measurement System 3 1%
Total 401 100%
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According to Table 4.1, there are 5 words about ecology. The words refer to
flora, fauna, and earth typology. In this study, ecology domain is exemplified by
macan gembong, padi gogo ranca, and tegalan. Then, there are 53 words related
to material culture denoting foods, beverages, mean of transportation, building,
clothes, and tools, such as tumpeng, kebaya, gerobak, and pendopo. This study
also discovers 52 words about social cultures, such as a form of entertainment and
occupations. Social culture is exemplified by kesukan and mantri pocokan and
tayuban. In this study, there are also found 49 words about the organization,
custom, activities, procedure, and social conception. Those domains are presented
by selametan, tepa selira marang sapada-pada, saru, and so forth. There are 40
words related to gesture and habit (e.g.: keropok and metingkrang), then, 3
occurrences of measurement systems (e.g.: bau). There are 92 words related to
kinship, a royal title, and name of a person, name of places that are classified into
anthroponym, such as genduk, tole, kanjeng gusti, and so forth. In this research,
40 discourse markers that indicate Javanese dialect are discovered. The Javanese
dialect is marked by the use of niku, dalem, kowe, and so forth. Then, there are 35
words about a fictional character from prominent literary works. The fictional
character is exemplified by Prabu Angling Dharma, Anggang, etc. This study
also discovered four words related to Javanese date (e.g. Selasa Kliwon), eleven
Javanese idioms (e.g. merak ati), thirteen metaphors (kencono wingko)
corresponding to Javanese culture.
After classifying the selected CSIs into cultural domains, they are analyzed
and classified according to their translation techniques. According to the analyses,
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there are fifteen types of translation technique applied in Zhukov’s Javanese
Gentries. The distribution of the translation techniques is presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Translation Techniques of Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para
Priyayi/Javanese Gentry
No Translation Techniques Occurrences Precentage
1. Description 93 24%
2. Borrowing 82 21%
3. Amplification 51 14%
4. Generalization 49 12%
5. Compensation 30 7%
6. Established equivalent 26 6%
7. Adaptation 22 5%
8. Literal translation 15 4%
9. Omission 13 3%
10. Calque 7 2%
11. Linguistic Amplification 6 1%
12. Modulation 3 1%
13. Variation 3 1%
14. Transposition 1 0%
Total 401 100%
The research discovers description as the most applied translation technique.
It is applied 93 times in translating CSIs in PP. Then, the highest number is
followed by borrowing translation techniques. There are 88 occurrences of
borrowing. The third most employed translation technique is amplification. The
translator translates 50 CSIs using amplification. The lowest frequency of
translation technique applied in JG is transposition, which is only applied one
time. According to the study, there are five translation techniques that are not
discovered in this case, namely discursive creation, linguistics compression,
particularization, reduction, and substitution.
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This study found that 21% of the Javanese CSI is described in TL Then, it is
followed by borrowing translation technique. According to this study, 20% of the
data are translated by borrowing CSI SL into TL.
Chart 4.1 Percentage of Translation Technique of CSI in JG
4.1.1 Amplification
This research discovers that amplification occurs 51 times out of 401 CSIs
found in ST. It is applied to translate words from the domain of ecology, material
culture, social culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social
conception, anthroponomy, fictional character and dialect, and gesture and habit.
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Appendix 1 presents amplification that is applied in translating CSIs in Para
Priyayi/ Javanese Gentry.
There is one occurrence of amplification in the domain related to ecology.
The application of amplification technique in ecology domain is exemplified by
example (1).
(1) ST Ini yang disebut candikala, Le. (SL/ C2/ P16 /1)
TT We call it candikala, dear, when the sunlight comes
together like that in sheaves. It just happens just before
dark. (TL/ C2/ P22/ 12)
According to Purwadi (2005), candikala refers to “red stroke of red sunlight in the
twilight”. The translator attaches additional information in order to assist the TT
reader understanding towards candikala. The term of candikala in ST is not
translated to another term that equivalence to TL. The Javanese term is maintained
and its description in English is embedded.
The amplification process is also discovered in translating material culture
related terms. There are twelve occurrences of the amplification process in
translating terms about architecture and food. The application of amplification in
translating food is exemplified by rendering process of pendopo Prangwedanan in
example (2).
(2) ST Saya diperintahkan untuk sowan menghadap pendopo
Prangwedanan, istana kecil di timur istana pusat
Mangkunegaran (SL/ C5/ P157/3)
TT The Prangwedana pendopo, the gathering place of
military stuff in past days. (TL/C5/P191/18)
The chunk of the TT indicates the amplification techniques applied in
translating pendopo Prangwedanan. Additional description “the gathering place
of military stuff in past days” is attached beside the untranslated terms to assist the
TT reader to understand the term.
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Amplification also can be one of the translation techniques in encountering
fictional characters from Javanese epoch that is near to Javanese culture. Javanese
people take moral value from Ramayana and Mahabharata epoch and make them
as role models in living their life. They also adopt the characters’ name to give
their children a name. The story becomes one of the essential aspects of Javanese
people life. However, those epochs do not exist in TL culture. Therefore, the
problem in presenting the well-known fictional character in TT is to introduce the
description of the characters related to the words are embedded next to the terms.
Amplification in translating fictional characters terms is exemplified by the
translation process of Rahwana in (3).
(3) ST Saya kira karena keberaniannya beperang melawan
Rahwana hingga dia gugur. Kemudian Karna diambil
sebagai contoh karena dia berani memilih berpihak pada
para Kurawa yang jahat (SL/ C6/ P186/23)
TT And if His Highness Mangkunegaran IV also chose him as
an example, and the first of the three at that, it was probably
for Sumantri’s heroic, hopeless fight against the giant
Rahwana to fulfill his ultimate service to his king. And to
set beside Sumantri’s late-found notion of noble
responsibility, next His Highness selected Karna for his
resolve to side with the evil Kurawa brothers
(TL/C6/P226/28)
Rahwana is the king of Alengka Kingdom who has giant like physical features.
He kidnapped Shinta, the very beautiful wife of Rama. The word Rahwana in this
part of the text is important because this part talks about Ramayana epoch that is a
part of Javanese literary culture. Therefore, Rahwana should be maintained in TT.
However, it does not exist in TL culture and TT readers do not recognize
Rahwana. To assist the TL readers understanding regarding Rahwana, the
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translator add “the giant” words before the word Rahwana in order to give
information about physical appearance of Rahwana.
Amplification also helps to translate Javanese people beliefs in myth,
deities, and mythology creatures attached in PP. The technique is applied in
translating Kanjeng Ratu Kidul (the queen who dwells and conquers the south
sea), ghost, monsters, genies, and so forth within PP. It is exemplified in
translating Ratu Kidul, the queen of the south sea in example (4).
(4) ST Terutama Hari dan Lantip yang kenyang diceritai tentang
lakon-lakon ketoprak. Tentang Prabu Anglingdarma yang
sakti dan ajaib itu, tentang Raden, Ronggo, putra
Panembahan Senapati dengan Ratu Kidul yang gagah,
tetapi juga terlalu sakti dan berbahaya, tentang Anggang-
Anggang Siluman yang menyeramkan. (SL/ C5/ P175/29)
TL Stories about royal Anglingdarma and his miraculous
powers; about Prince Ronggo, the valorous son of glorious
Senapati who founded the Mataram dynasty, the lad
Ronggo begotten by Senapati from Ratu Kidul, the
Empress of the South Sea; about the horrible spider
Siluman defeated by Prince Ronggo: all told with ardour
and spellbinding histrionics. (TL/C5/P213/11)
Ratu Kidul or Kanjeng Ratu Kidul is a guardian goddess of the south sea
which is a part of Indian Ocean. Javanese people believe that she is a spiritual
spouse to the sultans of Mataram kingdoms and all of the kings from Mataram
descendants. In several occasions, the Sultanate of Ngayogyakarta as a fraction of
Mataram kingdom and Javanese people usually make some rituals and give an
offering to Kanjeng Ratu Kidul in several beaches located in the southern part of
Java.
Since TL culture does not share the same mythology, TT readers might face
problems in understanding the text related to Javanese fictional characters in the
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mythology. Therefore, amplification is applied to bridge cultural differences.
Additional information or description is attached near the untranslated word.
Although amplification may help the TT readers to understand the
mythology and other CSIs, it also may give wrong understanding towards the
terms by attaching improper description so that the translation becomes not
equivalence and the readers gain the wrong information. Amplification with
wrong attached description is discovered in TT once and it is exemplified by the
translation of Pasopati Arjuna in example (5).
(5) ST Dia malah gugur dipanah Pasopati Arjuna. (SL/ C6/
P187/1)
TL Yes, even so. And even though he would be killed by an
arrow launched by Pasopati Arjuna, his younger brother
and rival. (TL/C6/P227/12)
According to Soekatno (1992), pasopati arjuna is an arcane arrow with crescent
formed arrowhead that made of Batara Kala’s fangs. Soekatno states it is
bestowed to Arjuna by the deity. However, in TT, the additional description
reflects false representation. In the TT, pasopati arjuna refers to Arjuna the owner
of the arrows.
Amplification is also applied in rendering name that is including in
anthroponomy domain. It is exemplified by (6) in translating “Harimurti”, a name
given to Hardoyo’s son.
(6) ST :Kata orang bayi yang kulitnya merah mangar-mangar akan
menjadi hitam bila sudah tumbuh dewasa. Maka kami
namakan dia Harimurti, dengan harapan ia akan sehitam
Batara Kresna, titisan Wisnu itu. (SL/ C5/ P161/36)
TT We had a boy, Harimurti, We had given him a name
which translated from the Sanskrit as "Touched by the
Light of the Sun", because at birth his body was quite red ,
and wisdom had it that this was a sign he would grow up to
be swarthy. (TL/ C5/ P197/ 4)
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4.1.2 Borrowing
There are 88 occurrences of borrowing applied in material culture, social
culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception,
anthroponomy, dialect, and fictional character domains in this research.
Borrowing is mostly applied in translating Javanese names and Javanese cultural
bound addressee terms. 41 out of 88 occurrences of borrowing are applied in
translating the proper name. Dialect becomes the second highest realm that
applied borrowing translation technique. This study discovers 6 times of
borrowing application in translating dialect. Then, material culture is the third
highest. Borrowing is applied five times in that realm. Then, the occurrence of
borrowing is followed by translating technique applied in rendering organization,
custom, activities, procedure, social conception realm (four times) and social
culture (two times). The complete information about the discovery of borrowing
technique in this study is presented in appendix 2. Borrowing application in
translating CSI is exemplified by (7). It is applied in translating phrase Embah
Kakung Sastro Darsono.
(7) ST Saya selalu heran bagaimana seorang ibu rumah tangga
yang bekerja begitu keras mendampingi seorang suami
seperti Embah Kakung Sastrodarsono yang begitu aktif
di masyarakat dan serta mengelola tegalan serta sawah
tadah hujan dan mengurus begitu banyak orang di rumah,
bisa menjaga tubuh yang sehat serta wajah yang tetap
segar dan cantik pada usia yang tujuh puluh tahun. (SL/
C8/ P234/7)
TT Until then I had been happy, happy if somewhat astonished,
that woman of seventy could go on looking so fresh and
pleasant, so healthily flushed; and that when she had so
much to do by the side of her husband, Embah Kakung
Sastrodarsono. (TL/C8/P285/6)
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The example (7) indicates that the phrase Embah Kakung Sastrodarsono in SL,
does not change in TL. The Javanese kinship is taken the term directly.
Borrowing is also applied in translating words CSIs related material
culture. It is exemplified by the translation of keris.
(8) SL Dan yang juga menarik dari kamar itu adalah lemari kecil
tempat menyimpan keris-keris Ndoro Guru.
(SL/ C2/ P17 /31)
TL Around it was other attraction: a large and fine teak wood
wardrobe, an oval mirror hanging on the souther wall, a
small cabinet where the teacher's krisses-the
appurtenances of a priyayi -were stored, and in a corner
leant his ceremonial spears. (TL/ C2/ P24/ 25)
The TT adapts the spelling of keris into kriss. Additional information is also
added to amplify the function of kriss and its meaning for the priyayi.
4.1.3 Calque
In this study, there are 7 CSIs translated using calque. According to the
research, calque is applied once in translating a word related to the endemic
animal. The phenomena are exemplified by (9) in the translating process of macan
gembong phrases.
(9) ST Berbagai satwa masih menghuni hutan. Bahkan harimau
loreng, yang di daerah situ disebut macan gembong, yang
anggun juga galak itu, waktu itu masih berkeliaran. (SL/
C3/ P33/21)
TT At that time, about 1910 by Christian calendar, Javanese
villages were still surrounded by considerable forest, and
all sort of animal roamed in the depths: striped tigers, for
examples - handsome, dangerous beast -- and native wild
oxen as well. (TL/C3/P44/31)
Harimau loreng or macan gembong is one of the tiger species that is inhabited
specifically in-depth forests of Java Island. It is the biggest one among other
species of tigers in the world. The animal is difficult to be seen nowadays because
it is estimated to be extinct. In TL surroundings, all of the types of tigers in the
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world is known as tiger itself. Harimau loreng or Macan gembong is borrowed
and translated literary by TL; harimau is translated into tiger and loreng is
rendered into striped.
The application of calque is also discovered in translating local
educational institution, sekolah desa that is presented in example (10). The term is
borrowed to the TL because TL language does not have the equivalent terms and
the concept of sekolah desa. Then, it is translated directly into TL.
(10) SL Kakang Atmokasan, moso borong, terserah panjenengan, ya
ini putri panjenengan yang masih bodoh. Sekolah juga
Cuma tamat sekolah desa ditambah satu tahun ngenger
Ndoro Nyonyah Administratur pabrik gula Mbalong
(SL/ C3/ P42/ 3)
TL She only managed five years at the village school and a
year with the wife of the administrateur of sugar factory
Mbalong, living in, doing chores there. (TL/ C3/ P55 /32)
Sekolah desa was an educational institution during the Dutch colonial era. At that
time, Indonesian commoners were only allowed to go to sekolah desa or village
school. In that school, the students who were from peasant family studied simple
mathematics, how to read in the alphabet, and how to write for three years. This
type of school only existed in Indonesia during the colonial time. TL readers do
not recognize this type of school. Therefore, calque was applied to help the reader
to understand the words. The word sekolah is translated into school and desa is
translated into the village.
Calque is also applied to translate CSIs from other domains such as social
culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, dialect,
metaphor, and idiom. Other examples of calque in this research are presented in
appendix 3.
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4.1.4 Literal Translation
This study discovers nine words translated using literal translation in this
study. The technique is applied to translate ecology, material culture, social
culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception realm,
behavior, measurement system, anthroponym, dialect, idiom, and metaphor. The
detail information of literal translation application found in this study is presented
in appendix 4.
Based on the findings, the literal translation is mostly applied in translating
metaphor. There are 5 metaphors and 1 Jarwa dhasak that are translated with
literal translation technique. In this study, Javanese jarwa dhasak is translated
word by word instead of adapting into other forms that are more familiar in TL. It
is exemplified by (11).
(11) ST Orang Jawa mengatakan istri adalah garwa, sigarane
nyawa, yang berarti belahan jiwa. (SL/ C7/ P207/3)
TT half a soul, we wives are, that's the saying
(TL/ C7/ P253/ 4)
To translate garwa, sigarane nyawa that is applied to utter Javanese belief related
to the relationship between Javanese spouses, the translator applies literal
translation. The metaphor is translated into “half a soul, we wives are, that’s the
saying”. In this case, each word is rendered into TL.
. The literal translation is also applied to render idiom in the ST. The literally
translated idiom is exemplified by example (12).
(12) SL Ya baiklah, Le. Hati-hati ikut orang. Yang rajin dan bekerja.
Juga sekolahmu yang baik, Le. Ingat janjimu kepada saya.
Mikul duwur mendem jero! (SL/ C4/ P137/ 5 )
TL And good luck to you, lad. Be good and obey those you go
to live with. Work hard and honestly at school and
everywhere. Don’t forget our little agreement, and whatever
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you do, you know the motto: and Lift high! Dig deep! (TL/
C4/ P168/ 15)
mikul nduwur, mendhem jero which means “lift up high the good deeds or the best
side of your family and bury deep the flaws of your family”. The proverb that
becomes one of guidance for Javanese family has translated words per word
although it does not precisely convey its meaning. It is translated into “lift high,
dig deep!” Mikul which actually means to shoulder something is translated into
lift. Then, ndhuwur is translated into high. Mendhem that literally means to burry
something is rendered into to dig. Jero is translated into deep.
4.1.5 Adaptation
According to the research, adaptation occurs 22 times out of 401 words. It is
applied to translate words from the domain of ecology, material, social culture,
organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, gesture and habit,
measurement system, anthroponomy, dialect, fictional character, dialect, fictional
character, date, idiom, and metaphor. Appendix 5 presents the application of the
adaptation technique in the object of the study.
Words about food, clothes, musical instruments, places and buildings, and
tools, which are classified into material culture domain, is also translated using
adaptation technique. It happens to translate seven out of 65 words about material
culture discovered in this study. It is exemplified by example (13) in translating
dodol nangka. Dodol nangka refers to thick, sticky, sweet made of glutinous flour,
coconut milk, coconut sugar, and jackfruit; usually wrapped in paper or corn
leaves. And taffy is soft a sweet or candy made of brown sugar boiled until it is
very thick and given different shapes and color (Longman). Although dodol and
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taffy differ in terms of ingredients, and color, their texture almost is similar. Thus,
dodol is adapted into taffy because it is almost equivalence to the TL.
(13) ST Kiriman oleh-oleh kami mereka balas jawab dengan oleh-
oleh balasan yang berupa mangga santok Magetan satu
keranjang dan juadah serta dodol nangka. (SL/ C3/ P68/
28)
TT They replied with warmth embracing our admirable desire
to strengthen the ties of kinship, and with their best wishes
towards that end came a basketful of Magetan mangoes,
various delicacies from sticky rice, and quantity of
jackfruit taffy. (TL/ C3/ P88/ 22)
Adaptation is also applied in translating words about a profession that are
classified into social culture. In the object of this study, there are three out of 16
words about the social culture that are translated using adaptation technique. It is
exemplified in rendering Asisten Wedana Karangelo presented in (14).
(14) ST Dalam surat lamaran itu nama Raden Harjono sudah
ditambah dengan Cokrokoesoemo, Raden Hardojo
Cokrokoesoemo, asisten wedana Karangelo (TL/ C3/ P97/
15)
TT In the letter, the young man, already distinguished by title
raden, had had the flowery “Cokrokoesoemo” added to his
namem and now we learned that Raden Harjono
Cokrokoesoemo had been raised to assistant district chief
at Karangelo (TL/ C3/ P97/ 15)
Before the independence day of Indonesia, the administrative region in Java were
divided into six levels by the Dutch, namely: provinsi, karesidenan, kotapraja and
kabupaten, kawedanan, kecamatan, and desa. The land administrative division of
Java during the Dutch colonial was distinct to the concept adopts in the TT
readers’ countries. In the TL countries, the land administration is regulated
differently. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, wedana is an assistant
for a chief of kabupaten (a region that is smaller than province). However, based
on Longman district is an area which country, town or state is divided into for
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purpose if an organization, with official boundaries. The juxtaposition between
the meanings of those two terms indicated that wedana almost equivalent to the
district. Since Java and TL country shares different land administrative division
concept, the word district is opted to attain equivalent.
Adaptation is also applied to translate CSIs that are related to organization,
custom, activities, procedure, and social conception, in translating Para Priyayi.
Four out of 49 words from that domain are rendered in adaptation. It is
exemplified by (15) in the translation of ronda tetek.
(15) ST Malam memang sudah larut, ronda tetek sudah lewat dua
kali mengingatkan orang untuk waspada terhadap maling
dan kami memang sudah mengantuk semua. (SL/ C3/ P98/
37)
TT It was indeed late, the town watch had passed our house
twice (TL/ C3/ P125/ 25)
Ronda tetek refers to a voluntary activity conducted by the community
living there to protect a neighborhood. They usually walk around to patrol in the
neighborhood and make voice by hitting a long bamboo drum in order to drive
burglars away and warn the community to stay alert. The concept of ronda tetek is
almost similar to town watch even though they are slightly different. Town watch
is a security organization managed by the community. The town watchmen are
trained, they also wear a uniform and have the equipment, such as two-way radio
to contact the police directly and weapon.
Adaptation technique is applied as well in translating anthroponomy
domain. The application of adaptation in rendering name indicating social
background was discovered six times in this study. One of the examples in
adapting SL anthroponomy into TL is presented in (16).
(16) ST Tole Darsono, ya ini adikmu Siti Aisah, (SL/ C3/ P41/ 39)
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TT Master Darsono, you met the lass once. (TL/C3/P55/27)
Tole is an addressee for young male from the older that shows affection and
closeness between the speaker and the hearer. Commonly, it is applied by the
father or mother to call their son and grandfather or grandmother to call their
grandsons. It is also practiced by adults to call young male. Example (16) presents
that tole is translated into master. However, the translation result is not equivalent
because master is an addressee for an adult male who is respectful.
It is also applied in translating the royal title in the example (17).
(17) ST Nanti Anda saya sowan-kan kepada atasan saya, Kanjeng
Bupati Anom, mungkin juga Kanjeng Pepatih Dalem,
bahan siapa tahu Kanjeng Gusti sendiri berkenan
menerima Anda (SL/ C5/ P156/6)
TT Why don’t you come with me to Solo, Meneer Hardojo, and
I’ll introduce you to a few of my superiors. There’s the
deputy bupati, and His Excellency the chief minister, and
perhaps His Highness himself will tell you with in own
words what we have to offer. (TL/ C5/ P190/ 8)
Kanjeng Bupati Anom is a special title that is attained because of the position in
the governmental office. It is translated into the title is adapted into the deputy
referring to “a person who is the next most important person such as a leader, a
head, or a director” (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary). Kanjeng Pepatih
Dalem is a royal position that is at the same level as a prime minister. The
position was functioned to assist the king of Ngayogyakarta or Surakarta and
bridge communication between the sultanate and the colonial authority. The
specific title was translated into a title which is familiar for the TL readers, His
Excellency. Excellency is a tittle for someone with a very important official
position. Kanjeng Gusti is a royal title specifically owned by the ruler of
Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman or by the crown prince of the sultanate
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Ngayogyakarta or Surakarta. The title that was only used in Javanese kingdom
was translated into His Highness, a title that is usually used by the royal family
from TL.
4.1.6 Description
This research discovers 93 occurrences of description technique applied in
translating CSI in the object. It is the most applied translation technique in this
study because describing CSIs helps target readers to understand the concept
easily. Therefore, in translating CSIs in Para Priyayi, the translators applies
description translation technique to translate ecology, material culture, social
culture, gesture and habit, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social
conception, anthroponym, fictional character, date, idiom, and metaphor. More
examples of description technique are presented in Appendix 5.
Describing particular SL terms about gestures and habit in TL is possible to
be practiced to encounter cultural gap. Because there are some gestures, activities,
and habits that are unfamiliar and not practiced by the TL readers, TL does not
have the vocabularies. Moreover, it raises a problems to translate such things. The
application of description translation technique to encounter words from gesture
and habit realm is exemplified by (18).
(18) ST Dan kepala pusing-pusing, badan terasa tidak enak, yang
segera dibereskan oleh kerokan dan pijitan orang-orang
belakang, bukankan itu semua juga bumbu-bumbu
kehidupan oang tua? (SL/ C7/ P232/`15)
TL When I get dizzy and feel off color I get someone outback
who can do wonders just by drawing the edge of a coin
along the spine. And she does massages as well. Nothing
like a massage to spice up an old wife’s body
(TL/C7/P283/16)
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The instance is presented in (18) indicates that kerokan, an old method to cure
common flu, is translated into “by drawing the edge of a coin along the spine”.
The technique applied in (18) helps the target readers to acquire the meaning of
the term by describing it. The translation only describes a part of kerokan. It only
translate the gesture of kerokan. The description does not accommodate the aim of
kerokan as a traditional healing treatment. Therefore, activity of kerokan seems
aimless in the TT.
Description translation technique is also mostly practiced to translate CSIs
about material culture terms, such as food and beverages, tools, architecture, and
costumes. There are 31 out of 65 words about material culture in this study that
are translated using description translation technique (see appendix 15). The
translation technique is target language and target readers friendly because it
depicts the terms in a way that is understandable for target readers. Although the
description technique helps the target reader to imagine and understand the
cultural concept, the technique is only able to portray the meaning partially in TT
but it still can help the readers to understand the meaning. Description in
encountering a material culture that is related to food is exemplified by example
(19).
(19) SL Waktu Embahmu putri saya bawa ke Kedungsimo, kami
dihidangkan pepes cabuk oleh embahmu buyut putri. Embahmu
putri mengira akan mendapat semacam pepes botok teri atau apa
begitu. Waktu dibuka dia kaget melihat warna hitam cabuk
wijen itu Embahmu kaget bukan main. (SL/ C7/ P245/14)
TL When I brought her home to my parents in Kedungsimo, they
served us a meal of steamed black sesame seeds and grated
coconut wrapped in banana leaf. Embah Putri had expected to
find something else altogether - steamed anchovies, perhaps-
and when she unwrapped the leaf and saw that was this mush
black sesame seed, she was revolted. (TL/C7/P297/25)
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Pepes cabuk, special dishes from Wanagalih, is described according to its
ingredients and cooking methods. The food is described using TL into “a meal of
steamed black sesame seeds and grated coconut wrapped in banana leaf.”
Therefore, target readers are able to imagine the food. The use of description
translation technique is also practiced to translate material culture related to a
costume that is presented in example (20).
(20) SL Celana kolor komprang dari kain kastup, celana
terpercaya para petani, digantung berdampingan dengan
kutang-kutang perempuan berwarna jambon dan hitam.
Sabuk otok atau ikat pinggang besar dengan dompet di
sebelah kiri dan kanan gesper, ikat pinggang terpercaya
para petani bila pergi belanja di pasar. (SL/ C1/ P1/ 14)
TL There are familiar black short trousers made of glossy
cotton fabric, tied at the waist by a drawstring (no doubt
a reassuring detail to our peasant wearers), rows of them
hang beside pink and white and black camisoles; there are
the same wide-waisted sashes on sale within which on
each side of the buckle the country people stow their
capital when coming to market. (TL/ C1/ P1/ 18)
There are two costumes that are translated using description translation technique
in example (20). In the example, the trousers and the sashes are described in TL
according to its shape, material, style, the wearer, and how to wear them.
However, the terms are translated for the readers from outside Java using
amplification technique in ST. Therefore, ST readers acquire specific terms and
their meaning. Meanwhile, the terms are described in TL without preserving the
original terms in TT. Celana komprang dari kain kastup is translated into “black
short trousers made of glossy cotton fabric, tied at the waist by a drawstring.”
Sabuk otok is translated “the same wide-waisted sashes on sale within which on
each side of the buckle the country people stow their capital when coming to
market.” However, there are differences in describing those attributes. Celana
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komprang and sabuk otok are described as a trusted attribute for farmers. They are
depicted as something that is close to farmers’ life. However, they are described
as the costumes of peasant and country people. It indicates the low social status of
the wearer.
4.1.7 Established Equivalent
In this study, there are 26 occurrences of established equivalent (see
appendix 15). It is applied in translating six domains, namely social culture,
organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, dialect, metaphor,
anthroponym, and idiom. It is mostly applied to translating Javanese dialect.
There are twenty cases of Javanese dialect translated through establish equivalent
technique. It is also applied in translating a word about social culture, one item
about gesture and habit, nine items about anthroponym, four words from
metaphor, and one idiom. The examples of established equivalent discovered in
this study are presented in appendix 6.
The application of established equivalent is exemplified by (21)
(21) ST Bagaimana keadaan Jeng Sastro dan anak-anak?
(SL/C3/P55/28)
TT And how are things with your good lady and the children?
(TL/C3/ P73/5)
In example (21), Jeng Sastro was translated into your good lady. The word Jeng is
a shortening from Ajeng which is a polite addressee for a female the same age or
younger than a speaker. The term is also used for referring someone’s wife by
adding Jeng with the husband’s name. As presented in the data, Jeng Sastro refers
to Sastro’s wife who is younger than the speaker. Since in English there is no such
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a reference, the equivalence is established by using your good lady, the term that
exists in TL and refers to Sastro’s wife.
The established equivalent is also applied in translating markers of Javanese
dialect. The phenomena are exemplified by (22).
(22) ST Wis, wis, Yem. Jangan kamu teruskan nangismu.
(SL/ C2/ P20/ 20)
TT Now, now, dear woman, don’t go crying.
(TL/ C2/ P28/ 5)
Wis, wis is a Javanese expression from Javanese ngoko language that is applied to
quieten and calm someone. The expression is translated into now, now to establish
equivalent, therefore, it becomes naturally acceptable in TL.
The application of the established equivalent technique is also presented in
the Javanese dialect that indicates politeness in term of begging to someone. It is
presented in the example (23).
(23) SL Nyuwun sewu, Bapak. Saya ingin menyampaikan pendapat
saya… Nyuwun duka, mohon jangan marah, Bapak. (SL/
C3/ P79/ 25)
TL If I may Father, could say something? Don't be annoyed,
please Father, … (TL/ C3/ P101/ 19)
Nyuwun sewu which literally means “ask for a thousand” is a polite expression to
ask for permission. Nyuwun duka which literally means “ask for anger” is a polite
expression to beg for forgiveness to the interlocutors, therefore, they will not be
angry about what it is going to be conveyed. Those expressions are applied by
Javanese language speakers before delivering ideas or opinions to someone who is
older or more respected. Since TL does not have the same expression, they are
translated into TL expression that is commonly used in the same situation.
Therefore, nyuwun sewu is translated into “if I may” and nyuwun duka is
rendered into “don’t be annoyed”.
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4.1.8 Generalization
This study discovers 49 occurrences of generalization technique. It is
applied to translate words related to material culture, social culture, organization,
custom, activities, procedure, social conception, gesture and habit, measurement
system, anthroponym, dialect, date, and idiom. Generalization is mostly applied to
translate CSIs from the anthroponym domain. There are seventeen anthroponyms
translated using generalization technique. Then, generalization technique occurs
five times in social culture domain, four times to translate dialect, eight times to
translate material culture, and six times to translate organization, custom,
activities, procedure, social conception domain. It is also applied five times to
render words from gesture and habit domain, and two times to translate date. The
detailed distribution numbers of generalization towards cultural words are
presented in appendix 15. More examples of generalization are presented in
appendix 7.
The application of generalization techniques is exemplified by example (24)
in translating nduk and le, the Javanese specific proper name for young woman
and man.
(24) ST Tentu, Nduk, Le. (SL/ C3/ P72/ 19)
TT Certainly, Dear? (TL/ C3/ P93/11)
Nduk is a proper name applied to address a girl or a woman who is younger than
the speakers. The application of the proper name indicates affection and closeness
between the speaker and the interlocutor. It is usually applied by parents to
address their children. This is almost similar to le however le is a proper name for
a boy or man younger than the speakers. In TT, those proper names are translated
into my dear. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, dear
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can be used when speaking to somebody you love. It is not necessarily your son
but also close friends, spouse, and lover. In the translation result, the gender
classification, age, and familial relationship in the proper name were not specified.
Thus, TT applied generalized proper name rather than a specific proper name.
Generalization is also exemplified by the translation technique that is used
for rendering kembang setaman, one of Javanese ritual essential, in example (25)
(25) ST Saya ingat kusir dokar di Karangdompol yang tempo hari
kesurupan dan membanting tiga orang yang memegangnya
karena tidak mau memberinya kembang setaman.
(SL/ C3/ P89/ 36)
TT I recalled a gharry driver in Karangdompol some time
back. He had had fit of that kind, had demanded to be
brought a bunch of flowers to eat, and then could not held
down by three bystanders (TL/C3/P114/10)
Kembang setaman refers to several types of flower that is used for offering in
rituals. According to Robson and Wibisono (2002), kembang setaman is a
bouquet of the varied color of flower for ritual use flower. It contains
philosophical meaning and Javanese life wisdom. Offering flower symbolizes the
unity between the Javanese people and ancestral spirit (Herusatoto, 1984). The
flower offering becomes meaningful because it is taken according to wisdom.
However, in TT the specification and meaning of kembang setaman are
generalized into a bunch of flowers which can be any types of flower. The
Javanese local wisdom and mystical function of kembang setaman drift away in
TT.
4.1.9 Linguistic Amplification
This research discovers 6 occurrences of linguistics amplification out of 401
words. All of the occurrences numbers are found in the dialect domain that is
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applied in the dialogue between characters of Para Priyayi (see appendix 15). The
application of linguistics amplification is exemplified in (26) and (27).
(26) ST Apa Darsono? Kowe tertawa? (SL/ C6/ P194/35)
TT He snarled at him in low Javanese: "What now,
Darsono? Laughing, you bastard? Laughing, hey?
(TL/ C3/ P101/ 19)
(27) ST Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya minta kematianmu!
(SL/ C6/ P197/17)
TT Yes, dammit! I'm telling you die! (TL/C6/P241/ 9)
SL in (26) presents Javanese ngoko language, the lowest level of Javanese.
Ngoko language is marked by the application of kowe. Literally, kowe means you.
It is used when the speakers talking to the hearers who have lower social status or
age. It also presents hostility and impoliteness when it is applied to someone who
must be respected. Therefore, to present the same SL senses in the TL, the
linguistics aspects were added to create the same senses that are naturally used in
the TL. In example (26), an invective word such as bastard and interjection hey to
express anger were applied to translate the senses built by the use of ngoko.
Example (27) also presents linguistics amplification to translate the sense
that is established by the use of Javanese ngoko language. Ngoko language is
presented by an expression tak jaluk patimu. Literally, the expression means “I
want your death”. The expression indicates hostility, anger, and disrespect
towards the hearer, Denmas Kusumo, who has high social strata. In Javanese
culture, using ngoko to someone who comes from a high social level is considered
as impolite. However, to build the same nuance created by ngoko language and
the expression tak jaluk patimu in TL, invective word dammit is added. Then, the
SL harsh request is rendered into an imperative commanding someone to die.
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4.1.10 Modulation
In this study, there are three occurrences of modulation out of 401 CSIs. It
occurred in translating social culture, fictional character, and governmental
organization domains. The detail information about modulation is presented in
appendix 10. A modulation technique is exemplified by (28).
(28) ST Mangkunegaran adalah sempalan Kerajaan Mataram yang
kecil, yang tidak mempunyai gigi , di mana di dekat
Purbayan sana gedung gupernuran tempat tuan besar
gubernur bersemayam, mengawasi dengan tajam setiap
gerak-gerik Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan Kasunanan.
(SL/ C5/ P170/11)
TT Mangkunegaran, small and weak as it was, remained a
fragment of the once mighty kingdom of Mataram, even his
instruction to us tonight to confirm Javanese youth in the
language and culture of their forebears might be the cause
of some careful deliberation in the residence of the chief
Tuan near Purabayan. Every movement of the prince; and,
for that matter, of the sultan of Solo, the other, if less
obtrusively active, local potential successor to Mataram.
(TL/ C5/ P206/ 21)
The translator renders Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan Kasunanan which is
literary means the kingdom of Mangkunegaran and Sultanate of Solo into the
prince and the Sultan of Solo. Thus, the translator changes the point of view. In
ST, the point of view is the whole aspects and activities of Mangkunegaran and
Sultanate of Solo that is supervised was changed into their ruler and leader.
4.1.11 Transposition
Transposition occurred 1 time. It is applied to translate words about the
traditional ceremony, tools, and proper name. The detail about transposition
technique that is discovered in this research is presented in appendix 11. The
application of the technique is indicated in example (29).
(29) ST Dan istri saya memberi contoh anak cacat lagi yang
menurut dia adalah akibat tidak di-tingkebi, tidak
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diadakan upacara selamatan tujuh bulan mengandung..
(SL/ C3/ P95/ 14)
TT She didn't have the ceremony either, didn't observe the
seventh month. (TL/ C3/ P121/ 22)
The example (29) indicates the alteration of part of speech from the verb to noun
and noun to a verb. Di-tingkebi is an action to conduct selametan of seventh-
month pregnancy. In the TL, di-tingkebi which is a verb is translated into the
ceremony. Moreover, upacara selamatan tujuh bulan mengandung which is
classified as a noun was translated and the word class is changed into an action
verb of observing the seventh month.
4.1.12 Variation
Variation is usually applied in the interpreting process. However, it is still
discovered in this research object. It is because the SL text involves dialogues
among the characters that are conducted in different levels of Javanese language.
In translating Javanese dialogue into English, the variation could be applied
because they do not share the same levels of language that are classified based on
politeness and social status.
This research discovers three occurrences of variation translation technique
in rendering Javanese dialect. All of the various techniques are applied to render
conversations that use kromo alus or the higher level of Javanese. This technique
is exemplified by (30).
Niku or this is a vocabulary that is classified into krama language.
According to Robson (1992), krama language is applied when talking to the
respected one, someone of aristocratic descendant, authorities, bureaucrats, and
elderly people. Thus, it indicates social status and politeness. Niku is applied in
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the utterances of Kang Trimo a servant in Sastrodarsono’s household when he is
talking to Lantip, a university scholar.
(30) ST Kiai Jogosimo niku sama dengan Kanjeng Nabi Suleman."
kata Kang Man, tukang menimba air di rumah yang
mendengar ceritera tentang Kiai Jogo dari embahnya. (SL/
C1 /P3/ 6)
TT Yon Kiai Jogosimo now, he and the prophet Solomon - his
name be honoured! Know what? Those two were one and
the same! True! (TL/ C1 /P4/ 3)
In the TT, niku is translated into yon. Based on Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary, yon is an old use for that. In this case, the translator changes the
language variation from SL that presents politeness language style into the old
language style.
The alteration in language style is also discovered in (31). It is the dialogue
uttered by Eyang Kusumo Lakubroto an old man, a boss of the ketoprak troupe
who keens on to do spiritual ritual practice, to Noegroho, Hardoyo, and Soemini,
who are younger and have a less spiritual experience. Eyang Lakubroto applied
ngoko language, the lowest level of Javanese language to his grandchildren.
(31) ST Oh wong kalian itu, meski sudah berkeluarga, beranak
pinak sesungguhnya masih anak-anak ingusan. Kalau
pakde-mu ini kungkum setiap malam anggarakasih, malam
Selasa Kliwon itu, sambil gemeletuk gigi Pakde karena
kedinginan, itu bukan karena Pakde kepingin jadi Ratu
seperti raja ketoprak itu, goblok! (SL/ C1/ P6/ 27)
TT O what a generation - look at ye now! Married, with
children, descendants - and as runny-nosed as any of 'em!
When your uncle goes 'a dipping', as you call it, Tuesday
nights - and I mean our, Javanese, Tuesday! -when his teeth
rattle in his head because of the cold, it's got nothing to do
with any ambition to become Ratu: dopes! (TL/ C1/ P9/
11)
In TT, Eyang Lakubroto’s utterance is rendered by changing his speech style.
Different speech style is presented in his pronunciation of you and them.
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According to the TT, they are pronounced into ye and ‘em. Even, the word goblok
which means really stupid was translated into dopes that is an informal style to
denote idiot. Therefore, in this case, there is language variation change in ST and
TT. The lowest level of Javanese language is rendered into an informal English
speaking style.
4.1.13 Compensation
Compensation is applied 30 times in translating PP. The application is
discovered in the process of translating words about material culture, social
culture, habit and gesture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, concepts,
ritual, profession, anthroponym, date, and idiom. The application of compensation
is mostly discovered in social culture domain. It is applied seven times to translate
the social domain. Other information related to the distribution of the
compensation process is presented in appendix 15 and the examples are presented
in appendix 13.
The use of compensation to translate social culture related to occupation is
presented in example (32).
(32) SL Calonmu itu, Le, masih sanak jauh. Itu, lho, Ngaisah,
putri pamanmu jauh Mukaram, mantri penjual candu di
Jogorogo. (SL/C3/ P37/ 12)
TL Now, the bride does live a little far from here. She's
called Ngaisah, hey? The daugther of a distant uncle of
yours, Uncle Mukaram. He supervises the sale of
opium in Jogorogo
The technique is practiced to translate mantra penjual candu. Example (32)
presents how the term is translated using description technique and distributed
into a different sentence to make it more acceptable in TL. Therefore, the
translation is written in the next sentence.
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The translating process that puts TT terms in a different position is also
exemplified by example (33). Rokok klobot is translated by attaching the
translation result in a different place in the example. The result does not translate
the terms exactly in the same position. However, it is translated by describing and
incorporating the description as the writing style in TT.
(33) ST Rokok klobot, rokok daun jagung kering, dihidangkan.
(SL/ C3/ P34/ 26)
TT Tobacco was passed around and rolled in dry corn leaves,
and while each man sucked noisily on his cigarette and sent
billows of smoke into the air, my mother occupied herself
in cutting up more squares of corn leaf. (TL/C3/P46/ 17)
Rokok klobot is a cigar that is self-rolled in a piece of a dried corn leaf. The cigar
is introduced in TL by putting the item of information in the different position of
the SL.
Another example of compensation is also presented by example (34). The
example presents the application of the compensation technique to translate
gesture and habit.
(34) SL Saya hanya menonton dan mengintil di belakang orang-
orang tua yang membawa jenazah Embah Wedok ke
kuburan desa. (SL/ C2/ P 12 /20)
TL I followed on the heels of the adults who bore the corpse
to the village cemetery and then followed them back.
(TL/C2/P17/6)
Mengintil which means to follow someone everywhere is translated through
description then it is put in the different position of sentences to fulfill TL writing
style.
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4.1.14 Omission
The omission is a technique of eliminating certain SL terms in TT. It means
that SL terms are not rendered. This process was applied 13 times in the domain
of ecology, material culture, educational institution, art, gesture, habit,
anthroponym, fictional character, and metaphor (see appendix 15). More
examples of omission are presented in appendix 14.
The application of omission is exemplified by the translation process of
(35).
(35) ST Waktu itu saya sudah di kelas empat, jadi kurang dari
setahun lagi tamat sekolah angka loro di desa itu, kami
murid-murid kelas empat diserahi tugas untuk menyiapkan
sebuah nomor pertunjukan lengkap untuk perpisahan
dengan para murid yang bakal tamat sekolah. (SL/C2/P22/
29)
TT I was in fourth class then, and our class was set the
project of preparing some joint performance with the
pupils of the class above. (TL/C2/P31/3)
Sekolah angka loro was an educational institution that was established by the
Dutch colonial government for Indonesian people. It was cheap and convey
simple education that was adjusted for local Indonesian at that time. The
institution taught how to read, write, and simple mathematics for indigenous
people. The curriculum was different to schools were designed for Dutch and
priyayi children. Sekolah angka loro was established to prepare professional
clerks. However, a school for upper-class children taught geography, foreign
language, science, and so forth. In the TT, the specific institution term is not
translated.
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4.2 Ideology behind Zhukov’s Translation Strategies in Translating
Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Javanese Gentry
There are two strategies of translating based on Venuti (1995), namely:
foreignization and domestication. Both of the translation strategies are discovered
in this study. 61% of CSIs in this study are translated using domestication strategy
and the rest are translated using foreignization (see appendix 16). In this part, the
gap between the application of foreignization and domestication and the
implication of those practices are scrutinized through the postcolonial point of
view to dismantle power imbalance and colonialism conveyed by orientalist
attitude, exoticization, and ethnocentrism discourse. However, Venuti’s argument
of foreignization as the agent of resistance towards imperialism and domestication
as the agent that serves imperialism is not precision in line with the phenomena
within the translation of Javanese CSIs in Kayam’s PP to Zhukov’s JG.
Foreignization and domestication act differently in this study according to the
context and political position between SL and TL also Javanese and English. It is
in line with Tymockzo (2000) stating that Venuti’s dichotomy towards the
translation ideology does not notice the context of translation that depends on the
context where the translation happens and the political power (cited in Sharma,
2014). Furthermore, Venuti’s notion of foreignization as the resistance of
translation pertains in the West especially United States (Tymockzo, 2000 as cited
in Sharma, 2014). Therefore, the analysis of the ideology of translating in this
study depends on the relation between SL and TL. It also depends on the
translation purposes of the literary work and the situation when the literary work
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is translated. Those aspects influence how colonialism ideology is served in the
translation PP.
Translation of PP into JG happens in the context of transferring two minor
languages consisting of few Javanese words that convey the situation and nuance
of Javanese culture and Indonesian language as the lingua franca in Indonesia into
English the central language. In addition, PP was translated in 2013, long after the
ST was published and Dutch colonial era in Indonesia. Therefore, the translator
should bring old Javanese tradition and Indonesia’s historical event to modern
international readership through translation. In addition, the translator is detached
from the Dutch colonialism interest. It makes the context of translating PP differs
from other translation works that translated to the colonial master’s language
during the colonialism era by the member of the colonial master. Therefore the
result of scrutinizing Zhukov’s work using postcolonial perspective differs to the
result of the study about Arabian literary works translated from Arabic to English
in the nineteenth century by Edward Lane, Richard Burton, and Wilfred Blunt.
The difference among those translation works is presented in the context where
the translation happened, the purpose of translation, and the translator’s
background. Therefore the foreignizing and domesticating translation applied in
each literary work implies various result and different presentation of power
imbalance caused by colonialism.
The differences in terms of colonialism ideology presentation are also
influenced by the background of translators and the aim of translation. Para
Priyayi was translated by Vladislav Zhukov, an Australian translator in Vietnam.
He was a rifleman-interpreter with the Australian Army in South Vietnam, in
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2013. Therefore, as a westerner, the translator has a western point of view in
depicting the east and its culture, especially Javanese culture in PP. His
perception of Javanese culture is presented in the translator’s foreword and his
works. According to his foreword, Para Priyayi is translated to provide
entertainment, possibly for enlightening read about Javanese culture (Javanese
Gentry, 2013: xi). The translator states in the foreword that translation work is
aimed to introduce Javanese culture to the target readers who are a novice to the
culture not to the expert or cultural studies scholars. Therefore, they can enjoy the
Kayam’s work in English smoothly without interruption towards aesthetic
pleasure. The purpose was confirmed through the interview to Vladislav Zhukov
on March 2nd, 2019 proclaims that “JG is not a book for specialist” but for a
general readership (see appendix 17). However, his intention presents colonialism
ideology because his translation work put the enjoyment of target readership first
and ignore cultural representation of SL although he intends to introduce
Indonesian culture to an international readership. For this reason, the study finds
foreignizing and domesticating translation in translating Javanese CSIs in PP and
JG indicate colonialism ideology. However, there is still resistance towards
colonialism in behind foreignization strategy. The details of translation strategies
and its discussion are elaborated in section 4.2.1 until 4.2.5.
4.2.1 Foreignization Strategy as a Resistance
Foreignization translation discovers in this study indicates resistance
towards TL culture. The resistance is practiced by maintaining the SL culture
related to the Javanese social strata classification. It is brought by the application
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of amplification translation techniques towards CSIs of Javanese social groups in
the TT.
The resistance is presented through amplification in the additional
information regarded priyayi in the TT even though it is not provided in the ST.
The information glosses the social status distinction between Lantip, the village
peasantry boy, and Ndoro Guru Sastrodarsosno that is not written in the SL.
However, it is added in the TT and the CSI was amplified. It was exemplified by
example (36).
(36) ST - (SL/ C2/ P9/ -)
TT I should explain that as a teacher my benefactor was of
the gentry, a priyayi, a member of a much-striated
upper class whose common feature has been
detachment from manual labor. (TL/ C2/ P14/ 12)
In the TL, priyayi is added and amplified by adding “a member of a much-striated
upper class whose common feature has been detachment from manual labor.” The
definition is added to convey more information about social classes of Java
society to the TT readers.
Foreignizing translating to maintain the Javanese social classification
through amplification is also applied in rendering santri and abangan, Javanese
social groups that are grouped depending on the Javanese people’s belief.
Foreignization that indicates resistance is exemplified by (37) and (38).
(37) ST Sri dan Darmin anak-anak dari sepupu istri saya adalah dua
bersaudara yang datang dari keluarga petani santri yang
sangat sederhana. (SL/ C3/ P70/ 27)
TT Soerdarmin and Sri were son and daughter of a cousin of
my wife and come from a village of santri peasants,
devout and adherents to Islam (TL/C3/P90/28)
(38) ST Buat kami yang dibesarkan dalam dunia petani dan priyayi
abangan, kedatangan dua bersaudara itu kami harapkan
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akan dapat memberi keseimbangan wawasan kepada anak-
anak kami. (SL/ C3/ P70/ 27)
TT Given that my wife and I came from a tradition that was
abangan, whose islam still accommodated elements of
immemorial native lore and a Javanese Hinduism, we
hoped that the arrival of those two would bring balance to
our children’s religious outlook: for the three were more
inclined to delight in wayang stories than in the scriptures,
either Koranic or of the sacred book revealed to the prophet
Jesus . (TL/C3/P90/32)
Both Javanese social classification in (37) and (38) is translated by applying
amplification technique. The word keluarga petani santri in (37) is translated into
“a village santri of peasants” then the additional phrase “devout and adherent to
Islam” is added to amplify the meaning of santri. The same thing also happens to
priyayi abangan in (38). In the TT, abangan is borrowed, however; it is amplified
by the attachment of “whose Islam still accommodated elements of immemorial
native lore and a Javanese Hinduism”.
Besides using amplification, Javanese social classification is also
maintained through applying calque. The term is translated by borrowing the SL
directly then literally translate it into TL. This kind of foreignization is
exemplified by example (39).
(39) ST Tentu saja mereka tetap ndoro dan kami tetap wong ndeso,
orang desa yang berada beberapa tingkat di bawah kami.
(SL/ C2/ P14 /33)
TT Of course we infallibly addressed them with "Ndoro" and
remained village folk beneath them, we kept a respectful
space between us and never overstepped the condition of
our visit. (TL/ C2/ P20/ 29)
Example (39) present foreignization through calque towards wong ndeso. Wong
ndeso refers to people belonging to the peasant cohort who come from villages.
Wong means people or folk and ndeso or deso means village.
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The resistance towards TL culture domination in order to maintain Javanese
culture in the TT also presents in the foreignization that is carried by borrowing
technique applied in the anthroponym, especially the cultural terms indicating
social, familial, and age relationship. This study discovers that there are 40 terms
out of 89 is translated using borrowing technique. Moreover, the explanation of
Javanese socio, familial, and age terms are also explained in the glossary.
Therefore, it supports the effort of maintaining the SL culture in terms of its
politeness that rely on the generation and family solidarity. It is in line with the
claim of Venuti (1995) stating that foreignizing is a mode of presenting source
culture in the TL. Moreover, foreignization resists the oppression of imperialism
Venuti (2010). The resistance is applied by presenting and maintaining source
culture in TT. It practices surface and deep resistance proposed by Gupta (1998).
In this case, surface resistance happens in linguistics level that is presented by the
application of foreignization that is mainly applied in translating CSIs related to
Javanese social strata. Then, deep resistance is performed through the reasons in
maintaining the foreignness. It is maintained because the social class is important
aspects of the story of PP.
Foreignization as resistance is also indicated through borrowing technique
applied to translate Javanese anthroponym. They are exemplified in the example
(40) and (41).
(40) ST Pergi, Mbok? Kita akan pergi? (SL/ C2/ P16 /20)
TT Leave, Mbok? Are we going to leave? (TL/ C2/ P23 /1)
(41) ST Tapi, Pakde! Soal beristri sampai empat itu penting, Pakde.
Terutama penting buat Mbak Nunuk. (SL/ C4/ P142/7)
TT But Pakde, the question of four wives is important
especially important for Mbak Nunuk. (TL/ C5/ P174/ 29)
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Example (40) presents foreignizing translating that was applied through
borrowing technique in translating Javanese familial terms. In the example (40),
the word mbok which is an addressee for mother and applied by people who come
from lower social strata was not translated into its equivalence in TL. However,
the term was borrowed into the TL.
It also happened in pakde and mbak in the example (41). Pakde is a
Javanese familial term to refer an older uncle. Mbak is an addressee that is
referred to a young lady who’s her age is older than the speaker. Both Javanese
familial terms in example (41) are maintained through borrowing technique. The
foreignization technique is applied to present the source culture. It becomes the
resistance towards target culture.
The resistance also presents through foreignizing translating that is
practiced through amplification of culture special terms related to the kinship. The
terms are translated by amplifying the detail of terms thus the target language
readers understand the source culture. Amplification indicating resistance is
exemplified in (42).
(42) ST Di rumah juga ada Embah Wedok, ibu dari embok saya,
yang entah sudah berapa tua umurnya. (ST/ C2/ P 11 /22)
TT Well, not really alone, there was also my grandmother,
Embah Wedok, a dowager interdeterminate but very
advance years as it then seemed to me, old and worn out;
(TT/C2/P16/22)
Embah Wedok, in the example (42), is a term referring to grandmother. The term
is usually applied by non-priyayi family. In the target text, the term is amplified
by adding “my grandmother” in the TT. The amplification maintain the source
culture contained in embah wedok however it helps to keep the foreignness of SL
and giving information to the target readers.
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Foreignization to the kinship in example (42) indicates resistance towards
the west colonialism in term of maintaining the ST foreign words, however, the
translation still indicates western centrality and its point of view about senior
citizens. In the translation work, the translator changes the mood. The TT describe
Mbah Wedok negatively as someone “old and worn out”. It indicates that the
translator assumes that elder people are unusual because of their age. Therefore, it
disrespects the senior citizens. Meanwhile, the ST describes her as someone old
whose age is unknown and there is no word with negative mood in ST. Therefore,
it still indicates respect to someone in advanced year. The translation depicts
Javanese culture as a culture that disrespect elder citizens indirectly to the target
readers.
Example (43) also presents amplification indicating foreignization and
resistance in translating Javanese kinship.
(43) ST Pusat perhatian saya tentulah saya curahkan pada calon istri
saya Dik Ngaisah itu. (SL/ C3/ P41/ 19)
TT All my thought were on "little sister" Ngaisah, Dik
Ngaisah, my candidate wife (TL/C3/P55/3)
Dik Ngaisah in the example is translated using amplification technique therefore
the Javanese kinship terms is borrowed however it is amplified by adding “little
sister Ngaisah”. The amplification in example (43) gloss the Javanese culture in
terms of addressing someone. It presents that the translation technique maintains
the Javanese culture related to kinship. It also shows the cultural differences
through the codes that are unrecognizable to the TL readers. The foreignization
practice in (43) becomes the resistance of source culture towards domination from
TL that is brought through the translation practice.
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Literal translation technique that is classified as the foreignizing translation
is also applied in translating the honorific title. In this case, foreignization also
become one of the ideologies of translating supporting resistance because it
presents the foreign code in the TT that serves Javanese culture in addressing the
king of Mangkunegaran. It is exemplified by (44).
(44) ST Lha iya. Kanjeng Gusti Mangkunegara yang kaping tujuh
ini kabarnya memang raja yang istimewa, Le. Mungkin
akan menuruti jejak eyangnya Mangkunegara kaping
empat.
(SL/ C5/ P160/61)
TT And that’s to be expected. They say this Highness
Mangkunegara number seven is something special; might
amount to someone fit to follow his grandfather,
Mangkunegara number four. (TL/ C5/ P195/ 9)
Example (44) presents literal translation in rendering Mangkunegaran kaping
empat. Instead of translating the term into Mangkunegaran IV which is more
acceptable in TL, it is translated literally. Kaping that is attached in the honorific
title of Javanese king presents the ordinal number of the kings. However, in JG,
the translator does not adapt the writing system of ordinal number in TL. The
translator translates Mangkunegaran kaping empat as Mangkunegaran number
four. This translation indicates the foreignness of the SL that resists the
domination of TL.
Foreignizing translation is not only applied to maintain the originality of the
CSIs related to Javanese social class classification and anthroponym of socio
familial, but it is also applied immensely in translating the fictional character from
Ramayana and Mahabharata epics also Javanese folklore and legend that live in
the oral tradition of Java. In JG there are 51 terms related to fictional characters
that are familiar to Javanese people. In the majority, the name of wayang and
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Javanese folklore characters is maintained using foreignizing translation. The
names are translated by borrowing technique 37 times and amplification eight
times.
This study discovers that borrowing is mainly applied to translate the
name of fictional characters in wayang stories or ancient Javanese literary works
named Serat Tripama. It is exemplified by (45).
(45) ST Alah, Nduuk, nduk. Anggepmu itu Woro Sembodro apa?
Mau dikawin Arjuno yang sudah tidak kurang apa-apa
masih mau minta gamelan surga. (SL/ C3/ P78/ 6)
TT Spare us, child! Do you think you're Wara Sembadra:
lacks of nothing but won't wed Arjuna unless she gets a
gamelan band sent down from heavens? (TL/ C3/ P100/ 3)
Example (45) presents that the names of Mahabarata epic characters were
maintained through the application borrowing technique. Woro Sembodro or
princess Sembodro, the beautiful, graceful, and calm daughter of King Basudewa,
is translated into Wara Sembadra. Then, Arjuno, the handsome, intelligent, strong,
kind-hearted, and high-minded Pandawa member, is translated into Arjuna.
Therefore, the two Mahabarata epic’s characters are maintained and introduced to
the target readers who are not familiar to Arjuno and Woro Sembodro. However,
albeit the characters’ name is maintained in the JG, the translator applied different
orthography in the TT. In the PP, the orthography of those two characters presents
the way of Javanese dialect pronouncing their name. It also indicates that
Javanese people pronounce syllables with /ᶺ/ or /ᵃ/ as /ᵒ/ Moreover, the
orthography in PP indicates the dialogue and spoken situation among the
characters. In the JG, the orthographic indicating the Javanese dialect is not fully
taken but it is adapted into written form. Thus, the /ᵒ/ syllable is translated and
written as /ᵃ/.
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The orthographic in TT does not change the meaning of the terms at all but
it does not render the Javanese accent and the pronunciation of Arjuna and
Warasembadra. Not fully translating the accent creates friendlier environment for
the target readers to encounter the characters of wayang story. Although the TT is
not faithful to the ST orthography for fictional characters, it still presents the
Javanese fictional characters. In other words, the TT presents the importance of
wayang stories and Javanese literary work for the Javanese society. They are also
rich in didactic material. The characters within the stories contain inner attitude,
therefore, they become role models for the Javanese community (Febrian, 2012).
For this reason, wayang characters are close to Javanese people life. The people
remember the story and personalities of the epics’ characters. Therefore, the
characters and their personalities are used for comparing or describing someone’s
traits. It is indicated by Sastrodarsono, the main character of PP, who compares
his daughter to Wara Sembadra. In addition, Javanese people also try to apply the
wisdom within the literary work to their life in order to attain the state of slamet.
Therefore, Puppet shadow performance not only becomes a mere entertainment
for Javanese people but also didactic art performance to plant virtue. The relation
between wayang and Javanese culture is supported by Woodward (1989) stating
that Wayang is the center of Javanese culture, the tradition of religious and
literary, also serves an essential role in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta (as cited by
Franke, 2017). It is implied that wayang is important to Javanese society.
Javanese culture about Wayang that serves as art and education method is
presented in PP. The ST presents wayang story entitled Sumantri Ngenger. The
story is conveyed in the wayang performance as a wedding present from Romo
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Seten to Sastrodarsono and Ngaisah who would build a family of new priyayi.
Sumantri Ngenger tells about the servitude of Bambang Sumantri to Prabu
Arjunasasrabahu. It presents the message and moral value to new priyayi to be
faithful and devoted to the king and the country. In the TT, this cultural substance
that contains in the characters of Sumantri Ngenger are translated by borrowing
technique that foreignizes the CSIs. It is exemplified by example (46).
(46) ST Waktu Sumatri melepas panahnya dan mengenai dada
Sukarsana, adiknya, yang telah menolongnya, menjelang
ajalnya, menangis beriba-iba, sungguh adegan yang
menyayat hati. (SL/ C3/ P44/ 21)
TT I was stunned when Sumantri released the arrow which
pierced Sukarsana's breast: Sukarsana who had assisted
Sumantri, who had cried carefully for compassion for his
elder brother. (TL/ C3/ P59/ 2)
The example indicates that foreignizing through borrowing is practiced in
translating the name of Serat Tripama characters. Therefore, the didactic story
that is the part of Javanese culture is maintained. The translation strategy resists
the domination of target culture towards the source culture because the popular
Javanese fictional characters from Javanese literary work which are foreign for the
target readers were introduced. It is in line to Myska (2013) stating that
foreignization marks the otherness. Therefore, the foreignization in JG marks the
cultural distinction between source and target culture.
Borrowing is not the only way to foreignize the fictional character of
Javanese wayang story in the JG and resist the domination of target culture,
amplification is also applied in this term. Additional information related to the
fictional character is applied to amplify the Javanese CSIs. Therefore, the target
readers can have an understanding of the source culture. The target readers are
also invited to know the original terms of the source culture. In this study,
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foreignization through amplification towards Javanese fictional characters is
mostly applied to translate the characters from Javanese mythology or folklore
that has been living for a hundred years. Example (47) indicates foreignization
through amplification.
(47) ST Tapi istrimu sudah diselamati tujuh bulan apa belum? Kalau
belum diselamati di sini saja. Nanti keburu kena musibah
dimakan Betoro Kolo anakmu. (SL/ C3/ P95/ 8)
TT Yes, but have you held a selamatan for her seventh montrh
yet? Have you or not? If not, then you absolutely must have
the meal here of you’ll be struck down with something
frightful. Ogre Betoro Kolo will devour the children
(TL/ C3/ P121/ 18)
Example (47) indicates the application of foreignization in
translating Betoro Kolo. In the TT, the term is amplified by adding Ogre that
means a cruel and frightening giant who eats people (according to Oxford
Advanced Learners’ Dictionary). The amplification is suitable to describe the
physical and characteristics of Betoro Kolo that look like an ogre. He is a giant
with hideous physical appearance. In fact, Betoro Kolo is a deity of the
underworld (Lee, 1999). He is the destructive aspects of the world
(Koentjaraningrat, 1980). Betoro Kolo is described as an ogre with a very big
appetite. He is also impolite. He also likes to devour humans. Therefore, Javanese
people conduct a selamatan for the protection towards the destruction of Betoro
Kolo (Geels, 1997).
Foreignization through amplification towards mythology character is also
presented in example (48).
(48) ST Terutama Hari dan Lantip yang kenyang diceritai tentang
lakon-lakon ketoprak. Tentang Prabu Anglingdarma yang
sakti dan ajaib itu, tentang Raden, Ronggo, putra
Panembahan Senapati dengan Ratu Kidul yang gagah,
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tetapi juga terlalu sakti dan berbahaya, tentang Anggang-
Anggang Siluman yang menyeramkan. (SL/ C5/ P175/29)
TT Stories about royal Anglingdarma and his miraculous
powers; about Prince Ronggo, the valorous son of glorious
Senapati who founded the Mataram dynasty, the lad
Ronggo begotten by Senapati from Ratu Kidul, the
Empress of the South Sea; about the horrible spider
Siluman defeated by Prince Ronggo: all told wIth ardour
and spellbinding histrionics. (TL/C5/P213/11)
Example (48) indicates that Ratu Kidul is foreignized by amplification translation
techniques. The mythology character is amplified by the addition of information
that Ratu Kidul is “the Empress of the South Sea. Therefore, the techniques
maintain the source culture in TL and target culture by presenting the foreignness
of Javanese mythology in the TT.
Mythology about the Ratu Kidul that is conveyed in the Javanese literary
works is believed as truth by Javanese people living in the southern coast of Java.
She is perceived as a powerful female deity and considered as the one who is
responsible for the big waves and strong wind in the south sea of Java. Ratu
Kidul has an important place in term of Javanese spiritual aspects of Javanese
sultanate. According to Resink (1997), through the relationship with Ratu Kidul,
the divine spouse, Javanese kings are able to assure themselves to govern over the
land, the water, and the state. It implies that the relation between Ratu Kidul who
is powerful gives power and legitimation to the sultans to have authority towards
the land of Java.
By foreignizing the characters in Javanese mythology in the TT, the foreign
aspects within the Javanese CSIs are maintained and presented to the target
readers. Therefore, in this study, the Javanese mythology is introduced to the
target readers through JG.
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The findings related to resistance in foreignization is in line with Gupta
(1998) claims that foreignizing and avoiding recognizable codes in TL are the
way of resisting the power imbalance. Moreover, the resistance happened in the
level of surface resistance marking by linguistics resistance. Borrowing,
amplification, and literal translation serve Javanese code that is foreign for the TL
readers in this study. Resistance is also presented at a deep level that was
indicated in the translator’s reason in applying foreignization. The translator of PP
also stated in the interview that politeness in and among generations, family
solidarity, and their aspects are fundamental to be preserved in JG, therefore, the
discovery of this study indicates that the terms are preserved by maintaining them
through borrowing, amplification, and literal translation techniques classified into
foreignization.
4.2.2 Foreignization Strategy as Medium of Exoticization and Resistance
Foreignization does not only represent source culture in the TT and resist
TL domination towards SL and source culture but also serves domination from TL
in disguise. According to Sharma (2014), foreignization may serve exoticization.
Sharma discovered foreignization that is intended to maintain the originality of
the Arabic culture, at first, can legitimate exoticization in the translation work of
1001 Arabian Nights translated by Burton in the 1800’s. This study also discovers
exoticism that is brought by foreignizing translation. However, the exoticization
in JG serves a different type of exoticization that is created by Burton. He
exoticizes the SL culture by emphasizing sensuality and violence through
foreignizing translating technique. Burton creates exoticism that is similar to the
engravings that are on the traveling book written and published by Dutch in the
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1600s. The portrait presents the exotic east as sensual beings because they show
their skin and like gore punishment under the despotic ruler. Meanwhile, this
study perceives exoticization is practiced in JG differently. Foreignization of
Javanese CSIs in JG serves exoticism that creates excitement towards Javanese
culture because it is foreign and comes from a remote area, a place that is far from
the west.
In this study, exoticization is served by foreignizing Javanese CSIs that is
applied to translate the cultural domains that are not intended to be maintained by
the translator. According to the interview with the translator of PP, on March 2nd,
2018, the translator stated that politeness within and between the generations and
family solidarity should be preserved in JG. Moreover, Javanese social strata
classification is also preserved in JG because it is the fundamental aspect and the
core of the story besides family. Therefore, the importance of those aspects is
reflected through the foreignizing translation techniques applied in translating
such terms. According to these reasons, foreignization in those domains can be
assumed as resistance towards domination and an attempt to preserve the Javanese
culture in TT.
Foreignization towards the CSIs that are not from kinship and social class
can be claimed as exoticizing that still performs resistance and perseverance of
Javanese culture at the same time. This paradoxical position is attained by the
foreignness of Javanese culture that is maintained but it still indicates west
centrality. The paradox foreignization is also indicated through the high number
of foreignization that is smaller than domestication. Moreover, it is presented by
the random application of foreignization to the cultural domain outside socio-
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familial and social strata terms. It implies that the aspects are not the main focus
of preservation.
Introducing Javanese culture in the TT also can be practiced by applying a
foreignizing translation strategy towards metaphorical expression. In JG, there are
six out of thirteen Javanese metaphorical expressions that are foreignized using
literal translation. It is exemplified by example (49).
(49) ST Dengan pendek, rumah tangga Ndoro Guru adalah rumah
tangga khas priyayi Jawa, di mana sang priyayi adalah
juga soko guru keluarga besar yang berkewajiban
menampung sebanyak mungkin anggota keluarga-jaringan
itu ke dalam rumah tangganya. (SL/ C2/ P15 /46)
TT In short, this was a typical household of the better-off
Javanese, in which a paterfamilias stood as the center
pillar of an extended-clan, kin whose general expectation
was that he would accommodate under his wing (if I might
vary the figure) as many as possible of its less fortunate
members. (TL/C2/P21/18)
Example (49) indicates that the metaphorical expression soko guru is foreignized
through literal translation technique. In JG, the translation result of soko guru
indicates metaphor that is unfamiliar in TL
According to Poerwadarminta, Hardjasoedarma, and Poedjasoedira (1939)
in Bausastra Jawa, soko guru literally means the big pillars in the center of
Javanese traditional house. Robson & Wibisana (2002) also define soko guru as
the four main pillars. In this context, soko guru means the center of the extended
clan who has an important role to support the family. In Javanese familial culture,
a person can be considered as soko guru because he is respected by the extended
clan. Moreover, he has financial stability and a good position in society.
Therefore, soko guru of the family supports and develops the family condition and
life quality.
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Javanese metaphor applied in PP indicates the culture, daily reality, and
concept that they have. It is in line to Wulandari (2017) claims that the discovered
metaphors in PP present the Javanese life’s realm and the virtue from its local
wisdom. Thus, foreignizing metaphor through literal translation maintains and
presents the Javanese cultural realm in JG. In addition, it resists the domination of
target culture that may not give the opportunity to the source culture to be
presented in target texts but it also performs exoticism through the foreign term.
Resistance towards culture domination and exoticism in translating PP is
also presented in the application of literal translation towards Javanese proverbs.
The phenomenon is exemplified by example (50).
(50) ST Yo, wis. Terserah kamu Bune. Kita usahakan agar ikan bisa
kita tangkap tanpa harus membuat airnya keruh. Kecekel
iwake ojo nganti buthek banyune, Bune.” (SL/ C7/
P217/28)
TT Hmm. Well, I’ll leave it to you, Bune. Just be careful, is my
advice. Catch the fish and don’t muddy the water that
sort of thing. (TL/ C7/ P265/ 24)
In example (50), proverb kecekel iwake ojo nganti buthek banyune is translated
per world to catch the fish and don’t muddy the water that sort of thing. The
proverb means to solve the problem without complicating it. The proverb
indicates the realm of nature condition that is encountered by Javanese people.
Traditionally, Javanese people do some activities that are related to nature. They
catch fish in the river with the muddy riverbed. The ripple muddies the water.
Then, the event is compared to the case of resolving the problem.
Foreignization that acts as exoticism and resistance is indicated in the
borrowing process applied in social culture domain related to occupation. Three
out of eighteen Javanese cultural words about the occupation was borrowed in the
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TT. Example (51) presents paradoxical foreignization in translating Javanese CSI
word related to occupations.
(51) ST Wayang, gamelan, dalang, penabuh gamelan, para
pesinden, yaitu penyanyi pengiring gamelan, semua beliau
tanggung ongkos-ongkosnya. (SL/ C3/ P43/ 15)
TT Wayang, gamelan, the puppet's dalang, the percusionist,
the singer who acompanies the gongs: he bore the cost of
all those, only asking us to let him choose the episode to
be portrayed. (TL/ C3/ P57/ 23)
In example (51), dalang which means a puppet master is not translated into TL
however it is maintained in TT through borrowing. There is no explanation about
dalang in JG. Therefore, the target readers are left in the foreignness of Javanese
culture in the TL. Another example from occupational terms is presented by (52).
(52) ST Adegan-adegan itu meliputi adegan Panembahan Senapati
membujuk anak perempuannya agar mau menyamar
menjadi seorang penari ronggeng pengamen ke Mangir
dengan tujuan untuk memikat hati Ki Ageng Mangir yang
tidak mau tunduk kepada Panembahan Senapati. (SL/
C9/P269/18)
TT The first scene showed Senapati instructing his daughter to
masquerade as a ronggeng girl and win the heart of Ki
Ageng. (TL/ C9/P326/6)
Ronggeng is a Javanese traditional dance that is performed by physically
attractive female dancers. The dancers travel and perform with a troop of gongs
musician. During the performance, the dancer invites male audiences to dance
together intimately. Rongeng does not have a term that is equivalence in TL. It is
also a foreign concept for the target culture. Borrowing ronggeng and dalang into
TT creates exotic nuances because it serves the foreignness of Javanese culture.
However, at the same time, the culture was presented in TT through the original
form thus it also resists TL domination. In this case, the Javanese identities
presentation, contained in those two CSI, do not have a useful and serious
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purpose. It is in line to the claim that exoticism is an act of representation through
identities that are allocated frivolously (Savigliano, 1995 cited in Shay and
Sellers-Young, 2003)
The same paradox is also discovered in the foreignizing translating of
Javanese dialect within the dialogue of PP characters. The foreignization is also
practiced by direct borrowing. It is presented in examples (53) and (54)
(53) ST "Wah, wong anak desa sekecil kamu, kok ya cepat belajar
mengatur rumah tangga priyayi, lho," kata Lik Paerah. (SL/
C2/ P19 /9)
TT “Wah, a wee lad just just out of the village! Well you are
quick, all right!” (TL/ C2/ P26/ 17)
(54) ST Lha, ini lho, Kakang Atmokasan, putri panjenengan pun
genduk Siti Aisah. (SL/ C3/ P41/ 38)
TT Lha, there we have my daugther Aisyah , brother
Atmokasan , Siti Aisyah , if the chit's name must have its
due. (TL/ C3/ P55/ 25)
Example (53) and (54) present the use of Javanese interjection in Javanese
dialect. The dialect is marked by wah and lha. Wah is an interjection expressing
astonishment. It is equivalent to wow in English. Lha is an expression to show
shock. Those interjections are not applied and not familiar to the target readers. In
the TT, the terms are borrowed directly. There are two implications in
foreignizing those Javanese interjections. First, it introduced the identity of
Javanese speakers that commonly utter wah and lha to the target readers.
Therefore, it brings the Javanese dialect, which is considered as a peripheral
language, to the central language. However, maintaining the originality of
Javanese dialect presents exoticism in the TT. It gives JG a measure of interesting
exoticism (Zhukov in the personal interview on March 2nd, 2019). Foreignization
to give exotic nuance was also applied in example (55).
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(55) ST "Inggih, Ndoro. Di rumah tidak ada yang menjaga tole. "
(SL/ C2/ P13 /36)
TT my mother would hiss differentially in acknowledgment:
inggih, Ndoro. There is no one to look after him in our
house. (TL/C2/P19/16)
Example (55) presents borrowing technique applied to translate a Javanese
term inggih. The term is included in Javanese krama language. It is a polite
speech of yes that is applied according to the social strata or the age of
interlocutors. For the target readers, the term is unfamiliar because it does not
assimilate into English. Therefore, inggih presents foreignness of Javanese culture
and resistance towards TL culture. In addition, maintaining the original form may
create exoticism. Zhukov states in the interview conducted on March 2nd, 2019
that inggih is “a common expression of agreement in PP—Yes, sir! Certainly! —
easily assimilable by a foreign reader, and provides some of that sprinkling of the
‘exotic’”. The interview justifies that borrowing CSIs to translate PP is to
exoticizing the atmosphere within JG.
CSI from a material culture which is related to attires also is also
classified into paradoxical foreignization. Foreignizing the term serves resistance
and exoticism at the same time. The phenomenon is presented in the example
(56).
(56) ST Saya membayangkan waktu itu Pakde sudah jadi orang
gede, giginya pasti sedikitnya tiga yang diganti emas dan
memakai peci beledu merah miring. (SL/ C1/ P6/ 28)
TT I have a picture of him in my mind as thriving figure in his
later days, even something of a substantial personage in
local terms: three or four gold teeth in his mouth, a red
velvet peci set at a gay angle on his head. (TL/ C1/ P10/ 2)
Example (56) presents foreignization through borrowing towards peci, a square
velvet hat with a tapered tip on the two sides. The foreignization serves resistance
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towards the domination of TL through the existence of the SL that is unfamiliar
for the target readers. However, the foreignness also raises exotic atmosphere in
the TT. It is because the perseverance of source culture representation is practiced
without special purpose to maintain certain aspects of language. Firstly, it is
because the occurrences of foreignization are much less than domestication. There
is only one out of eight CSIs related to a costume that is foreignized. It implies
that the realm about costume is not the main aspect that is intended to be
maintained by the translator. Secondly, peci is a term that does not indicate the
original Javanese costume. It is adapted from the Malayan outfit. It is not the main
attire that is commonly worn by male priyayi or Javanese peasantry but it is
usually worn by male Indonesian Moslems during the religious practice. Even, in
central Java peci is head attire for formal assembly. Moreover, the appearance of
priyayi that is commonly indicated by Javanese traditional attire, is mainly not
preserved in TL. Those two reasons indicate borrowing towards random terms
which results in exotic nuances in the TT.
Paradoxical foreignization that is exotic yet indicates resistance discovers in
the application of amplification translation technique to render material culture
related to food. It is exemplified by example (57) and (58).
(57) ST Kemudian sederet penjual makanan, jajanan dan
minuman. Nasi pecel, wedang cemoe, tepo atau tahu
ketupat dan segala macam jajanan pasar. (SL/ C1/ P1/ 21)
TT There are lines of food-sellers behind their tables of
snacks and drinks: salad of blanched greens spooned over
with peanut sauce; glasses of soupy wedang cemoe, that
lemongrass infusion thickened with sweet bean sauce;
kupat tahu, piles of cubed tofu and pressed steamed
rice slathered with peanut sauce; and in general all kinds
of such market delicacies remained unchanged.
(TL/ C1/ P2/ 5)
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(58) ST Tujuan kami adalah warung, sesungguhnya lebih tepat
emperan warung, gudeg Yu Marsinem, langganan kami
para seniman Lekra. (SL/ C7/P261/23)
TT Our goal was the stall of Yu Marsinem, if you could call it
a stall: it was just an awning-covered porch attached to
building. There, a famous Yogya speciality, the gudeg,
could be had: a concoction of young jackfruit cooked
with spices in coconut milk, ... (TL/C8/P316/24)
Example (57) and (58) present exoticism of Javanese food by representing
foreignness and excitement that creates through amplification of local food. Even
though the translation strategy gives an opportunity to source culture to represent
the culture and resist domination from the target culture, it still serves an
exoticization attitude.
By revisiting the translator’s belief about what should be preserved in TT
and the aim of PP translation, foreignization that is applied deliberately is not
aimed to resist target culture domination towards Javanese culture. It is also not
intended to introduce the source culture. However, it is aimed to serve exotic
nuances of Javanese culture in the TT. It is in line with the interview with Zhukov
on March 2nd, 2019 that maintaining the original form of Javanese CSIs gives “a
measure of interesting exoticism” to the target text (see appendix 17). This kind of
exoticization is in line to the way that is applied to Voltaire’s “Mahomet” and
“Zaire”. According to Masson (1991), in “Mahomet” and “Zaire”, Voltaire applies
some level of exotic nuance by imparting foreign words, such as sérail, calife,
shérif, or soudan.
This foreignization practice towards Javanese CSIs in this study makes
foreignness as something that attracts TL readers. Therefore, the audiences find
the source culture as something that is interesting. It is in line with Ashcroft,
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Griffiths, & Tiffin (2007) stating that exoticization exploits culture and tradition
and using them as an attraction.
4.2.3 Foreignization as Operator of Exoticization, Ethnocentrism, and
Orientalism Attitude
This study discovers colonialism ideology in foreignization. It is served by
exoticization, ethnocentrism, and orientalist attitude. It is marked by borrowing
SL terms that are not equivalent to the source language and culture. This kind of
foreignization is found in the realm of anthroponym, especially kinship and
honorific title for Javanese court member.
Foreignization as exoticism is presented in example (59) in translating
kinship.
(59) ST Kami boleh kadang-kadang datang ke mari ya, Bulik dan
Paklik? (SL/ C3/ P72/ 18)
TT But we can still come to visit you and Bapak sometimes,
Bu? (TL/ C3/ P93/10)
Example (59) indicates the application of borrowing technique to translate paklik
which means uncle or the younger brothers of your parent and bulik which means
aunt or the younger sisters or your parent. However, in this case, the TT does not
borrow the original terms form the ST. It borrowed new terms from the Javanese
language. Paklik is translated into pak which means father and bulik is translated
into bu meaning mother. Borrowing Javanese terms that are unfamiliar for the
target readers marks the foreignness of source culture in the TT. Thus, it creates
exotic nuance that moves the reader to the remote culture mentally. In addition,
the exoticizing is caused by in-equivalent borrowing in example (59). It is formed
by the inappropriate borrowing that presents SL foreignness
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Foreignization strategy in example (59) also indicates the act of
colonialism that is marked by ethnocentrism. It is because it performs a
framework that puts one’s own culture as the core of production and distribution
of knowledge about other culture that is presumed as peripheral. This ideology is
reflected through the prejudice of the translator in choosing borrowing technique
as a translation strategy to encounter the CSIs. The translator claims that
maintaining the original terms of paklik/ bulik by the extension of bapak/ibu cilik
(little father/mother) will lead target readers into complexities beyond necessary
because their range of terms family relationships is narrower than Indonesians
(Zhukov personal communication, March 2nd, 2019). His statement indicates that
source culture as something that is complicated to be understood by west
audiences although the meaning of paklik and bulik is listed in the glossary at the
beginning of JG that is expected to help the target leader in encountering the
terms. It implies that the opted translation strategy in example (59) puts west
culture as the center of distribution of knowledge about Javanese culture related to
kinship. Therefore, translation in example (59) is indifferent about the source
culture representation in the translation text.
The foreignization that indicates exoticization and ethnocentricism in
example (59) cannot be separated from the translator’s consideration and
understanding about the context. The translator understands ngenger as taking the
two children, who in the context are Sastrodarsono’s and Ngaisah’s distance niece
and nephew, into a home where the adults stand in loco parentis; and it can be
expected by readers that the children would use the terms pak and bu (see
appendix 17). Correspond to borrowing in example (59), the translator also states
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that if target readers have some knowledge of Indonesia, the travelers use those
two shortened forms of the addressee in a natural way towards all elderly
Indonesians. The translator’s statement indicates that there is a misunderstanding
about ngenger concept and addressee related to Javanese kinship in that context.
Ngenger is not only a loco-parentis act to your relatives’ children as described by
the translator; however, there is a family relationship between the wealthy and
impoverished one and a sense of servitude to the benefactor’s household in
ngenger. It is described as relatives living in poverty will join and live with
wealthier uncle and aunt in order to get proper care and education; they usually
carry out housework and help running the house in return for meals, board, and
schooling (Koentjoroningrat, 1985, and Britton, 2018). Therefore, although the
benefactor acts like parents to the children, there is still a boundary between the
nuclear family and children in ngenger because the practice expects the children’s
servitude as the return of the favor. The boundary in ngenger makes addressing
pak or bu to your uncle or aunt become unacceptable in Javanese society. Pak or
bu also can be applied to address elderly strangers. Thus, the relationship in
ngenger is not too close and not too distant to make the children addressed their
uncle and aunt who receive them in their house as pak and bu.
The translator’s answer regarded the translation technique in example (59)
indicates the Orientalist attitude that is unconsciously reflected. The translator
unintentionally claims that he, as the occident, understands the cultural concept of
the orient better than them. Therefore, he perceives that he will convey the source
culture in his way better than maintaining the original despite the misconception.
In addition, it presents the occident superior feeling unconsciously. It is in line
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with a notion that west believes in their ability to understand east better than the
east itself as the result of west superiority (Said, 1978).
The original terms and culture in example (59) may be considered as a
complicated concept to be understood by target readers. However, the translator
could bridge the difficulty to help readers to comprehend it without
misrepresenting it. The unsuitable borrowing application exoticizes SL culture
and serves ethnocentrism. It is in line with Asadzadeh & Abbasi (2012) statement
claims that ethnocentric translation does not keep the original terms correctly.
Foreignization that serves exoticization, ethnocentrism, and orientalist
action are also discovered in the translation strategy applied to render the
honorific title of Javanese court member especially in translating adipati. The
example is presented in example (60).
(60) ST Ternyata Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya
Mangkunegara VII adalah seorang yang berwajah cakep,
ganteng, berkumis njlirit, tebal tetapi kecil (SL/ C5/
P157/18)
TT I had the opportunity to quickly note that His Highness,
Prince and Supreme Bupati The Most Noble
Mangkunegara VII, seemed actually quite a dashing
person with face sporting a small, thick mustache. (TL/
C5/ P192/ 3)
Example (60) presents foreignizing translating through literal translation practice
to render Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya Mangkunegara VII, the honorific
title of Mangkunegaran king. Literal translation technique is combined with
borrowing technique to translate the honorific title. Therefore, the term is
translated per word into His Highness, Prince and Supreme Bupati The Most
Noble Mangkunegara VII. Adipati is elaborated into prefix adi- and bupati. Adi- is
superior or supreme according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Bupati means
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the native official who governed a particular region during the Dutch colonial
government (Poerwadarminta, et. al, 1939). It is also defined as a head of
government districts or a position of the highest functionary court in Sultanate of
Yogyakarta and Surakarta by Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, adipati
is translated into supreme bupati by the translator. Literally, the translation is
equivalent according to the dictionaries. However, the translation does not
translate the historical and Javanese kingdom background into TL. Adipati is the
specific honorific title for the king of Mangkunegaran and Paku Alam, the vice of
Yogyakarta Sultanate according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. The honorific
title in the example is a specific title for the king of Mangkunegaran, the small
sultanate under Keraton Surakarta. The title is only used by the highest authority
of Mangkunegaran. Kanjeng Gusti presents that the title holder is the highest ruler
of Mangkunegaran. Wasino (1994) claims that Pangeran Adipati Arya
Mangkunegaran is the title and name of the oldest son of Sunan Amangkurat IV
Kartasura who is exiled to Srilanka for supporting a rebellion towards the Dutch
colonial government. Then, his name is taken by his first son Raden Mas Said,
who is given territory by the king of Surakarta thus he could establish a small new
sultanate, to be the name and title of the king for the new sultanate. (Wasino,
1994)
According to Robson & Wibisono (2002), Adipati refers to “king, regent,
ruler, sovereign” or “title used by princes” (p.26). They also state that bupati is a
“regent, top administrative officer of a Regency”. Oxfords Advanced Learners’
Dictionary defines a regent as a person who rules because the king or queen is too
young or sick. Therefore, in the cultural context of Mangkunegaran presented in
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PP, adipati is a title for a king, a ruler and a sovereign, not a regent although the
kingdom is under the government of the Surakarta Sultanate.
According to the background of adipati, borrowing bupati to translate
adipati and complete the literal translation to the honorifics title for the king of
Mangkunegran creates exotic nuances in the TT by using unfamiliar SL terms
among TL. Moreover, the translation misrepresents the position of Mangkunegara
VII in TT. The misrepresentation or in-equivalence could have been avoided by
inserting a technical explanation about class-status in the glossary. However, the
translator stated that it would have gone beyond what the target readerships’ need
and interest (Zhukov, personal communication, March 3rd, 2019). The statement
related to the translation technique in example (60) indicates ethnocentrism and
orientalist that might lead into domination because borrowing technique
application is underlying on the behalf of the target language and its readers as the
occident, rather than the SL as the origin of the term. Moreover, the technique and
strategy of translation applied in example (60) does not perform the translation
ethic proposed by Antoine Berman (cited by Kristal, 2014). The translation ethic
expects translation is the medium to respect other culture and decenter
ethnocentric attitude but in this case, the application of foreignization translation
serve ethnocentric attitude.
Colonialism ideology conveyed through exoticization, ethnocentrism, and
translator’s orientalist attitude in examples (59) and (60) is also unconsciously
supported by publisher. The ideology hides behind the aims of the publisher to
promote Indonesian literature and culture through the translation of Indonesian
literary works. It is because Lontar, as the publisher, tolerates the Javanese culture
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misrepresentation through foreignization in JG. According to its purpose, Lontar
certainly promotes Indonesian literature and culture worldwide. However, it
introduces the culture embedded in JG through the western point of view.
Therefore, Lontar presents western centrality in JG.
4.2.4 Domestication Strategy as a Bridge of Cultural Differences
Domestication towards Javanese CSI outnumbers foreignization translation
in all cultural domains applied in PP. There are 242 out of 401 CSIs that are
domesticated into TL in JG using adaptation, description, establish equivalence,
generalization, linguistic amplification, modulation, transposition, variation,
compensation, and omission. Therefore, the percentage of domestication is 61%
and foreignization is 39%. It implies that the strategy of translating adopted in JG
inclines to target readership and language rather than the source language. It tries
to domesticate the foreignness of source culture so that it will be acceptable and
comprehensible to target readership. The strategy helps the targeted readers who
come from western and international society to understand JG and the embedded
cultural aspects. It makes the translation quality good. However, it is perceived
from the west perspective. It is because domesticating translation accentuates the
naturalness and fluency of the target text to decrease the foreignness of both
source language and culture in TT (Myskya, 2013; Venuti, 1995; Ajtony, 2017).
The practice of domestication strategy that outnumbers foreignization
justifies the purpose of JG. The translation work is aimed to be easily enjoyed by
target readers. It is in par with Zhukov’s statement in translator’s foreword
claiming that both PP and JG are intended to be an enjoyable tale for general
readers because it is no such study but an “entertainment” (Javanese Gentry: xi).
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He also emphasizes the claim in the interview conducted on March 2nd, 2019. He
says that “JG is not a book for a specialist, nor is PP” (see appendix 17).
Therefore, domestication that is applied in JG helps target readers to acquire the
story and Javanese culture easily. It makes unfamiliar CSIs is understandable to
target readership although in some degrees it causes a loss in the source language
and culture. Domestication in translating PP is beneficial for the target readers to
enjoy JG.
Domestication happens in translating PP to JG because SL and TL do not
share the same culture, especially in term of politeness. English does not have the
same system of language politeness such as Javanese. The Javanese language is
more refined in term of language politeness than English. Language politeness in
Javanese is classified according to context, age and social status of speakers and
interlocutors. In this case, domestication becomes a bridge to encounter the
unavoidable loss caused by a cultural gap and to assists the target reader to
understand the text when foreignization is impossible to be practiced in translating
the Javanese dialect. Thus, domestication can be a good option in encountering
CSIs. In JG various ways of domesticating is applied to render cultural loaded
dialogue; it is exemplified by example (61).
(61) ST Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya minta kematianmu!
(SL/ C6/ P197/17)
TT Yes, dammit! I'm telling you die! (TL/C6/P241/ 9)
Example (61) presents domestication by linguistic amplification. The
dialogue which is conducted in the lowest level Javanese and in the context of
hostility is rendered by amplifying the linguistic component using profanity “. It is
because the English language does not apply a level of language politeness that
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creates the harsh pragmatic effect. Based on the context, the dialogue happens
between the speaker who is an executioner and the interlocutor who is a raden, a
priyayi. In Javanese culture, ceremonial Javanese language is compulsory to be
applied when talking to a person with higher social status. Using ngoko Javanese
in this situation is considered as unrefined and rude. Therefore, domesticating
translates the discourse marker to create equivalence.
Domestication is necessary to be applied in translating cultural aspects in
order to avoid readers’ misunderstanding towards the TT. It is also exemplified by
example (62)
(62) ST “Apa Darsono? Kowe tertawa?” (SL/ C6/ P194/35)
TT He snarled at him in low Javanese: "What now, Darsono?
Laughing, you bastard? Laughing, hey? (TL/C6/P237/23)
In example (62), domestication is applied through amplifying linguistics
component. It adds information about the application of low Javanese language
and profanity to give the same effect of the use of kowe in this context. In PP, this
dialect appears in a dialogue uttered by Marto Kebo. He shows hostility and anger
towards his priyayi neighbors whom he claims to be the cause of suffering to
impoverished peasants. He uses kowe which is Javanese ngoko language to
address priyayi. In Javanese society, using ngoko language to address someone
who has high social status is considered as impolite. Besides, kromo madya or
krama inggil cannot be applied in the context of anger.
Although domestication in translating Javanese dialect in example (61) and
(62) helps the translation work to attain the equivalence towards the context and
the target readers’ understanding of the message within the text, it gains profanity
in TT to replace the ngoko language and to attain the same context in ST. The
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addition of profanity to result in the same nuance but it causes the utterances to
become more vulgar. Therefore, the translation omits the refined Javanese culture
in term of utterance.
Domestication is also practiced in translating other domains besides dialect.
It is applied to assists target readers to understand the text and source culture in
TL easily. Domestication is highly applied in translating gesture and habit
domains. There are 42 out of 45 CSIs translated using domestication. The terms
are domesticated using generalization, compensation, description and omitting.
The description is commonly applied in translating gesture and habit in PP. It is
exemplified in (63).
(63) ST Kadang-kadang juga ngerowot, yaitu makan ketela,
jagung, ubi-ubian, yang direbus tanpa lauk dan garam (SL/
C3/ P91/ 10)
TT Or they limited themselves to eating just yams or corn
or various tubers, also simply boiled and served
without garnish. (TL/ C3/ P116/12)
Ngerowot means fasting by limited themselves to just eating boiled tubers, corn,
and yams without sugar, salt, or other side dishes (Poerwadarminta et.al, 1939).
The term is translated using description. In example (63), ngerowot is translated
by describing it as “limited themselves to eating just yams or corn or various
tubers, also simply boiled and served without garnish”. However, the description
is restricted to the practice of ngerowot. It does not describe the spiritual purpose
of ngerowot.
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4.2.5 Orientalist Attitude, Ethnocentrism, and Colonial Ideology in
Domestication Strategy
Domestication does not only facilitate target readership, naturalness, and
fluency in translating SL and culture but also makes the translation work can be
enjoyed easily. It also brings certain cultural and political agendas (Venuti, 2001).
Domestication discovers in this study indicates ideology that is unconsciously
reflected in the TT. Domestication in this study brings orientalist and
ethnocentrism ideology.
Orientalism is discovered in the domestication of CSI correspond to
Javanese beliefs. It is presented in example (64).
(64) ST Dengan kehadiran Sri dan Darmin itu kami berharap anak-
anak bisa menghayati agama Islam dari jarak yang sangat
dekat, dari sanak saudaranya sendiri, bukan orang lain. Juga
supaya anak-anak saya hanya tahu tokoh-tokoh Pendawa
dan Kurawa saja. (SL/ C3/ P71/ 8)
TT We hoped that the arrival of those two would bring balance
to our children's religious outlook" for the three were more
inclined to delight in wayang stories than in the scripture
either Koranic or of the sacred book revealed to the prophet
Jesus. (TL/ C3/ P91/ 4)
Example (64) presents domestication through generalization translation technique.
The technique is applied in translating tokoh-tokoh Pendawa dan Kurawa,
members of Pendawa and Kurawa, characters in Mahabarata story. The term is
generalized the specific characters of Mahabarata into wayang story. Moreover,
the generalization of the terms supported orientalism discourse attached in JG.
The discourse is presented in the additional information “or of the sacred book
revealed to the prophet Jesus” that was not written in PP. The additional discourse
indicates that Javanese as the Orient needed to be introduced to Christianity.
Wayang story, that conveys wisdom and gives a role model from the character,
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and Koran are not enough for Javanese people, therefore, Christianity is important
to be taught. It is in line with a notion that described by Hart (2004) that the
Orient is the object of a missionary. Moreover, it also indicates the assumption
that the Orient is ignorant of other beliefs and need to be taught Christianity
(Weir, 2011).
The orientalist attitude is unconsciously attached to the domestication of
wayang characters in example (64). It is indifferent wayang as a spiritual compass
of human life which educates people about the way and wisdom of life. Wayang
contains elements of entertainment, art, education, information, scientific, and
spiritual knowledge (Mulyono, 1977). It is part of the Javanese people’s life.
Moreover, the stories have a philosophy of life, an example of life spiritually,
etiquette, moral, patriotism, and heroism reflected in Ramayana, Baratayuda, and
Arjuna Sasrabahu stories (Mulyono, 1977).
Ethnocentrism is also discovered in domestication applied in this study. It is
indicated in the notion of domesticating CSIs applied to create readability but it
reflects negation towards the foreign terms (Asadzadeh &Abbasi, 2012). In this
study, it is presented in the domestication of material culture related to Javanese
costumes that are worn by female and male Javanese. The domestication is
applied by adapting the SL terms into TL. It is presented in example (65) and
(66).
(65) ST Kami semua berpakaian lengkap. Yang laki-laki kain, jas,
dan destar. Sedang para ibu kain dan kebaya. (SL/ C3/
P39/ 31)
TT the man, including myself, in sarongs, jackets, and head-
cloths bound into the Javanese light turban; the women in
sarong and blouses. (SL/ C3/P53/28)
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(66) ST Waktu saya masuk, saya lihat ada seorang laki-laki yang,
menilik dari pakaiannya serta jas beskap landung serta
blangkon di kepalanya, adalah seorang priyayi pejabat
istana. Karena Wonogiri adalah kabupaten
Mangkunegaran, maka saya menyimpulkan bahwa pejabat
tersebut adalah seorang punggawa istana Mangkunegaran.
(SL/ C5/ P154/30)
TT As I entered I saw someone there who by his long jacket
and batik headdress I recognized as a court official, and
Wonogiri being within one of the Mangkunegaran-
administered kabupaten I surmised he came from, the
Prince in Solo (TL/C5/P188/23)
In example (65), kebaya, a female Javanese top that is usually matched with batik
sarong (Poerwadarminta et.al, 1939; Robson and Wibisono (2002),), is
domesticated into blouses using adaptation translation technique. Domestication
using adaptation also applies in example (66) in translating beskap landung, court
Javanese male costume consist of a long jacket that is worn with batik sarong and
batik headdresses. Beskap landung is rendered into a jacket. The negative attitude
towards maintaining the originality of the words is reflected behind the reason of
translation technique choice. According to personal communication with the
translator, the CSIs are adapted using TL terms because readers have limitation to
accept foreign concept and terms unless they are cultural studies expert yet PP
and JG are not books for specialist. He also adds that readers that are inspired and
interested in Javanese culture can research such technical term by themselves. The
translator’s opinion is true that readership and the readers’ convenience in reading
the translation work are important to be attained. It is also important to deliver the
source culture in TL albeit it is strange to the target readers’ reality and difficult to
be acquired thus it the foreignness is needed to be limited. However, the statement
from the translator indicates that understanding source culture is not really
essential due to readers’ understanding limitation towards source culture. The
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cultural aspects embedded in PP are not significant to be introduced as in reality.
Therefore, the translator wants the readers to recognize the Javanese culture based
on their imagination which is west imagination. In addition, it is rendered into the
culture that wants to be understood from the west point of view.
Orientalist attitude is also presented in domestication translation that is
practiced in translating domains related to wayang performance art. The
domestication is presented in example (67).
(67) SL Tapi, mungkin hatinya sudah terhibur sedikit, sempat
melihat goro-goro di mana dalang itu sempat membuat
suasana jadi gembira karena lucunya dia memainkan tiga
punakawan Semar, Gareng, dan Petruk. (SL/ C7/
P207/35)
TL Well at least he got to where the dalang raised the level of
fun a bit when he brought out the three clowns. Gets a
bit ribald there at times, the way those three, Semar,
Gareng, and Petruk, are sometimes played.
(TL/C7/P254/3)
Domestication in example (67) is applied to translate goro-goro and punakawan.
Goro-goro is a moment when the puppet master lowers the tension of wayang
performance, after the conflict of the story. During goro-goro, the puppet master
plays punakawan that is consisted of Semar, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong to
create the gaiety of the situation. In the TL, goro-goro is described as “where the
dalang raised the level of fun a bit when he brought out the three clowns”.
The same technique is also applied in translating punakawan. Puna or pana
derives from purna which means perfect and kawan means friends thus
punakawan means perfect friends who are intelligent, trustworthy, and open-
minded (Ensiklopedi Nasional Indonesia, 2005 and Zoetmulder, 1982 cited in
Sunarto, 2012). They present comedy using Javanese ngoko language in goro-
goro part (Mrázek, 1999). However, in JG, punakawan is described as “the three
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clowns” that sometimes are played with ribald jokes. The description of
punakawan in JG, as the three clowns, is not suitable although their features look
like clowns and they present comedy in the performance because punakawan
consists of four members, namely: Semar, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong. In
addition, they are not just jokers. There is a deeper intention behind punakawan
characters and their jokes that entertain the audiences. They deliver critics towards
the authority and wisdom behind their jokes. In addition, their positions in the
Mahabarata epic are the advisors of the Pandawa knights. Therefore, describing
punakawan as three clowns in JG was inappropriate. The description does not
engage the wisdom and power of Punakawan.
The first member of Punakawan is Semar, the incarnation of Batara Ismaya.
He is a deity who lived like a commoner (Pausacker, 2004). He is ordered by
Batara Guru to come to the earth to assist Pandawa. His characteristic is faithful
to Pandawa members, wise, honest, and down to earth. Therefore, Semar was
much respected. During the wayang performance, He rarely appears in goro-goro.
However, his three children, Semar, Petruk, and Bagong, are more often played in
goro-goro.
Punakawan characters and the physical depiction that is not proportional in
wayang make them look like a clown, funny and paltry. However, they are not
mere comedians or clowns because they are wise and had an important position as
the advisors of Pandawa. Their strange physical condition contains philosophy
and symbols of modesty, circumspection, independence, openness, fertility, and
intelligence.
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The way punakawan played is not ribald. They are presented vulgarly in
term of the language use and the way they talk in Javanese puppetry. Vulgarity
applied in punakawan and goro-goro indicates that they are from a humble origin,
not from aristocrat background; like their masters. In general, they are played
humorously and rarely in a ribald manner. Ribaldry is usually presented in the
communication among dhalang, sinden, and additional comics outside wayang
characters. Generally, when just involving punakawan, the jokes usually do not
refer to sex but more about body shamming among the members of punakawan
because each of the members has the abnormal physical condition but sometimes
they feel handsome and overconfident. In addition, they often satirize the
authority and the system through their jokes. In spite of the way of punakawan are
performed in the original context, they are presented as wayang characters that
show a sense of impolite humor referring to sex in JG. The translation presents
the ribald side of punakawan in goro-goro rather than satire humor that is often
performed. Therefore, the description of punakawan that is depicted as ribald in
JG may serve an Orientalist attitude. It justified the orient’s imagery that is
depicted as lustful by the occident proposed by Said (1978).
Domestication strategy is also practiced in CSI that indicates in mimicry
towards the Dutch language, the ex-colonial master of Indonesia. It is indicated in
the Javanese accent in pronouncing Dutch’s vocabulary that is applied by Kayam
in his writing. The mimicry towards Dutch term initiated by Kayam is presented
in example (68).
(68) SL Di HIS guru-guru dipanggil sebagai "meneer". Tentu saja
saya, tamatan sekolah desa lima tahun ditambah dengan
kursus guru bantu dan sedikit pergaulan kesukan dengan
para priyayi kabupaten dan bahasa Belanda een-twee-drie
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dari Dik Ngaisah, tidak pernah juga dapat mengucapkan
dengan pas kata "meneer" itu. Saya mengucapkan
dengan "menir" saja. (SL/ C3/ P65/ 38)
TL At Wanagalih HIS, the teachers were addressed as
“Meneer”. Naturally, as one who had only done five years
at a village school and merely trained as an assistant
teacher, anything Dutch was a trap to me, and after the best
help from our neighboring priyayi and Dik Ngaisah’s een-
twee-drei pennyworth the closet I could get to
pronouncing “meneer” was menir. (TL/ C3/ P85/15)
Mimicry is presented in how Sastrodarsono, the priyayi who lives in Javanese
culture but adopt little the colonial language, pronounced meneer, a Dutch
vocabulary to refer mister or sir, in Kayam’s writing. The term is applied to the
addressee for male teachers during the colonial era. Meneer is pronounced menir
by Sastrodarsono. It indicates that Sastrodarsono is mimicking the Dutch as
colonizer through his pronunciation. Mimicry which is practiced in the CSI
indicates a thread towards colonialism discourse in ST. It is possible to destabilize
colonial discourse. According to Ashcroft et al. (2000), mimicry is a menace for
colonialism discourse because it indicates the limit of colonial discourse that may
become its destruction.
The rejection towards ex-master colonial language in SL is applied through
the continuity of mimicking the colonizer. In SL, all meneer words in the ST are
written as menir based on the Javanese pronunciation. However, the mimicry is
not continued in the TL because menir is domesticated into meneer by adopting
the colonizer’s language although not all of menir were translated into meneer. In
the TL, the terms are still foreignized only in Sastrodarsono’s dialogue parts.
Therefore, instead of transferring the CSI and postcolonial discourse to TL, the
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115
translation still brought back the colonial discourse. It is exemplified by example
(69).
(69) SL Apa boleh buat. Yang penting Menir Soetarjo kepala
sekolah HIS serta Menir Soerojo, guru bahasa Belanda,
ilmu bumi, dan sejarah tidak keberatan saya mengucapkan
"menir" itu. (SL/ C3/ P66/ 2)
TL Well, no matter, Meneer Soetarjo, the school principal,
and Meneer Soerojo, who taught Dutch, geography, and
history accepted my effort (TL/ C3/ P85/16)
Example (69) presents the application of borrowing that domesticates the CSI
because the TT borrows from the Dutch language. The domestication is applied
towards the Javanese mimicry in pronouncing meneer. In SL, the terms are
written menir but they are translated into meneer. Therefore, the TL practices the
ex-colonial master original language. In addition, the domestication practices
reveal colonial attitude.
This research discovers that domestication can bridge the cultural gap
between SL and TL. It also finds that domesticating CSIs can serve
ethnocentrism, orientalist attitude, and colonial ideology of the translator.
Ethnocentrism is unconsciously served in the translation of CSIs in JG by
systematic negation towards original terms practiced by Zhukov and occurrences
of domestication that is higher than foreignization. Orientalism is also served
through domestication of CSIs that justifies the orient’s image established by the
occident.
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Chapter V provides a conclusion and suggestion of this study. Conclusion
section gives summary discoveries and discussion elaborated in chapter IV.
Suggestion conveys recommendation for future researchers, translators, and
readers.
5.1 Conclusion
After conducting a study in translation techniques, strategy, and ideology in
translating CSIs in Para Priyayi using a postcolonial perspective, the research
questions proposed in this thesis are answered. There are two research questions,
namely: (1) what translation techniques are applied in translating CSI in Kayam’s
Para Priyayireflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry? (2) What ideology of
translating are presented in translation techniques applied to render CSI in
Kayam’s Para Priyayi reflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?
This study discovered fourteen types of translation techniques applied in
401 CSIs from the Javanese language. There are amplification, borrowing, calque,
literal translation, adaptation, description, establish equivalence, generalization,
linguistics amplification, modulation, transposition, variation, compensation, and
omission. Those translation techniques are applied in translating twelve domains
of CSIs that consists of ecology, material culture, social culture, organization-
custom-activities-procedure-social conception, gesture and habit, measurement
system, dates, anthroponym, dialect, fictional character, idiom, and metaphor.
Borrowing occurs 93 times. The literal translation is applied fifteen times. There
are seven occurrences of calque and 48 times of amplification. Then, adaptation is
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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applied 22 times. There are 44 times of established equivalence translation
technique, 47 times of generalization, three times of variations, 26 occurrences of
compensation, six times of linguistics amplification, three times of modulation, 85
occurrences of descriptions, 17 times of omitting application, and an occurrence
of transposition.
These translation studies find two translation strategies, namely:
foreignization and domestication. The two translation strategies that are examined
using postcolonial theory and consulted to translator interview result suggested
that foreignization in this study indicates resistance towards TL culture
domination when it was applied in translating domain related to Javanese kinship,
social status, and social strata. Foreignization also indicated exoticization and
resistance when it is applied in other domains that are not intended to be preserved
by the translators (outside kinship, social status, and social strata realms), it is
practiced less than domestication, and it is considered acceptable for target
readership and intended to give a sprinkle of exotic nuances. Foreignization also
presents exoticization and ethnocentrism when it conveys foreignness of source
culture but it does not present the source culture in the right manner. This study
also discovered domestication that is necessary to convey the tale and bridge
cultural gaps. However, there is also domestication that supports orientalist
attitude, ethnocentrism ideology, and colonial discourse.
5.2 Suggestion
This research provides suggestions for future researchers and translators.
The future researcher is expected to conduct rigorous research in postcolonial
translation because postcolonial translation research in Indonesian context is still
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
118
limited and still dominated by Arabic and Hindi scholars and context. Postcolonial
Indonesian study may enrich the diversity of postcolonial study that is rooted in
historical event and context. Development of postcolonial translation study also
may increase Indonesian translators’ awareness in rendering cultural loaded texts.
Therefore, they may aware of their role as the agent of preserving and presenting
local culture to international audiences. Moreover, the translator may prevent
ethnocentrism towards peripheral culture and language. They are also expected to
prevent the development of internalized neo-colonialism that may develop
through translation works.
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APPENDICES
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Appendix 1. Amplification
No Domain SL TL
1. Material culture Nasi pecel salad of blanched greens
spooned over with
peanut sauce;
2. wedang cemoe glasses of soupy
wedang cemoe, that
lemongrass infusion
thickened with sweet
bean sauce;
3. Kupat tahu kupat tahu, piles of
cubed tofu and pressed
steamed rice slathered
with peanut sauce
4. Klepon klepon, for example,
steamed rice cakes with
a center of palm sugar
5. onde-onde onde-onde, balls of rice-
flour filled mung beans
6. Nagasari nagasari, those little
cubes of rice flour and
minced banana wrapped
in woven strips of
banana leaf
7. pendopo kabupaten the old pendopo, the
open sided audience hall
where regents used to
meet the kabupaten's
assembeled dignitaries
8. keris-keris Ndoro Guru. the teacher's krisses-the
appurtenances of a
priyayi -
9. pendopo Prangwedanan The Prangwedana
pendopo, the gathering
place of military stuff in
past days.
10. air kendi a glass of cool water
from our earthenware
kendi
11. Kendang the kendang, a type of
small double-ended
drum
12. gudeg Yu Marsinem There, a famous Yogya
speciality, the gudeg,
could be had: a
concoction of young
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128
jackfruit cooked with
spices in coconut milk,
13. Kesukan kesukan or simply
diversion.
14. nyonya kontrolir the nyonya kontrolir, the
European wife the local
Dutch district officer
15. Organization,
Custum, Activities,
Procedure, Concept
Priyagung Jakarta
dengan title doktorandus
lagi.
a lofty Jakarta priyayi, a
university man, a
doktorandus,
16. Sekolah sekakel sekakel, as we called
them, a schakel school
or linking schooll of
seven years, where
instruction in the upper
level was carried out in
Dutch.
17. Sarotomo Sarotomo, named after
the sacred bow or
Arjuna,
18. Medan Priyayi Medan Priyayi, The
Priyayi Forum
19. keluarga petani santri a village of santri
peasants, Devout
adherents to islam.
20. priyayi abangan, abangan, whose islam
still accommodated
elements of immemorial
native lore and a
Javanise Hinduism
21. Cukup sakmadya sakmadya: temperance
and moderation.
22. Mocopat reciting folk version of
episodes from history.
He knew many in the
form of six-line verses
called macapa
23. panembromo, panembromo, a song of
welcome
24. pencak silat, an episode of pencak
silat styled fighting;
25. Ketoprak another group song; and
finally, a ketoprak,
historically drama.
26. Pocung Pocung, "The Sheaf of
Truths, is a song from
High Wisdom, a
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
129
theosophical tract which
teaches ascetic attitudes
and self-control;
27. Kinanthi while Kinanti,
"Guidance", from Lore
and Discipline,
introduces the convert
to the practical
techniques by which
passion and egoism may
be overcome
28. Parto Kromo: Parto
taking a wife
Parto Kromo
29. Gatutkaca Gandrung Gatutkaca Gandrung,
the lovelorn Pendawa
figure from pendawa
figure from the
Mahabarata
30. ketoprak dengan lakon
“Ki Ageng Mangir
Ki Ageng Mangir the
tragedy of democratic
village leader, one
Ageng of Mangir,
succumbing to
Senapati's centraling
despotism during a time
of instability after the
collapse of Majapahit in
the early 1500
31. Gestrure and habit Sembah a sembah: palms
together. Fingertips
upwards and touching
the forehead
32. ngapurancang ascetic pose called
ngapurancang': that is,
standing with his arms
crossed over his crotch
33. Anthroponym Embah Wedok my grandmother,
Embah Wedok
34. Bapak "bapak", as I were not
their contemporary and
former schoolfellow but
some old gentleman to
be addressed as "Father"
or "sir".
35. Dik Ngaisah little sister" Ngaisah,
Dik Ngaisah
36. Ndoro Sepuh Ndoro Sepuh -
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130
Honorable Ancient
37. Romo Pensiunan Seten
Sunoko, Romo
Pensiunan Jeksa
Romo Seten Sunoko,
and Romo Jaksa: those
last two, the old
assistant distict chief
and prosecutor, long ago
retired and on their
pension.
38. Harimurti Harimurti,… We has
given him a name which
translated from the
Sanskrit as "Touched by
the Light of the Sun”
39. Murjangkung Murjangkung - That Jan
Peterszoon Coen who
had defeated Sultan
Agung in the 1600s
40. Fictional Character Betoro Kolo Ogre Betoro Kolo
41. Batara Kresna, titisan
Wisnu
Lord Krishna , who also
in his popular
incarnation was dark,
and indeed literary
whose name litterary
meant "Black" Krisna
characterized as
Harimurti in the
Javanese pantheon was
the avatar of Visnu
42. Prabu Kresna dari
Dwarawati
Vishnu incarnate,
Krishna, he of the
exemplary kingdom of
Dwarawati.
43. Prabu Angling Dharma Prabu Angling Dharma,
the incarnation of
Vishnu,
44. Ratu Kidul Ratu Kidul, the Empress
of the South Sea
45. Rahwana the giant Rahwana
46. Pasopati Arjuna, Pasopati Arjuna, his
younger brother and
rival
47. Panembahan Senapati Senapati, the founder of
the Mataram Dynasty
48. Dialect wassalamualaikum
warohmatullahi
wabarokatuh
wassalamualaikum
warohmatullahi
wabarokatuh. , the
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131
closing "peace be with
you and God's blessing
49. Inna lillahi wa inna
rojiun
Inna lillahi wa inna
rojiun: the graveside
formula - we are Allah's
and to Him we return
50. astagfirullah , astagfirullah, God be
merciful! God be
merciful
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Appendix 2. Borrowing
No Domain SL TL
1. Material culture peci beledu merah a red velvet peci
2. pendopo pendopo
3. Arak arak
4. Peci peci
5. gamelan gamelan
6. Social culture Menir menir
7. Dalang the puppet's dalang
8. Organization,
Custum , Activities,
Procedure, Concept
Keprabon Keprabon
9. Wayang Wayang
10. orkes keroncong Keroncong pop band
11. penari ronggeng a ronggeng girl
12. Anthroponym Ndoro. Ndoro.
13. Mbok Mbok
14. Pak Lantip Pak Lantip
15. Ndoro Seten Ndoro Seten
16. Pak Lurah Pak Lurah
17. Pak Carik. Pak Carik.
18. Ndoro Kanjeng Bupati the Bupati
19. Dik Sastro Dik Sastro
20. Menir Soetarjo Meneer Soetarjo,
21. Menir Soerojo Meneer Soerojo
22. Bulik Bu
23. Paklik? Pak
24. Pakde Pak
25. Kang Kang
26. Yu Mbak
27. Raden Harjono
Cokrokoesoemo
Raden Harjono
Cokrokoesoemo
28. Romo Mukaram: Romo Mukaram:
29. Mbah Kromo Mbah Kromo
30. Pakde Pakde
31. Kamas Haji Mansoer Kamas Haji Mansoer
32. … Pak Dukuh
Soetoredjo
… Pak Dukuh
Soetoredjo
33. Ndoro Mantri Guru Ndoro Mantri Guru
34. Dimas Menir Tardjo? Dimas Menir Tardjo?
35. Ndoro Noegroho Ndoro Noegroho
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133
36. Ndoro Den Ajeng
Soemini
Ndoro Den Ajeng
Soemini
37. Gus Hari Gus Hari
38. Ndoro Hardojo kakung-
putri
Ndoro kakung Hardojo
brought his wife
39. Nakmas Harjono Nakmas Harjono
40. Dik Pran Dik Pran
41. Mbak Nunuk! Mbak Nunuk!
42. Kanjeng Bupati Anom the deputy bupati
43. Raden Mas
Pringgokusumo…
Raden Mas
Pringgokusumo…
44. Denmas Kusumo, Denmas Kusumo,
45. Bapake Tole Bapake Tole
46. … Bung Hari … … Bung Hari …
47. … Bung Naryo .. … Bung Naryo ..
48. Bulik Mini Bulik Mini
49. Pakde dan Bude
Noegroho
Pakde dan Bude
Noegroho
50. Mbak Sus Mbak Sus
51. Pak Kaji Ngaliman, Pak Kaji Ngaliman,
52. Ki Ageng Mangir Ki Ageng Mangir
53. Fictional Character Sukarsana Sukarsana
54. Woro Sembodro Wara Sembadra
55. Yudistira Yudistira
56. Para Kurawa Para Kurawa
57. Wara Srikandi Wara Srikandi
58. Sultan Agung Sultan Agung
59. Karna Karna
60. Kunti Kunti
61. Sumantri Sumantri
62. Semar Semar
63. Gareng Gareng
64. Petruk Petruk
65. Parto Parto
66. Arjuna Arjuna
67. Lara Ireng Lara Ireng
68. Sembadra Sembadra
69. Srikandi Srikandi
70. Larasati Larasati
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134
71. Bandung Bondowoso Bandung Bondowoso
72. Amangkurat Amangkurat
73. Rama Rama
74. Sita Sita
75. Laksmana Laksmana
76. Dialect inggih, Ndoro inggih, Ndoro
77. Wah Wah
78. Lha, Lha,
79. Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar!
80. Masya Allah! Masya Allah!
81. Insya Allah Insya Allah
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
135
Appendix 3. Calque
No Domain SL TL
1. Social Culture wong ndeso, village folk
2. Organization,
Custum , Activities,
Procedure, Concept
kantor Karesidenan
Madiun
the high administration
of the Madiun
residency.
3. Ndeso typically "village"
4. Anthroponym Nak Guru our young teacher
5. Our lad, the teacher
there
6. Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran
Adipati Arya
Mangkunegara VII
His Highness, Prince
and Supreme Bupati
The Most Noble
Mangkunegaran VII
7. Idiom wong cilik the common folk
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
136
Appendix 4. Literal Translation
No Domain SL TL
1. Material Culture soko guru dan tiang-
tiang pendopo
Mangkunegaran dan
balariung istana
Kasunanan
the main and subsidiary
columns of the
Kasunanan palace both
in Solo,
2. Social Culture para priyayi pangreh
praja
the priyayi of
Wanagalih's civil
service
3. Organization,
Custum , Activities,
Procedure, Concept
Wayang kulit leather puppets
4. Sumantri Ngenger the servitude of
Sumantri,
5. Gesture and Habit puasa Senin Kemis fast on Monday and
Thursda
6. Anthroponym Mangkunegara kaping
empat
Mangkunegara number
four
7. dialect nyuwun sewu
pangapunten,
a thousand, thousand
apologies,
8. Idiom Kecekel iwake ojo
nganti buthek banyune
catch the fish and don’t
muddy the water
9. Mikul duwur mendem
jero!
lift high! Dig deep!
10. Metaphor garwa, sigarane nyawa half a soul, we wives
are, that's the saying
11. salah kedaden, misbegotten boy.
12. kencono wingko To look ar a potsherd
and see a gold nugget
13. Kacang masa akan lupa
pada lanjarannya.
the bean-vine forgetting
the pole it grew up on
14. mbanyu mili, poured in
15. soko guru keluarga besar a paterfamilias stood as
the center pillar of an
extended-clan
Appendix 5. Adaptation
No Domain SL TL
1. Material culture Dodol Nangka jackfruit taffy.
2. Jadah Rice cake
3. jas tutup jacket
4. beskap landung long jacket
5. berjas beskap landung
berwarna juning gading
: ivory-white long
jacket
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
137
6. gambang xylophone
7. gender metalophone
8. Social culture Bupati regents
9. asisten wedana
Karangelo
assistant district chief at
Karangelo
10. montir pocokan food hawkers
11.
Organization,
Custum , Activities,
Procedure, Concept
ronda tetek the town watch
12. Kelengengan concert hall gamelan
13. kelenengan atau uyon-
uyon gamelan Jawa
concert hall gamelan
14. roso rikuh the respect of our
subordinates and
respects those above
him
15. Measurement
system
hanya satu atau dua bau no more than a hectare
and a half
16. bergantang-gantang the hundredweight
17. Anthroponym Patih Sarwoko Minister Sarwoko
18. Kanjeng Gusti
Mangkunegara yang
kaping tujuh
Highness
Mangkunegara number
seven
19. Kanjeng Pepatih Dalem his excellency the chief
minister
20. Kanjeng Gusti perhaps his highness
himself
21. ,cah bagus my innocent lamb
22. Tole Darsono, Master Darsono,
Appendix 6. Description
No Domain SL TL
1. Ecology Sawah tadah hujam there was the additional
handicap that rice in this
area depended on rainfall,
2. Panu White blotches of fungus
3. Galih central core that supported
the variously grained layer
around it.
4. Masa bediding the air of approaching
cooler season
5. Material
culture
Celana kolor komprang
dari kain kastup
black short trousers made
of glossy cotton fabric, tied
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
138
at the waist by a drawstring
6. Sabuk otok the same wide-waisted
sashes on sale within which
on each side of the buckle
the country people stow
their capital when coming
to market
7. Caping broad conical hats,
8. Nasi pecel salad of blanched greens
spooned over with peanut
sauce
9. Tumpeng nasi kuning the ceremonial dish of
yellow rice,
10. Juadah various delicacies from
sticky rice
11. Botok ikan teri steamed white bait with
coconut in banana leaf,
12. Sambal terasi shrimp paste.
13. Sayur asem kangkung sour vegetable soup
14. Lalapan sambal fresh raw vegetables with
hot sauce,
15. Rumah gebyok weatherboard houses, in
those outmoded old cottage
16. Rumah gebyok The large weatherboard
house
17. Gedek panels of plaited bamboo
18. Amben the sleeping platform in one
of the rear buildings
19. Tumbal to be parted from their roots
and leave their native
surrounds
20. Bawonan harversted grain and stooks,
21. Ater-ater the occasion of ceremonial
meal or othe
22. Jadah dan wajik Rice cake and squares of
sticky rice with palm suga
23. Slepi …small wallet of tobacco
24. Destar head-cloths bound into the
Javanese light turban
25. Koplakan every wayside booth where
vehicles stopped to pick up
passengers
26. Saren Fried chicken blood
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
139
27. Blangkon batik headdress
28. Beskap landung Long jacket
29. Peri Celestia beauties
30. Upet source of illumination
wicks made from the husk
around coconut flowers,
basically a twist of fibers
flickering in a jam tin of oil
31. Lopis Rice tibes steamed in
banana leaf.
32. Juruh palm sugar syrup
33. Pepes cabuk a meal of steamed black
sesame seeds and grated
coconut wrapped in banana
leaf
34. Pepes botok teri … steamed anchovies
35. Lincak the low bamboo bench
36. Social
culture
Kromo alus ceremonial required of one
when dealing with the
gentry
37. Para penari ledek professionals of easy
morals, with kisses and
more within their gift
38. Kesukan Night of relaxation
39. Pesta tayub A party and a dancing girl
40. Gobak sodor Excited groups played
catch-me-if-you-can on
grids marked in the soft
ground
41. Nembang dan uro-uro Javanese poetry, chanted to
the beat of a gong, and to
sing those marvellous old
ballads.
42. tokoh kebatinan a person of considerable
spiritual eminence,
43. wayang kulit mythological fare of
shadow- puppetry
44. Ketoprak traveling troupe
45. Ludruk the semi historical fare of
folk theater
46. Sasmita a divine signal, an omen
and a sign.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
140
47. Goro-goro where the dalang raised the
level of fun a bit when he
brought out the three
clowns
48. Wayang kulit dengan lakon
Partokromo,
leather puppets playing
"Partokromo, the marriage
of Arjuna and Sembadra
49. serat sastra Jawa. the odd tome of Javanese
Literatur
50. Serat wedhatama High Wisdom, a
theosophical tract which
teaches ascetic attitudes and
self-contro
51. Serat Wulangreh Lore and Discipline,
introduces the convert to
the practical techniques by
which passion and egoism
may be overcome
52. Abdi dalem
mangkunegaran
court functionary employed
by the Mangkunegaran
palace
53. Organization,
concept,
Tahlilan to recite the confession of
faith
54. Nontoni to take a peek at the
possible bride
55. Pesta ngunduh a celebration of the
occasion when the girls
removes to the
bridegroom's home
56. Sing tepa slira, le, marang
sapada-pada
… mixing with others in
social activities; dealing
with them as one would be
done by; measuring one's
coat to one's need indeed,
but cutting it to the going
fashion.
57. cegah dahar lawan guling starve and be place to sleep
in
58. Saru a sin against the rules of
Javanese negotiating.
59. Magersari subletting of free rooms and
other space by those who
had been first to dwell there
being common practice.
60. Gesture
Habit
Bersembahyang isya in the middle of her evening
prayers
61. duwe gawe the coming arrangements
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
141
for the wedding : a matter
of celebration after all.
62. Bedol desa uprooting the surrounding
vilages .
63. Ulem a tone which to me sounded
so even and authoritative
64. Keleleran to fall by the wayside
65. Keropok roasted …over a heap of
burning leaves
66. Ngenger living in , doing chores
67. Ngerowot limited themselves to eating
just yams or corn or varoius
tubers, also simply boiled
and served without garnish.
68. salat rubuh-rubuh gendang the five daily prayes with
their full complement of
bending and bowing
69. Laku kebatinan an act replete with spiritual
profit
70. Njenu a time when fisherman
were stupefying fish with
pulped tuba plants
71. Nyekar to make a parting visit to
the graves
72. Nduwe gawe the coming arrangements
for the weddin
73. Prsadja modest, good hearted,
hones
74. Purik a sulking daugther running
back to her parents
75. Ramban execercise picking
vegetables in the rear
garden and leaves from the
hedges growing around it
76. Kerokan drawing the edge of a coin
along the spine
77. Sungkeman the young couple bows,
raise their palms together
and presses their faces to
the knees of the parents
78. Boncengan sitting on the rear rack
79. Menggejik turning up earth and
planting seed
80. Mutih having plain rice without
side dishes or salt
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
142
81. Menyengkelit pistol butts poking out
waistbands
82. Mempur texture when boiled and in
the way peeled easily
83. Menuba
at a time when fisherman
were stupefying fish with
pulped tuba plants. With all
the excitement of the catch,
they too had waded in to
the drugged water
84. Metingkrang above people
85. Kegandesan grace and charm, a bit more
elegance. Something more
properly feminie in their
attitude
86. anthroponym Kemantren the office of the civil
administration
87. Lurah ngale the village head here at
Ngale
88. Bu mantra garam the wife of salt controller in
Sokokilo
89. Fictional
characters
Punakawan The three clowns
90. Gamelan lokananta a gamelan from the abode
of the gods
91. date Azar the time of the mid-
afternoon prayer
92. setiap malam hari-hari
yang dianggap keramat
oleh orang Jawa, misalnya
malam Selasa Kliwon atau
malam Jumat Kliwon
the night hours of holy
days, such as
certainTuesday and Fridays
of the Javanese five-day
week
93. Idiom Sangkan paraning dumadi the question of the origin
and goals of life, the limit
94. inggih, inggih mboten
kepanggih
Inggih! Inggih! To your
face and who then make
make no effort to carry out
what they are agreeing to,
95. Metaphor Mlempem Weak and limb
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
143
Appendix 7. Established Equivalence
No Domain SL TL
1. Social culture petani wutun, a simple man
2. Gesture- Habit sowan call in
3. Anthroponym sok kemayu go putting on air
towards
4. memblayang ke mana-
mana
alley-cattying all over
the city
5. Kuwalat a disaster
6. Genduk Chit
7. Ndoro School Opziener. the school opzienier
8. Kamas School
Opziener.
9. Jeng Sastro your good lady
10. Dimas yours
11. Genduk Mini a chit of tweleve years
12. Dialect Matur nuwun sanget A thousand thanks
13. Rak …. Yo .. Odd that
14. Tawakalah Trust in god
15. Dalem Yes
16. Wis, wiss Now,now
17. Eh Ndilalah But Dear,
18. kersaning Alah It’s the will of Allah
19. Nyuwun sewu If I may
20. Nyuwun duka don't be annoyed,
21. Wis,wis that's enough
22. Dahar have something to eat
23. Mbok Can … please
24. Sampun, Gone
25. Lenggah Take a seat
26. Aturi … I beg you to think
back
27. nyuwun pamit, nyuwun
pangestu
we go with your
permission and
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
144
blessing
28. Mangke rumiyin, One moment
29. Tawakallah. trust in God
30. panjenengan Ndoro
Guru Kakung miwah
Putri
what of that noble,
gracious couple Ndoro
Guru Kakung and
Putri?
31. melik nggendong lali.
Nafsu ingin memiliki
membawa serta lupa.
too much craving for
all kinds of things are
good and some are bad.
32. Idiom Moso borong see if you can knock
something into this
one's head
33. Metaphor tumplek blek eager to look
34. Cancut tali wanda, to send this daughter of
ours off
35. mengkis-mengkis strained enough
36. cenguk-cenguk kere,
yang mau ngemis Londo
itu.
puppy tail, tail-
wagging and beging at
the hand of Londo!
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
145
Appendix 8. Generalization
No Domain SL TL
1. Material culture nasi selamatan. the food.
2. jajanan pasar nice back from the
market
3. balariung istana
Kasunanan
Kasunanan palace
4. Mangkunegaran the Kasunanan palace
both in Solo
5. balariung-balariung Those (refer to
pendopo )
6. ketan putih, dan ketan
hitam
two kinds of sticky rice
7. kembang setaman. a bunch of flowers to
eat
8. demit, tuyul Ghost
9. Social Culture bahasa kromo halus,
kromo madyo, bahasa
ngoko
the three levels of
Javanese
10. menembang macapatan recite those verse
11. ledek Karangjambu a dancer in
Karangjambu
12. Dukun the healer
13. wayang orang Wayang drama
14. Organization,
custum , activities,
procedure, concept
air wudu the ablutions
15. Malati powers
16. merah mangar-mangar quite red
17. kapanewon the districs
18. kawedanan subdistricts
19. Gesture and habit
Cempa ya rowa,
pakananmu iwak apa ya
rowa
those simple lyrics of
their farming life
20. di-tingkebi the ceremony
21. laku prihatin the spirit of the old
teachings
22. tempelengan had been
thumped
23. Grapyak cheerful
24. kurang sreg unhappy
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
146
25. Measurement
system
rinjing atau bakul buah-
buahan
at least a basketful of
fruit
26. Anthroponym Ndoro Guru" dan "
Ndoro Guru Putri
"Ndoro", and
towards his wife,
"Ndoro Putri"
27. Tole him
28. Le my dear
29. Bune Mother
30. Mbokde Sumo Aunt Sumo
31. Mbokne Mother
32. Genduk chit
33. Kakang brother
34. Mbakyu sister
35. Nak Guru Dear chap
36. Kamas Wedana district chief
37. Ndoro Kanjeng Bupati the Bupati
38. Nduk, Le Dear
39. Pakde Pak
40. Kanjeng Gusti
Mangkunegara IV
His Lordship Prince
Mangkunegara I
41. Sinuwun Pakubuwana IV His Highness Paku
Buwana IV
42. Pak Dukuh. the village head
43. Dialect Dalem, Yes
44. Sampeyan You
45. Seda passed away.
46. Kowe you
47. Date malam anggarakasih,
malam Selasa Kliwon
Tuesday nights - and I
mean our, Javanese,
Tuesday!
48. Sabtu Wage the Javanese for
"Saturday,"
49. Idiom merak ati affable
Appendix 9. Linguistic Amplification
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
147
No Domain SL TL
1. Dialect “Apa Darsono? Kowe
tertawa?”
he snarled at him in low
Javanese: "What now,
Darsono? Laughing, you
bastard? Laughing, hey?
2. Tahu-tahu ibu saya dengan
tenangnya menyapa
Martokebo dengan dalam
bahasa kromo yang halus tapi
mantap “Pak Martokebo,
mbok yang sabar, ya. … Pak
Marto in kerso-nya apa to?
Sabar, Pak Marto, sabar.
Mbok duduk, lenggah, dulu.
…”
… in formal Javanese … :
Pak Martokebo. Come now.
Let us be reasonable. We are
all your neighbours. We've
always lived well together.
None of us are bad. Now,
what is all this for? Be
reasonable, Pak Marto, be
patient. Why don’t you take a
seat, rest yourself and tell us
what you have come for.
Lantip, bring out more chair
for our guest.
3. Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya
minta kematianmu!”
Yes, dammit! I'm telling you
die!
4. “Boten, kok, Ndoro,” jawab
kusir dengan lantang
Why, Ndoro, I'm awake , the
man comes back, offended.
5. … ciloko tenan .. ...well, all I can say is poor
me, poor baby.
6. Lha wong didawuhi Kanjeng
Nabi Sulaeman, to. Mosok
tidak mau patuh.
Those trees, Pak - Pitching
about, dancing and such was
like sign they agreed to what
Kiai Jogo asked. And, well
naturally when it's the
prophet Solomon himself -
glory to him! - what he tells
you, you can't say no, can
you?
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Appendix 10. Modulation
No Domain SL TL
1. Fictional
character
tokoh-tokoh Pendawa dan
Kurawa
Wayang stories
2. Social
culture
pangreh praja this officialdoms of ours
3. Organization,
Custum ,
Activities,
Procedure,
Concept
Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan
Kasunanan
the prince; and, for that
matter, of the sultan of Solo,
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Appendix 11. Transposition
No Domain SL TL
1. Tidak diadakan upacara
selamatan tujuh bulan
mengandung
Didn’t observe the seventh
month .
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Appendix 12. Variation
No Domain SL TL
1. Dialect Kiai Jogosimo niku sama
dengan Kanjeng Nabi
Suleman
Yon Kiai Jogosimo now, he
and the prophet Solomon -
his name be honoured! Know
what? Those two were one
and the same! True!
2. Oh wong kalian itu, meski
sudah berkeluarga, beranak
pinak sesungguhnya masih
anak-anak ingusan. Kalau
pakde-mu ini kungkumsetiap
malam anggarakasih, malam
Selasa Kliwon itu, sambil
gemeletuk gigi Pakde karena
kedinginan, itu bukan karena
Pakde kepingin jadi Ratu
seperti raja ketoprak itu,
goblok!
O what a generation - look at
ye now! Married, with
children, descendants - and
as runny-nosed as any of 'em!
When your uncle goes 'a
dipping', as you call it,
Tuesday nights - and I mean
our, Javanese, Tuesday! -
when his teeth rattle in his
head because of the cold, it's
got nothing to do with sany
ambition to become Ratu:
dopes!
3. “Saya agak rikuh untuk matur
kepada Ibu.
I'm sorry to have to report it,
Bu, but the matter is
important.
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Appendix 13. Compensation
No Domain SL TL
1. Material
culture
Rokok klobot, rokok daun
jagung kering, dihidangkan.
tobacco was passed around
and rolled in dry corn leaves,
..
2. Social
culture
para penari ledek, professionals of easy morals,
3. Pamong paraja among praja, para pemuka
agama dan kebatinan, serta
orang-orang Masyumi.
4. pesta tayub a party, and dancing girls
5. Nayub nayub take a round with them
6. mantri penjual candu He supervises the sale of
opium
7. Slametan to celebrate my name change
8. Menayub dengan penari
ledek
right among those floozies
9. Nenuwun Ask God for guidance
10. menyiapkan slametan bubur
merah
to make some rice porridge
with palm sugar and we will
have a propper little
selametan
11. kersaning Allah Allah has called for her
return.
12. Kamu boleh tinggal di sini
sampai slametan tiga hari
Embokmu.
you better stay here for three
days until they have the
selamatan meal for your
mother
13. kuwalat a Bless me. 'twould bring ruin
on our heads
14. diuwongake. by it we were being elevated
to the one level, his
15. Kebatinan followers of mystical
movements,
16. Mengintil followed on the heels of …
and then followed them back.
17. Mriyayeni noble lianaments ….the
visible features of class they
were destined to enter .
18. Ngabluk Can't be bothered to pay!
19. Wis, to. Kau panggil saya
sekarang dengan "romo" dan
kepada istri saya panggil dia
"ibu"
you can refer to me as
"Romo" and to my wife as
"Ibu" as we will thus be
termed father and mother by
you, …
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152
20. Ndoro Hardojo kakung-putri Ndoro kakung Hardojo
brought his wife
21. Bapak Wedana the official I had met in
Wonogiri
22. Raden Mas by his title of Raden Mas,
expect that level of courtesies,
and it and they, I might tell
you, are not far lower than a
regents
23. Romo Seten Sunoko, and
Romo Jaksa:
, Romo Seten Sunoko, and
Romo Jaksa: those last two,
the old assistant distict chief
and prosecutor, long ago
retired and on their pension.
24. Batara Kresna, titisan Wisnu Lord Krishna , who also in
his popular incarnation was
dark, and indeed literary
whose name litterary meant
"Black" Krisna characterized
as Harimurti in the Javanese
pantheon was the avatar of
Visnu
25. "bagaimana pun panjang
lurung, lorong, masih lebih
panjang gurung, tenggorokan
However long the village
lane, malicious tongue are
longer.
26. Mikul duwur mendem jero I would uphold the name of
Sastrodarsono and strive to
inter any dishonor to it.
27. Oh, Nduuk, bejo
kemayangan, untung
mahabesar kamu, Nduuk,
ujarnya.
… told her excitedly that this
was the happiest news
possible, that she, her girl -
imagine!- was carrying the
seeds of priyayi.
28. Jangan keserimpet, terjerat
selendang putri Solo.
don’t trip now. Those shawls
the Solo girls wear, they're
the devil to get tangled up in
29. tangkas seperti Wara
Srikandi,
… a veritable goodes in
looks: Wara Srikandi, no less.
30. Hidup ini hanyalah untuk
mampir ngombe
… life was merely a
momentary stop on a long
journey, comparable to
calling in at a roadside tea-
stall, and we should give it to
more than casual attatention
that such a stop warranted …
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Appendix 14. Ommission
No Domain SL TL
1. Organization,
Custum ,
Activities,
Procedure,
Concept
Sekolah ongko loro -
2. Gestrure mak cleng -
3. Krasan -
4. Guyub -
5. Jagong -
6. medok -
7. Anthroponym Ngger -
8. Jeng Sastro -
9. Embok Ngadinem -
10. Fictional
Character
Idiom
Prabu Arjuna Sasrabahu -
11. Prabu Suyudana -
12. Kerajaan Alengka -
13. Tumplek blek -
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154
Appendix 15. Translation Technique
N
o Domain
Foreignization Domestication
TO
TA
L
Br
L
T
Ca
l
Am
p
Pr
t
Rd
c
Ad
p
E
q
Ge
n
L
D
Va
r Com
D
C
L
A
L
C
Mo
d
Su
b
Des
c
omi
t
Tra
ns
Ecology 1 1 4 5
material culture 5 1 12 7 8 1 31 65
social culture 2 1 1 2 3 1 5 7 1 17 40
Organization, Custom,
Activities,
Procedure, social
conception
4 2 2 16 4 6 5 1 7 1 49
Gesture and habit 1 2 1 5 5 26 40
Measurement
system
2 1
3
Anthrophonym 41 1 3 7 6 9 17 5 3 92
Dialect 6 1 20 4 3 6 40
fictional Character 23 8 1 1 2 35
Date 2 2 4
Idiom 1 2 3 1 1 3 11
Metaphor 6 4 3 1 14
Translation
technique Total 82 15 7 51 22 26 49 3 30 6 3 93 13 1 401
Ideology of
translation total 155 246
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155
Appendix 16. Translation Strategies
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
156
Appendix 17. Interview to Vladislav Zhukov Result
List of Questions for the Study of Ideology of Translating in Javanese
Culture-specific Items in Para Priyayi and Javanese Gentry
Please answer these questions and type the answer in the answer column.
Translator’s Background
No Questions Answers
1. Where do you come from? Eastern (Russian-speaking) Ukraine
2. Where do you live? Mount Wilson, New South Wales,
Australia
3. What is your cultural
background? Western
4. What is your occupational
and educational background? I have had many varied occupations, the
military being my longest (ten years),
now am retired. I have a master’s
degree in Defense Studies
5. How long have you been
translating Indonesian –
English?
About two years
6. When and how did you study
Indonesian and Javanese
language?
The only Javanese I know is just those
elements that have found their way into
Bahasa Indonesia. I was introduced to
BI while serving in the New Zealand
Army in the 1970s; then picked up more
while travelling through your country in
the 1980s; then while doing a BA in
languages, which involved a fourth year
at Gadjah Mada U. It was during that
year (1992) that I came across Para
Priyayi.
7. Have you ever travelled to
Indonesia, especially Central
Java? How your travelling
experience help you to
translate Para Priyayi?
Yes, to both questions
8. When and how did you study
Indonesian colonialism
historical background? How
did the process of
understanding the history
help you to translate Para
Priyayi?
After leaving the army in the mid-’70s I
embarked on my first degree—Asian
Studies—which had a large component
of history, anthropology and sociology,
all very helpful in translating PP.
9. How did you study, gain
information, and understand
Javanese culture? How did
In the above degree, we had Indonesian
professors as well as others who had
lived in your country and were able to
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
157
the process help and
influence you in translating
Para Priyayi?
introduce the various Indonesian
culture to us. My own active experience,
while studying, travelling and living in
Java and many other parts of Indonesia,
helped.
10. In your point of view, how do
the expected target readers of
your translation work
perceive Indonesian and
Javanese culture?
Hopefully, they will find your country’s
various culture as attractive as I did,
and they will be enthused to learn more
about them from reading JG.
11. How is your own opinion
about Javanese culture? What
aspect do find interesting?
My lasting impression is of its
complexity and defensive conservatism,
for instance where language is
concerned. I find it interesting to
observe how your language and culture
will meet the inroads of a multicultural
world, the challenges presented by the
sciences and technological advances, the
incursions of modernity.
Translation Strategy and Techniques in Javanese Gentry
No Questions Answers
1. What are difficulties in
translating Para Priyayi?
Why? How did you
encounter them?
One difficulty is the family-based
structure into which every person in the
book is slotted, using family associated
pronouns etc.; and on top of that the
class-differentiating terminology. I
decided to largely retain the originals and
explain their use and significance by
providing a glossary and foreword.
2. In your opinion, what
aspect of Javanese culture
in Para Priyayi should be
preserved in Javanese
Gentry? Why?
Firstly, politeness within and between the
generations. Secondly, family solidarity.
These are fundamental in PP, and their
substance should be preserved in a
translation.
3. How do you maintain
Javanese cultural terms
from Para Priyayi in the
JG?
Apart from the cultural difficulty of
translating those terms (see above), there
is another good reason for keeping them
in their original form: they give the text a
measure of interesting ‘exoticism’.
4. In your opinion, what
Javanese cultural aspects
in PP are important to be
translated and what are
Everything that PP reveals of Javanese
culture is important and reinforces
knowledge of that culture. I don’t think
there can be any cultural aspects which
should be deemed unimportant in any
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
158
not? Why? culture, even if they may sometimes be
perceived negatively from another
culture.
5. What did you do to help
the target readers to
understand the Javanese
culture embedded in the
source text?
Apart from the introductory comments to
the book noted above, I have tried
throughout the translation to infiltrate
unobtrusive but suggestive signals,
created ‘auras’, influenced my
vocabulary by whatever foreknowledge
I’ve had of the linguistic, historical,
anthropological and political context of
the original.
6. Why Javanese metaphor
and proverb were
translated using literal
translation technique?
I can’t recall an example, but if you are
asking when one should of should not use
a literal translation of folk wisdom, etc., I
reply, sometimes a literal translation is
incomprehensible, and so something
approximately similar has to be found in
the target language. At other times, the
literal translation makes a better impact
because it expresses something—some
truth or opinion—in an unusual way.
7. Why some Javanese terms
designating Javanese
wisdom or philosophy
(e.g.: Sangkan paraning
dumadi, melik gendong
lali,, hayuning memayu
buwana) were not
maintained but directly
described in target
language?
A translator has to help readers move
mentally into another culture, but there’s
a limit to the unfamiliar language and
ideas that readers will accept, unless they
happen to be specialists. JG is not a book
for specialists, nor is JJ.
8. Why some Javanese
fashion (e.g. kebaya and
beskap landung) were
translated by adapting the
target language culture?
Same reason. Readers who become
inspired by the translation can research
such technicalities themselves.
9. Why several dialogues in
the source text performing
kromo language was
translated into old use
English (e.g: niku
(kromo) is translated into
yon?
Yon is not a particularly archaic word,
but if it was, its use would take the reader
into another time-sphere than his own,
thus producing an effect analogous to that
of moving from one contemporary
cultural sphere to another. I have used
‘archaic’ language quite often in my other
translations (e.g. from Vietnamese) to try
to produce that effect.
10. Why several dialogue in Those words are rather more in the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
159
ngoko language was
translated by adding
swear word (e.g: dammit
and bastard) to translate
dialogues using kowe or
ngoko Javanene
language?
nature of ‘strong language’ than swear
words and are often used for emphasis in
a range of moods, from mild irritation to
good natured humour. It would have been
helpful if you had provided the page
numbers where these expressions appear,
so that I could have checked the context.
Context is all-important!
11. Why Inggih expression
was borrowed into the
target text?
It’s a common expression of agreement in
JJ—Yes, sir! Certainly! —easily
assimilable by a foreign reader, and
provides some of that sprinkling of the
‘exotic’ which I noted above.
12. What Javanese cultural
aspects in Para Priyayi
are not in accordance to
your own belief/
ideology? Why? How do
you encounter that?
Translators should not obtrude their own
ideologies into their linguistic transfers.
Source culture and target culture are
already sufficiently complex without
intruding into the process of transfer the
translator’s own ideological standpoint.
13. In your opinion, what
Javanese cultural aspects
in Para Priyayi are not in
accordance to target
readers society’s belief/
ideology? Why? How do
you encounter that?
Arranged marriages by parents is one
example. But western readers understand
that it occurs in many parts of the world
(and centuries ago occurred in Europe
too), so that a translator can present the
reality of such things unmodified,
knowing that modern Western readers
will accept them in the spirit of long live
difference—it makes for an interesting
world!
14. Why borrowing technique
is not applied to all of
terms related to kinship
and proper name even
though glossary of socio-
familial/ age position/
addressee is provided?
Many such terms (tuan for example) have
entered English, which is a very actively
assimilating language, but there is a limit
to what can be expected a Western reader
will comfortably accept, given the
narrower linguistic limits of his familial
and social-class experience.
15. Why adipati in the
honorific title of
Mangkunegara was
translated into bupati?
Again, as an advanced student you should
always supply page numbers to you
queries. It’s a long time since I dealt with
JJ and gone on to other translations (see
Amazon.com Vladislav Zhukov).
16. Why Paklik and Bulik
was translated into Pak
and Bu?
Ditto.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
160
17. Why a note on spelling
and glossary of addressee
that is related to socio-
familial/ age position
were made in Javanese
Gentry? Why the notes
were put in the initial part
of the book or before the
story?
Once I understood how necessary a
glossary was for a proper appreciation of
the story, I felt it should appear near the
front of the book, so that readers were
immediately aware that they would be
presented with new terms and concepts
and know of the glossary’s function in
explaining those.
18. Why a glossary of
Javanese specific cultural
words was not composed?
The translation was done for a general
readership, visitors to Indonesia, people
broadly interested in your country, but
unlikely to want to delve into that sort of
distinction.
19. How do the publisher and
editor influence your
translation works?
They made some perfunctory changes in
spelling and pronunciation (not for the
best, in my opinion). They were
responsible for a major typographical
error in the heading of Chapter 4: ‘The
Hero Resolve’ should have read ‘The
Hero Resolves’; and they left out a whole
section dealing with Indonesian
acronyms, borrowings and abbreviations,
which meant the glossary was cut short
by about 50%. I subsequently corrected
all of that in a self-published edition,
which unfortunately is unavailable in
Indonesia.
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