FORENSIC BALLISTIC

BALLISTICS – is the science of the motion of project i le.

ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC – The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the Greek word “Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word “Ball ista” which is machine to hurl a stone.

-From those words the modern term for Forensic Bal l ist ics was derived to indicate the science of moving project i le.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

a. ) INTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the project i les while st i l l in the f irearm, namely the studies of combustion of the powder, pressure developed and velocity.

b. ) EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – traits of the motion of the project i les after leaving the muzzle namely trajectory, velocity, range penetrat ion, etc.

c. ) TERMINAL BALLISTICS – traits of the effects of the project i le on impact on the target.

d. ) FORENSIC BALLISTIC – the science of f i rearms identi f icat ion by means of the ammunit ion f ired through them.

DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS:

a. ) FIELD NVESTIGATION – refers to the work of an investigation in the f ield. I t concerns mostly with the col lect ion, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of f i rearms evidences. I t include the study of class characterist ics of f i rearms and bul lets.

b. ) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION – refers to the examiners who examine bul lets/ or shel ls, whether f ired from also whether or not cartr idges were loaded and ejected made by the suspected f irearms submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and test i fy in court regarding their reports.

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – “Firearms” or “Arms” are herein used includes r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and al l other deadly weapons from which a bul let, bal l , shot, shel l or other missi le may discharge off by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air r i f les except such as being of small cal iber and l imited range used as toys. The barrel of any f irearm shall be considered a complete f irearm for al l purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrat ive Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal Revenue Code).

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – instrument used for the propulsion of a project i le by means of expansive force of gases from burning powder.

AMMUNITION (defined) – under the National Internal Revenue Code the word “Ammunit ion” shal l mean loaded shel l for r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which bul lets, bal l shot, shel l or other missi le may be ammunit ion for air r i f les.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)

1. No two barrels are microscopical ly identical as the surface of their bores al l possesses individual characterist ics markings of their own.

2. When a bul let is f i red from ri f led barrel, i t becomes engraved by the r i f l ing and this engraving wil l vary in i ts minute detai ls with every individual bore. So i t happens that the engraving on the bul lets f ired from one barrel wi l l be dif ferent from another bul let f i red from another barrel.

3. Every barrel leaves i ts thumb mark or f ingerprint on very single bul let f i red through i t just as every breech face leaves i ts thumb mark on the base of every f ired cartr idges case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS)

1. The breech face and str iker of every single f irearm leave microscopical individual i t ies of their own.

2. The f irearm leaves i ts “f ingerprints” or “thumb mark” on ever cartr idges case which i t f i res.

3. The whole principles of identi f icat ion is based on the fact that since the breech face of every weapon must be individual ly dist inct, the cartr idges cases which i t f i res are imprinted with this individual i ty. The imprints on al l cartr idges cases f ired from the same weapon are always the same; those on cartr idges cases f ired from dif ferent weapons are dif ferent.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS: There are six (6) types of problems in Forensic bal l ist ic, namely:

Type 1- Given bul lets, to determine the cal iber and type of f i rearm from which i t was f ired.

Type 2- Given a f ired cartr idge case, to determine the cal iber and type of f i rearm from which i t was f ired.

Type 3- Given a bul let and a suspected f irearm, to determine whether or not the bul let was f ired from the suspected f irearm.

Type 4- Given a f ired cartr idge case and a suspected f irearms, to determine whether or not the cartr idge case was f ired from the suspected f irearm.

Type 5- Given two or more bul lets, to determine whether or not they were f ired from only one f irearm.

Type 6- Given two or more cartr idges cases, to determine whether or not they were f ired from only one f irearm.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determine prior to the manufacturer of the f irearm and are within control of man. These serve as basis to identi fy a certain class or group of f i rearm.

a ) Cal iber (Bore Diameter) e ) Width of groovesb ) Number of lands f ) Direct ion of twistc ) Number of grooves g ) Pitch of r i f l ingd ) Width of lands h ) Depth of grooves

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – Those which are determinable only after the manufacture of the f irearm. They are characterist ics whose

existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distr ibut ion. Their existence in a f irearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation result ing through wear and tear, abuse, mil i t i lat ions, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes.

SMALL ARMS – f irearms which propel project i les of less than one inch in diameter.

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:

a ) Smooth-bore – f irearm which do not have r i f l ingEx: shotguns, muskets

b ) Rif led-bore – f irearm which contain r i f l ing marks.Ex: pistols, revolvers, r i f les

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION – small arms ammunit ion consists of cartr idges used in r i f les, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns and shel l used in shotgun.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMETERS:

a ) Cal iber .22 – About 5.59 mm.b ) Cal iber .25 – About 6.35 mm.c ) Cal iber .32 – About 7.65 mm.d ) Cal iber .30 – About 7.63 mm. (mouser)e ) Cal iber .38 – About 9 mm.f ) Cal iber .45 – About 11 mm.g ) Cal iber .30 – About 7.56 mm. (Luger)

RIFLING – consist of a number of hel ical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore. The r i f l ing in f irearms may be divided into the fol lowing types:

a ) Small type – four grooves, r ight hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width. (4R G-L)

b ) Smith and Wesson type – f ive grooves, r ight hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width (5R G-L)

c ) Browning type – six grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6R G2X)

d ) Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6L G2X)

e ) Webley type – seven grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (7R G3X)

f ) Army type – four grooves, r ight hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R G3X)

PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of rotat ion to a bul let during i ts passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the f l ight, and so that i t wi l l t ravel nose-on towards the target.

PARTS OF CARTRIDGES

a) Bullet c ) Gunpowderb ) Shell d ) Primer

TYPES OF CARTRIDGES:

a ) Pin-f ire – the pin extends radical ly through the need of the cartr idges case into the primer.

b ) Rim-f ire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the r im of the head of the cartr idges case. The f lame produced is in direct communication with the powder charge. Used in the cal ibers .22, .25 and .45 Derringer pistols.

c ) Center-f ire – the primer sup is forced into the middle port ion of the head of the cartr idges case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the f ir ing pin. The f lame is communicated to the powder charge through the vents leading into the powder charge.

TYPES OF CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGES:

a ) Rimmed type – the r im of the cartr idges case is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartr idges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22

b ) Semi r immed type – the r im of the cartr idge case is sl ight ly greater than the diameter of the body of the cartr idges case. Ex: Cal. Super .38 auto, Pistol, .32 and .25

c ) Rimmed less type – the r im of the cartr idges case is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartr idge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30 carbine .223

PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOTING CASES

When an off icer arr ives upon the scene of a shooting case, he is usually confronted by a condit ion of utter confusion. Neighbors and onlookers are crowded around the place; relat ives are weeping and hysterical. In his career as an off icer he wil l meet with other situat ions which require as much as much poises tact and common sense when he appears upon the scene of homicide.

His f irst duty is to clear the premises of al l persons so that an intel l igent investigation is not a matter of f ive or ten minutes, but i t requires that a definite routine shal l be fol lowed, i f mistakes are to be avoided. Things should be done, which may appear wholly unnecessary at the t ime, but only to become vital ly important later. One can never forces the angels that wi l l develop and i t is far better to do a hundred things unnecessari ly than to miss doing one that might mean the solut ion of the case. The vict im is dead and wil l stay dead. The off icer may be important by reporters or other to do things which he is not yet ready to do – to give statement to the press or to draw conclusion. In spite of al l persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one purpose and one purpose only, and that is to carry out an intel l igent investigation.

Upon receiving a cel l to the sense of a shooting case, the off icer should always take along with him a loose-leaf notebook and fountain pen to make notes at the t ime and on the place and not trust to his memory to reconstruct the situation at his convenience.

When the off icer is summoned on such an errand, his procedure should fol low a logical pattern. His observation should be put in writ ing at the t ime of his investigation to keep for future references and to produce in court i f necessary. These steps are as fol lows:

1. Note accurately in writ ing the t ime he received the cal l and by whom it was sent.

2. Note accurately the t ime he arr ive at the scene and the correct address.

These f irst two i tems seem to be tr ivial, but i t is amazing how often in court they become of vi tal importance. I t is not uncommon that the off icer is unable to f ix the t ime accurately within an hour to the satisfact ion of a jury.

3. He should ascertain i f the vict im is dead, and i f not non-medical aid or remove the body to a hospital, otherwise the body should not be disturbed.

4. Immediately clear the premises of al l bystanders and under no circumstances al low anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinity.

5. Use every effort and means to identi fy the deceased.

6. Does the body l ie where the shooting took place? Often, before the off icer arr ives the body wil l be moved by a bystander. Frequently i t wi l l be picked up off the f loor and put a bed or taken from one room to another.

7. Take the names and addresses of al l witnesses and take writ ten notes on the statement of as many persons as pract icable.

8. Photograph the body from al l angels to show its relat ionship to doors, windows, furniture’s and other objects in the room.

9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relat ion to the previously mentioned f ixtures of the premises.

10. Note in writ ing the exact posit ion where he found the body whether he found i t ly ing on the side, back or abdomen that objects i f any, were in the hands; reports what was the condit ions of the clothing and the amount of bleeding.

11. Examine the cei l ing, f loor and furniture for bul let holes, blood stains, f i red bul lets, f i red shel l or shotgun wadding.

12. If there is a f irearm at the scene, he should mote in writ ing the fol lowing observations:

a. Exactly where found.b. Type of weapon – automatic pistol, revolvers, r i f le, or shot

gun, cal iber or gauge designation.c. Make and serial numbers and at that t ime he should mark

his ini t ials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future identi f icat ion.

d. Other dist inct features.

13. At the crime scene note down where the empty shel ls, bul lets and/ or f i rearms where found and make a diagram to

i l lustrates the same, to show their relat ives distances from the body of the vict ims, Photograph i f possible.

14. Be careful in handling a f irearm found at the scene of the crime for they may have latent f ingerprint on the parts of the f irearm. Note down the type, kind, make cal iber and serial number. I f there are f ingerprints, submit said f irearm to a f ingerprint technician but be sure that the f irearm should not be disturbed.

15. Mark the empty cartr idges cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the init ials to the investigation or the init ials of the vict ims.

16. Mark the bul lets at the give (or nose) by scratching the investigation’s ini t ials of the vict im but definitely NOT at the r i f l ing marks ( landmarks and groove marks).

17. Mark the empty shotgun shel ls with indel ible ink at the body.

18. The barrel of the f irearms must be marked too.

19. After marking the empty shel ls and bul lets, wrap them separately and individual ly with soft t issue paper and note down on the wrapper where each was found the t ime and date. The purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being scratched.

20. When a lead bul let is found at the scene of the crime the body of the vict im, the presumption is that a Revolver was used.

21. When a jacketed bul lets is found at the scene of the crime or in the body of the vict im, i t can be measured that a presumed that a Automatic Pistol or Automatic Weapon was used.

22. When an empty shel l is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an Automatic Pistol or Weapon was used.

23. When one empty shel l is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is a Revolver was used.

24. In the bore of a barrel, the depressed port ions are the grooves, and the raised are the lands.

25. On a f ired bul let, i t is the reverse. The landmarks are the depressed port ions, and the groove marks are the raised port ions.

26. To determine the real direct ion of the r i f l ing twist in a r i f led barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land or groove in incl ines to the r ight, then i t has a r ight twist and i f i t incl ines to the left , then the r i f l ing twist is left .

27. To determine the direct ion of the twist of a bul let, look on the bul lets in an elongated posit ion. I f the landmarks and groove marks incl ine to the r ight, then i t has a r ight twist and i f i t is incl ines to the left , then the r i f l ing twist is r ight. I f the incl inat ion is left then i t is a left twist.

28. A f ired bul let wi l l acquire the class characterist ics of the bore of the barrel from which i t was f ired. So therefore i f a bore has class characterist ics of .45 cal iber, .6 lands, .6 grooves,

r ight twist, groove wider than the land, each characterist ics wil l be marked on the bul let i t f i res.

29. It is the r i f l ing of the bore that marked a f ired bul let.

30. So i f a fatal wi l l have the same class characterist ics as the bore of the suspected gun, then i t is possible that the bul lets could have been f ired from the suspected gun.

31. To determine definitely i f the bul let above was f ired or not from a suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a Forensic Bal l ist ics Experts who wil l conduct the proper examinations.

32. If two bul lets do not have the same class characterist ics, definitely and conclusively they were NOT f ired from the same barrels.

33. If a fatal bul lets does not have the same class characterist ics as the suspected f irearm (barrel), then conclusively the bul lets was not f i red from said barrel.

The fol lowing are suggestions for the investigator to observe in test i fying in courts of just ice:

1. Be prepared.2. Be calm and well poised.3. Tel l the truth, nothing but the truth.4. Be courteous.5. Be natural and sit straight forward.6. Do not volunteer.7. Keep your temper.8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer.9. Speak loud enough to be heard.10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the

courtroom.11. Answer only what you are asked, no more.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

1. PERCUSSION – Action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hit or struck by f ir ing in would ignite.

2. JUXTAPOSITION – Two objects is evidence bul let and test bul let are examined and compared under the bul let comparison microscope. Includes also the examination of f i red shel ls.

3. BALLO or BALLEIN – Greek words where Ball ist ics was derived from which means “to throw”.

4. BALLISTA – The early Roman was Machine – a gigantic bow or Catapult .

5. BALLISTICS – Science of the motion of project i les.

6. FORUM – A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in relat ion to the court of just ice.

7. FORENSIC BALLIASTICS- The study of f i rearms identi f icat ion by means of ammunit ion f ired from them.

8. BALLISTICIAN – Person whose knowledge in identi f icat ion is accepted by the courts and other investigation agencies.

9. ABRASSION – ( in the world) Scratches cause by using improper cleaning materials, or by f ir ing ammunit ion with bul lets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive act ion of the bul lets.

10. BLACK POWDER – A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and salt paper. Burned with considerable white smoke.

11. CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit of bul lets, cartr idge case, gunpowder and primer.

12. AMMUNITION (legal) – SEC. 877 of the RAC – shal l mean “ loaded shel l” for r i f les, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols which a bal l , bul let shot shel l or other missi le maybe discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term includes ammunit ion for a r i f les as mentioned else where in the code.

Ammunit ion (technical) – refers to a group of cartr idge or to a single unit cartr idge, meaning a complete unfired unit consist ing of bul lets, cartr idge case, gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round. 13. BALL BULLETS – Bullets have soft lead course inside a jacket.

14. ROUND – one single complete cartr idge.

15. BULLET ENERGY – the powder possessed by a moving bul let, or in other words i ts abi l i ty to keep going meets an obstacle of immense importance, for obviously, the more powder a bul let has and the harder i t is to stop the, more effect ive i t can be as a weapon.

16. BULLET RECOVERY BOX – consist of a wooden box, 12” x 12” x 96”, with the hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is f i l led with ordinary cotton and separated into section by card board part i t ions.

17. CALIBER – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.

18. DUMDUM BULLET – “Dumdum” is an out molded and general ly misused term. I t was an unoff icial name f irst appl ied hal low point bul lets maid at the Brit ish arsenal at Dumdum, India.

19. EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to the mechanical abrasion or gl iding.

20. CORROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical act ion of the by products of combustion after f i r ing.

21. CANNELURE (bul let) – A knurled r ing or serrated grooved around the body of the bul let which contains wax for lubricat ion in order to minimize fr ict ion during the passage of the bul let inside the bore.

22. CALIPER – an instrument used for making measurement such as bul let diameter and bore diameter.

23. CHILLED SHOT – shotgun pel lets made from lead especial ly hardened by the addit ion of a sl ight amount of antimony.

24. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the f irearm. I t is categorized into cal iber or gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and grooves, twist of r i f l ing, patch of r i f l ing and depth of grooves.

25. RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target.

26. POINT BLANK RANGE – populari ty used to indicate the distance the bul let wi l l t ravel before i t drops enough to require sight adjustment. A shot f i red so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for effect ive aiming.

27. MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a project i le can be propelled form a f irearm.

28. GALLERY RANGE – the indoor targets range on properly constructed indoor ranges, f i r ing maybe conducted with center f i re pistols and revolvers at range of 25 years and 50 years. Such instal lat ion are general ly referred to as indoor ranges the term gal lery being applied usually only to short range 22 cal iber instal lat ion.

29. EXTREME RANGE – the greatest distance the bul let wi l l t ravel the cartr idge is f i re.

30. EFFECTIVE RANGE – the maximum distance at which a bul let may reasonable be expected types of l ive target.

31. ACCURATE RANGE – the distance with in which he shoots has control of his shots.

32. FOULING - the accumulat ion of a deposit wit in the bore of a f irearm caused by sol id by products remaining a cartr idge is f i red.

33. GUM COTTON – a very powerful explosive, l ike nitroglycerine which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the act ion of nitr ic and sulfuric acid on cotton or nay other kind of cel lulose.

34. LANDS – the raised port ion between the grooves in the interior surface of the gun barrel.

35. LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.

36. MACHINE REST – a machine used for test ing the accuracy of a f irearm.

37. KNOCKING POWER – power of the bul let which bel iever of a very paralyzing blow that put the vict im down and may then recover i f the wound inf l icted upon is not fatal.

38. STOPPING POWER – power of the bul let which put the vict im out of the act ion instantly. So i t should be understood that stopping power is not necessari ly the same thing as ki l l ing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the shot.

39. PRIMER – the complete assembly of cup, priming composit ion, paper discs and anvi l .

40. CARTOUCHE – French word of cartr idge which means ROOL OF PAPER.

41. CHARTA – Latin word for cartr idges which means PAPER.

ORIGIN OF FIREARM

13 t h Century – development of f i rearms fol lowed the invention of gunpowder in Western Europe.

Berthold Schwartz – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk are both credited with gunpowder invention.

-Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and Scientist with the invention of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with appl icat ion of gunpowder to the propell ing of a missi le in the early 1300’s. This powder was that we now cal l “Black Powder”.

1245 – Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used art i l lery in Liegnits when he defeated the poles Hungarians, and Russians.

- I t is also often stated that the gunpowder was f irst invented by Chinese, were of gunpowder and i ts use as propellant long before i ts advantages became recognized in Europe.

- I t may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that t ime.

1247 – One of the earl iest recorded uses of f i rearms in war far was that of an attack on Sevi l le, Spain.

1346 – Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy.

1335 - Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.

-First f i rearms were ineff icient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carr ied by an individual soldier; hence, the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Man never sat isf ies to himself. He is always trying to improve himself and his surrounding. He created some rule crude or primit ive weapons which were subsequently developed into sophist icated f irearms of modern t imes.

The fol lowing are the stages of development of man’s weapon:

1. Stones2. Cubs Knives Spears and Darts3. Sl ing shots to hurl objects4. Bows and arrows5. Cross – bows6. Guns7. Missi les

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army – Father of Modern Ball ist ics.

2. Horace Smith – Founded the great f i rm Smith and Weapon and pioneered the making of breech – loading regales.

3. Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partner of smith in revel verb making.

4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern f irearms and pandered breech loading single shot r i f le.

5. John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson sub-Machine.

6. David “Carbine” Wil l iams – maker of f i rst know carbine.

7. Alexander John Forsythe – Father of the percussion system.

8. El isha King Root – Designed machinery of making colt f i rearms.

9. El iphalet Remington – One of the f irst r i f le makers.

10. John Malon Mart in – Founder of mart in Firearms Company.

11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the model 1855 r i f f led – musket.

12. Samuel Colt – (1814-1862) – Produced the f irst pract ical revolver.

13. Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole classes of f i rearms.

14. John C. Garand – Designed the semi-automatic US Rif le, Cal. 30

15. Oliver F. Wichester – One of the earl iest r i f les and pistol makers.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 ---Gunpowder as a propellant. Te age of gunpowder began with outs f irst use as a propellant for a project ive. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.

1350 ---Small arms, Gunpowder was f irst used only in cannons. I t was in the middle of the 14 t h century that portable hand, F.A was introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held wire or l ighted match.

1498 ---Rif f l ing, The f irst reference to r i f led barrels appeared. Although i ts important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, i t was many years after before r i f l ing was general ly used.

1575 ---Cartr idges, Paper cartr idges combining both powder and bal l were developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.

1807 ---Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 1807 the that certain compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the

charge in a f irearm, for the basis for al l later percussion and cartr idges development.

1835 ---Samuel Colt-patented the f irst pract ical revolvers in which the cyl inder was rotated by cooking the hammer.

1836 ---Pin f ire. Cartr idge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was probably the f irst self real ly the f irst r im f ire cartr idge.

1858 ---Center f i re Cartr idge. The Morse Cartr idge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center f i re cartr idge.

1884 ---Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim bui l t the f irst ful ly Automatic gun, ut i l iz ing the recoi l of the piece to load and f ire the next charge.

1885 ---Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Vei l le, Developed the f irst sat isfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characterist ics of black powder, but also more powerful.

1845 ---Rimfire Cartr idge. In France, Florbert develop a “bul let” “breech cap” which was in real ly the f irst r imterf ire Cartr idge.

I. TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel Internal Construct ion)

A. Smooth-bore f irearms – f ire arms the have no r i f l ing ( land and grooves) inside their gun barrel.

Ex. Shot guns and muskets

B. Rif led-the bore Firearms – Firearms that have r i f l ing inside their gun barrel.

Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rif les

II . MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Caliber of Project i les Propelled)

A. Art i l lery – Those types of f i rearm that propel project i les more than one inch in diameter.

Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas

B. Small Arms – Propel Project i les less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be operated by one man.

Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms

III . TYPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construct ion

A. Single Shot F.A – type of f i rearms designed to f ire only one shot for every loading.Ex. Pistols, Rif les, Shot guns – single shots

B. Repeating Arms – Fire several shots in one loadingEx. Rif les, Shot guns

C. Bolt Action Type – Reloading is done by manipulat ion of the

bolt .Ex. Rif les, Shot guns, Machine guns

D. Automatic Loading Type –After the f irst shot is f i red, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

E. Slide Action Type (Trombone) –Loading takes place by back and forth manipulat ion of the under forearm of the gun.Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

F. Lever Type (Break Type) –Loading takes place by lever act ion of the Firearm.

Ex. Rif les, Shot guns

IV.TYPES OF FIREARMS according to USE

A. Mil i tary FirearmsEx. 1. Pistols 3. Rif les

2. Revolvers 4. Machine Guns

B. Pocket and Home Defense F.AEx. 1. Pistols 3. Rif les

2. Revolvers

IV. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE

--Those types of f i re arm that is unique in mechanism and construct ion

1. Palt ik Pistols2. Palt ik Revolvers3. Palt ikRif les4. Palt ik Shot Guns

THE THREE MAIN PARTS

REVOLVERS – Cal .38 PISTOL –Cal .45

1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel Assembly2. Cyl inder Assembly 2. Sl ide Assembly3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver

RIFLE – Cal .30 SHOT GUN – Gauge 12

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly2. Magazine Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly3. Stock Group 3. Stock Group

DETAILED PARTS

REVOLVER .38 AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly a. Breech end a. Breech end b. Muzzle end b. Muzzle end c. Bore c. Bore d. Rif l ing ( lands and grooves) d. Rif l ing ( land grooves)

e. Chamber f . Interlocking r ibs

g. Barrel lug h. Barrel l ink i . Barrel l ink pin j . Barrel lead ( lead)

2. Cyl inder Assembly 2. Sl ide Assembly a. Chambers a. Front sight b. Extractor b. Top strap c. Extractor rod c. Eject ion port d. Racket d. Rear sight e. Cyl inder groove e. Breech block f . Yoke f . Breech Face g. Cyl inder locking Notches g. Extractor

h. Fir ing pin i . Fir ing pin top j . Serrat ions k. Trade mark l . Model m. Interlocking lugs

3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver a. Top strap a. Ejector b. Rear sight b. Hammer c. Breech Face c. Spur d. Hammer d. Grip safety e. Spur e. Thumb safety f . Thumb latch f . Disconnector g. Side plate g. Back strap h. Back h. Butt i . Fir ing pin i . Lanyard loop j . Butt j . Front strap k. Front strap k. Magazine well l . Trigger guard l . Right side stock m. Trigger m. Left side stock n. Cyl inder lock n. Trigger o. Right side stock o. Trigger guard p. Left side stock p. Model q. Trade mark (monogram) q. Plunger r . Serial number r . Serial number

The automatic Pistol-Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detai led i t has also the so cal led auxi l iary parts (accessories) which must al l be removed before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.

1. Recoil Plug 4. Recoil Spring2. Barrel Bushing 5. Recoil Spring3. Sl ide stop pin

ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER

1. It is an old standard weapon, every one is used to i t , and almost every one knows something about to handle i t .

2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry then an automatic pistol.

3. The mechanism of a revolver al lows the tr igger pul l to be better then that of the average automatic weapon.

4. A misf ire does not put revolvers out of act ion.

5. I t wi l l handle satisfactori ly old or new or part ly deteriorated ammunit ion which gives a reduced velocity that would jam an average automatic pistols.

DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER

1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol.

2. I ts grip on handle is general ly not as good as that of pistol.

3. I t is hard to clean after f i r ing.

4. I t is slower to load.

5. I t is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, i t is factory job.

6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper up of cyl inder.

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1. It as a better grip f i ts the hand points natural ly.

2. I t is more compact for the same f ire power.

3. I t is easier to load than a revolver.

4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at l i t t le expense without sending the gun to the factory.

5. I t gives a greater number of shots than revolvers.

6. I t is easier to clean than revolvers.

7. I t gives greater f i re power and greater ease of f i r ing.

8. There is no gas leakage in i ts operation.

DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1. Ammunit ion must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunit ion wil l cause a jam.

2. A misf ire stops the functioning of the gun.

3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of t ime, the magazine spring is under tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble.

4. The automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads.

5. I t has a poor tr igger pul l than the revolver.

6. The magazines require a jacketed bul let which is not as good for pract ical use as that of lead bul let.

7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and f ire especial ly for inexperienced people due to the fact that after one shot i t is always cooked and loaded.

8. I t is not adapted to reloading. I t throws away empty shel l at each shot.

9. I ts mechanical act ion ejects empty shel l towards the face at each shot.

10. Its throws out empty shel ls on the ground to remain as evidence.

11. It can not be f ired from the pocket without jamming.

EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for:

1. Obstruct ion in the barrel.

2. Bulging or swollen barrel.

3. Fir ing pin protrusion through recoi l plate when tr igger is in rearward posit ion.

4. On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoi l plate in relat ion to the f ir ing pin hole (to insure blow in center of the primer).

5. Evidence of “spit t ing lead” around breech of barrel for complaints of fel low shooters in the f ir ing l ine.

6. Tightness of al l side plate screws.

7. Tightness of ejector i f the weapon is a Smith and Wesson revolvers.

8. Cleanliness and project ive f i lm of oi l to prevent rust.

NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTION

BARREL – init iates the path of the bul let.

FRAME – Houses the internal parts.

YOKE – Connecting pivot between the frame and cyl inder.

EXTRACTOR – Pulls the empty shel ls from the cyl inder simultaneously.EXTRACTOR ROAD – Activates the extractor and is a locking device.

CENTER PIN – Serves as a looking device for the cyl inder.

CENTER PIN SRPING – Holes the center pin in a locked posit ion.

SIDE PLATES – Provides access to the internal parts.

SIDE PLATE SCREW – Hold the side plate and yoke in place.

HAMMER BLOCK – Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer.

DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – Buil t into the weapon to al low double act ion f ire.

HAMMER – Str ikes the blow that ini t iates or ignites primer.

BOLT – Disengage center prim to al low opening of cyl inder and blocks hammer.

THUMBLATCH – Actuates bolt to release the cyl inder.

HAND (pawl) – Rotates the cyl inder when the hammer is cocked.

CYLINDER STOP – Stops and holds the cyl inder al ignment for f i r ing.

TRIGGER – Actuates the parts necessary to f ire the weapon.

TRIGGER GUARD – Guards the tr igger from unnecessary act ion to avoid accidental f i r ing.

REBOUND SLIDE – Returns tr igger, actuates hammer block and locks hammer.

TRIGGER SPRING – Provides energy for return movement or rebound sl ide.

TRIGGER LEVEL – Contacts rebound sl ide to return tr igger forward.

MAIN SPRING – Provides energy to the hammer to act ivate f ir ing mechanism.

STRAIN SCREW – Controls tension of the mainspring.

TRIGGER STOP – Prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer the release.

RACKET – Helps in the withdrawal of the Cartr idges or shel ls from the chambers of the cyl inder.

CYLINDER NOTCH – It helps hold the cyl inder in place and al igned ready for f i r ing.

NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE

1. Bullet – A project i le propelled from a f irearm by means of explosive force of gases coming from burning powder.

2. Cartr idge Case – A tubular metal l ic container for the gunpowder sometimes cal led shel l .

3. Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer f lash is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bul let or shot charge through the barrel and on the target.

4. Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensit ive priming mixture of chemical compound which when hit or struck by the f ir ing pin would ignite, such act ion is cal led “PERCUSSION”.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A. According to the type of f i rearms asked

1. Revolver cartr idges Used in revolver2. Pistol cartr idges Used automatic pistol3. Rif les cartr idges Used in r i f les4. Shot Cartr idges Used in shot gun

B. According to location of primer

1. Pin f ire cartr idges no longer used (absolute)

2. Rim f ire – the primer is located at the r im or the base port ion

-- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and r i f les

3. Canter f i re – Priming powder is located at the center -- Economical can be repealed

a. Rimmed type – Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35b. Semi-Rimmed – Used in super .38c. Rimless – Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun,

submachine gun

A. TYPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES

A – CaseB – Priming mixtureC – Propellant powder/ gun powderD – BulletE – Sensit ive Area

B. According to Caliber

1. cal .22 – used in revolvers, pistols and r i f les2. cal .25 – used in pistols and r i f les3. cal .30 – used in carbine and other r i f les4. cal .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers5. cal .380 – used in pistols6. cal .38 – used in revolvers7. cal .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum)8. cal .44 – used in magnum revolvers9. cal .44 – used in automatic pistols10. cal .50 – used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in

crimes)

Cal .30 bul let is replaceable by the bul let of cal .44Shot gun Shell

Single unit of ammo. for shot gun I t is usually larger used in smooth bores capable withstanding for less pressure. Paper Tube Metal base Base rod Battery cap Priming cap Anvi l Priming Powder Propellant Over powder wad Fi l ler wad Shot Closing wad

45-70 Cartr idgeContains 70 grains of gunpowder

Cartr idge Life – a well made cartr idges have a l i fe of 10 years some have only 5 -6 years.45 years or more – depend upon the surrounding of the cartr idge and cl imate, damp, warn, condit ion.

Bullet / slugs

Is a metal l ic or non-metal l ic cyl indrical project i le propelled from a f irearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning gun powder.

Slugs – laymen’s term – use in court during proceedings

Project i les propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or pel lets.

Iced Bullet – Super cooled water made as a project i le of sol idi f ied bul lets have a l i fe of 3 minutes maximum

History – Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small bal l

In Government parlance a cartr idges containing bul let is cal led Ball-Bul let

Bal l – Comes from terminology of bul let -- The core of the slugs is an al loy of lead, antimony and sometimes t in.

Armor piercing bul let a core of tungsten chrome steel with continues to penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the f i l ler have been str iped away by contract with the resistance surface.

CLASSIFICATION

A. According to mechanical construct ion1. Lead Bullet – Those which are made of lead al loys of this mental –lead, t in, antonym—which is sl ight ly harder than pure lead.

2. Jacketed Bullets – Those which core of lead covered by jacket of harder metal -- The primary function of the “ jacket” in a bul let is to prevent adherent of metal ( lead) to the inside of the gun barrel.

B. According to shape

Flat Base Boat Tai led Square Base Hollow Base

C. According to type/ common bul let type

Solid Lead Solid Hollow point Solid Paper Metal Case pointPatched

Soft Metal case Hollow pointMetal point r i f ledslug

Metal point Rif led Gaypely Quadraximun SlugBullet Bul let

KEY HOLE SHOT – The tumbling of a bul let in i ts f l ight and hit t ing the target sideways as a results of spinning on i ts axis. (due to destroyed barrel or loose barrel)

In general ly .0002 sec. explosion of a bul let by means of a tremendous explosion of burning gases.

RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/poundCONTACT WOUND – 4,8 inches – distance of the f ire with gunpowder without the burning of the t issue means f irer is more than 24 inches

Copper nickel ----- 60% ----- 40%

Gliding metal ------ 90%

----- 10%8-4 inches 1-3 inches

Gun powder Gun Powder

Tattooing Priming powder Ta powder

PURPOSE OF BULLETS

.38 Bullet --- disabi l i ty purpose – used by pol ice off icers to get confession.45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purposeM16 --- Fatal effectGarand and Carbine --- penetrat ion, long range shooting.45 Bullet --- Knowing Subdue Purposes

Rif led Bullets (5 Principal Parts)

1. Ball Bul lets2. Armored Piercing 3. Tracer Bul let4. Incendiary5. Explosive (fragmentation)

B. All Bul lets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.

Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a f ired against vehicle and other armored target is general.

Tracer Bul lets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar barium nitrates which is set on f ire when the bul let is projected.

--- The f lash of the smoke from the burning permits the l ight of the bul let to be seen

In Cendiary --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials that can be set on f ire by impact.

---They are used against target tat wi l l readi ly burn such as air crafts or gasol ine depot.

Explosive (Fragmentary) --- contains a high changed explosive, because of their small size i t is dif f icult to make a fuse that wi l l work rel iably in small size ammunit ion.For the reason the use of high explosive bul lets is usually l imited to 20 mm. and above.

Pointed Bullet --- is more effect ive bal l ist ical ly than the round bal l of the same weight

Soft Point or Mushroom Bullet --- wi l l expand on str iking an object and there for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater stopping power.

Hollow Point Bul let --- a bul let with a cavity in the nose design to increase the expansion when i t hi ts the forget.

Metal Cased Bullet --- colonial ly use to indicate either a metal patched or ful l patched bul let.

Metal patched --- any metal patched bul letBul let having soft steal jacket often clog or plated with gi lding

metal to prevent rust ing and reduce fr ict ional resistance in the bore.

CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL

-- Is a tabular metal l ic or non-metal l ic container which old together the bul let, gunpowder and primer.-- The cartr idge case is the port ion of the cartr idges that is automatical ly ejected from the automatic f i rearm during f ir ing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is a f irearm evidence than can help trace part icular f i rearms use.

FUNCTION:

1. It serves as a means whereby the bul let, gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit .

2. I t serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder.3. I t prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls

of the cartr idges cases are forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. I t serves as the “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS

1. RIM – Serve the purpose of l imit ing the forward travel of the cartr idges into their chambers and this also l imit the clearance. I f any between the heads and the support ing surface of the bolt or breech block.

2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs t ipple function:a. Holding primer securely in control posit ionb. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the

rear of the cartr idges.c. Providing a sol id support from primer anvi l without which

the latter could not be f ired.

3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket thought which the primer “f lash” impart ignit ion to the primer charges.The “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.

4. THE HEAD – THE BODY – consti tute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.

5. NECK – That part of the cartr idges case that is occupied by the bul let.

6. CANNELURES – are the separate grooves that are sometimes found “rol led” into the neck and bodies of the cases at the location of the bul lets bases to prevent the bul let from being pushed back or loosened.

7. CRIMP – Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in upon the bul let.

a. i f aid in holding the bul let in placeb. i f after resistance to the movement of the bul let out of the

neck which effects the burning of the powder.

8. BASE – The port ion of case which contains:a. The primer which contains the priming mixture

b. The shel l head which contains the head stamp cal iber and the year of manufacture.

9. SHOULDER – That port ion which support the neck.

10. EXTRACTION GROOVE – The circular grooves near the base of the case of shel l designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each f ir ing.

mouthneckshouldershel l cannelurebody gun powderventextract ing groovesrimprimershell head

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE (3 GEN. SHAPES)

A. --- straight--- al l r im f ire shel l and most center f i re revolver cartr idges that are new manufactured have straight cases.

B. --- Tampered--- is very rare but presently being used in the so cal led “magnum jet” cartr idges cal .22

C. --- Bott le neck--- most modern center f i re r i f le cartr idges case are of bott le neck types. Since this case form provided the greatest powder capacity commensurate with over al l case length.

STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE:

A. RIMMED – designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the base of the cartr idges is very much bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartr idges.

-- straight type cartr idges-- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35

B. SEMI-RIMMED – designed to be used in automatic weapons l ike pistols and sub-inactive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm.

-- normally found at the crime scene because they are automatical ly ejected for easy f ir ing of the f irearm.

C. RIMLESS – case within the diameter of the body of the cartr idges is the same as the diameter of the cartr idges case.

-- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45 thompson Sub-machine gun and cal .45 grease gun.-- Automatical ly ejected l ike semi-r immed type.

PRIMERS

-- Is that port ions of the cartr idge which consist of the brass gi lding metal-cup containing a highly sensit ive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by the f ir ing pin would detonate or ignite. Such act ion is cal led Percussion.

-- Use for ignit ing the gunpowder, a blow from the f ir ing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composit ion to detonate on explodes. This detonating on explosion produces “f lame” which passes through the “event” on “f lash hole” in the cartr idges case and this ignites the gunpowder.

ORIGIN-- 1807 – Alexander John Forsyth-- First one to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds

for ignit ing powder charges in small arms by percussion.-- A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist and hunter.-- A well known authority on f irearms-- First successful priming mixture was one composed of

Potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.

PARTS: In a typical center f i re cartr idges have four parts

1. PRIMER CUP – container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gl iding metal or copper.

2. PRIMING MIXTURE – highly sensit ive chemical mixture contained in the primer cups.

3. ANVIL – that port ion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the f ir ing pin. To provide the resistance necessary to f ire the priming mixture.

4. DISC – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foi l which is pressed over the priming mixture.

Two fold purposes

a. to help hold the priming mixture in placeb. to exclude moisture

1. primer cup 2. priming mixture 3. anvi l 4. disc

PRIMING COMPOUNDS:Classes

1. Corrosive primers – e.g Potassium chlorate – i f ignited produce potassium chloride, draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rust ing and corrosion in gun barrel. Advances in chemistry produce new composit ion which potassium chlorate has been el iminated.

2. Non-corrosive – every manufacture has his own formula mixture of the mercuric primers of 25 years ago.

Ingredients:

- Potassium chlorate ( ini t iator and fuel 45%)- Antimony Sulf ide (elements and fuel 23%)- Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford

Arsenal known as FH-24 had the fol lowing composit ion:

- sulfur - 21.97%- Potassium chlorate - 47.20%- Antimony Sulf ide - 30.33%

- German have their own composit ion barium nitrate in the place of Potassium chlorate together with some Picric Acid to strengthen mixture.

- This formula: Fulmirate of mercury - 39%Barrium nitrate - 41%Antimony Sulf ide - 9% Picric Acid - 5%Ground glass - 6%

- Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss formula.

Fulmirate of mercury -40%Barrium nitrate -25%Antimony sulf ide -25%Barrium carbonate - 8%Ground glass - 4%

GUN POWDER

Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer f lash is converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bul let or shot changes through the barrel and on the target.

Class or Composit ion:

1. BLACK Powder – although i f features loss important st i l l manufactured by the Europeans. In recent t ime has completely superseded by smokeless powder.

Ingredients:Potassium nitrate -75%Sulfur -10%Charcoal -15%

Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel.Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.Block Powder – rel ies for i ts explosive propert ies on 3 quanti t ies which are typical of al l explosives

FIRST – when ignited i t wi l l burn by i t self without aid from the outside air.SECOND – in burning, i t gives off a large amount of gas.THIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved.

2. SMOKELESS POWDER – terms smokeless powder is misnomer for the are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters terms term being applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke l ike the black powder.

Two main Classes of smokeless powder

1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE -- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatoriged with nitrocel lulose

2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT -- composed of nitrocel lulose and nitroglycerine as their major ingredients according by one more ingredients such as:

a. Central ize

b. Vaseline Phthalate estersc. Inorganic salt

Purpose of minor ingredients

a: Insure stabi l i tyb. Reduce f lash or f lame temperature (or both) Double – base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in size and shape to the single – base propellants.Almost al l smokeless powder grains have perfect ly definite shape such as

a. small squares d. str ipsb. disc e. pel letsc. f lakes f. perforated cyl indrical grains

The powder is made in dif ferent shapes to obtain certain types of burning.

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. Bullet Comparison MicroscopeA piece of optical equipment frequently employed by f irearms

identi f icat ion expert is the bul let comparison microscope, with camera attachment.

2. Stereoscopic MicroscopeNo camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for

court tampered serial number.

3. ShadowgraphA series of microscopic lenses of dif ferent magnif icat ion use to determine class characterist ics of f i red bul lets and shel ls. Also for orientat ion purposes.It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in the circulat ion ground glass.

4. CD-6 Comparison ProjectorVery much similar with the bul let comparison microscopeNo eyestrain because the magnif ied image appears on the large screen. What can be seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera.

5. Bullet Recovery BoxLong box (12” x 12” x 96”) f i l led with ordinary cotton and separated into sections by and board part i t ions.

6. HelixometerUsed in measuring “pitch of r i f l ing”. Distance traveled by the bul let in one complete rotat ion.

7. MicrometerSimilar in use as cal iper

8. CaliperUse for making measurements such as bul let diameter barrel length.

9. Analyt ical or torsion balanceUse to determine weights of bul lets and pel lets for possible determination of type, cal iber and make from which f ired.

10. On scopeSmall instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregulari t ies inside the bore of the gun barrel. I t has a t iny lamp the terminal port ion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.

11. Taper GaugeUse primari ly for determining bore diameter.

12. Electr ical Gun MakerUsed in the laboratory for making f ired bul lets f ired shel ls and f irearms submitted for examination.

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

PHYSICAL: Evidence bul lets, cartr idges cases and suspected f irearms once submitted by the requesting party wil l be physical ly examined to determine i ts markings or ini t ials wi l l be physical ly examined to determine i ts markings or ini t ials made by the investigators for identi f icat ion purposes.

TEST FIRING: The f irearms is test f i red from a bul let recovery box in order to obtain test bul lets and test cartr idges cases for comparison with evidence bul lets and cartr idge cases, but before f ir ing the cartr idge wil l be marked at the side of the case on the nose port ion of the bul let with letter T (test) fol lowed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of f i r ing to dist inguish the number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the recovery of the test bul lets and test cartr idges cases, they wil l be compared with the evidenced bul let and evidence cartr idges cases, under the bul let comparison microscope to determine whether or not they have the congruency of str iat ions or the same individual characterist ics.

Under the bul let comparison microscope, the two f ired bul lets or f i red shel ls are examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the two object-evidence and the test bul let are examined and compared:

1. at the same t ime2. at the same place or level3. at the same direct ion4. at the same magnif icat ion5. at the same image

For conclusiveness of f indings, there shal l be at least 3 test bul lets that should be comparedFirst 1 for Comparison/ prel iminarySecond 1 for confirmationThird 1 for conclusion

PERIPHERYThese are the sides of the bul let are in contact with the inner

surface of the barrel.

STRIATIONSA individual characterist ics of the cartr idges found at the base

port ion and of the side of the bul let come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel.

TEST BULLETSAre those recovered from bul let recovery box for a comparison

with the evidenced bul lets under the bul let comparison microscope.

A f ired or evidenced bul lets or cartr idges cases are those recovered from the crime scene.

Interconnected or intermarriages 8 or more str iat ions can be accepted by the court.

3 Points of basic posit ive identi f icat ion the markings must be:

1. Prominent2. Signif icant; and are3. Consistent

Means of –test f i r ing, other than the recovery box.

1. Water tank 5. Darak2. Saw dust with oi l 6. Banana trunk3. Sand 7. Rubber tr ips4. Waste threads

PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Two things mark by one and same tool wi l l bear the same markings, l ikewise two or more things mark by dif ferent tools wil l have the same markings.

DEFINITIONS

PISTOL – a hand f irearm usually appl ied to simple sot and automatic loading.

REVOLVER – a hand f irearm in which a rotat ing cyl inder successively -- places cartr idges into posit ion for f i r ing.

SHOTGUN – a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pel lets in one charge.

RIFLE – a type of weapon designed to be f ired from the shoulder.

CARTRIDGE – term used to describe a complete unfired unit consist ing of the bul lets, primer cartr idges case and powder charge.

BULLET – is a project i le propelled from a charge.

AUTOMATIC – a weapon is automatic when i ts mechanism is so arranged that i t wi l l f i re continuously while the tr igger is depressed.

DOUBLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the tr igger both cocks and release the hammer.

SINGLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the tr igger release the hammer that must be manually cocked.

CALIBER – term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured between two opposite lands.

GAUGE or GAGE – as applied to shotguns, i t indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of a lead bal l whose weight in pounds is equal to the reciprocal gauge index. Ex. bore diameter of a lead bal l weighing 1/12 of a pound.

BORE – the cyl indrical passage of the barrel through which the project i le travels.

PITCH OF RIFLING – the distance that the r i f l ing advances to make one complete turn.

EXPERT – as used in, court includes al l witnesses whose opinions are admitted on grounds of special ized knowledge, training and experience.

BREECHBLOCK – the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the act ion against the f ir ing of the cartr idges; the face of this block is known as the breech face.

CHAMBER – that part of the weapon in which the cartr idge is placed into posit ion for f i r ing.

EJECTOR – that mechanism in a f irearm which causes the empty shel l or ammunit ion to be thrown out from the gun.

EXTRACTOR – that mechanism in a f irearm by which the empty shel l or ammunit ion is withdrawn from the chamber.

GROOVES – the depressed channels cut in the interior of a r i f led gun barrel.

LANDS – that raised port ion between the grooves inside a r i f led gun barrel.

VELOCITY – is the forward speed at which the bul let travels measured in feet per second.

PRESSURE – the outward thrust of the burning powder gases against the breechblock, chamber and bore normally measured one inch from the breech and recorded in pounds per square inch. Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for cal iber .45 automatic pistol.

RANGE – the straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.

PENETRATION – the depth to which a project i le sinks in the tar get.Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.

TRAJECTORY – in the actual pattern or curved path of the bul lets in f l ight.

FIRING PIN – that part of that f i rearm which str ikes the primer causing the f ir ing of the cartr idge.

HAMMER – that part of the f irearm control led by the tr igger which causes the f ir ing pin to str ike the primer str iking the gun.

CORROSION – the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rust ing or the act ion of salts deposited from they cap or powder.

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sl iding fr ict ion when the bul let passes through i t .

BERDAN PRIMER – a primer with two f lash holes or vents.

BOXER PRIMER – a primer with only one f lash hole or vents.

RIM – the project ion edge of the base or head of a certain cartr idge.

OGIVE – is the technical name of the cyl indrical head cri t ic of the bul lets.

BREECH end – the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartr idges is inserted.

PANGASINAN COLLEGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OFCRIMINOLOGY

Urdaneta City

NOTES IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

BRIEF HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING

In tracing the origin of the f ingerprint science we must draw a dist inct ion between the real izat ion that the t ips of the f inger bear diversif ied r idged and the applicat ion of the knowledge to the problem of personal identi f icat ion.

Unquestionable, men’s consciousness of the patterned r idges on his f ingers and palms predates the Christ ian era by many centuries and has been evidenced in varying degrees by successive civi l izat ions. On the face of a cl i f f in Nova Scotia , for instance, has been found prehistoric India “picture writ ing” of a hand with r idge patterns crudely marked. Scholars refer to the impression of f ingerprints on clay tablets recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals of Ancient Chinese origin bearing thumb prints. Apostles Paul concludes one of his epist les with the words. “The Salvation a Paul with mine own hand which is the token in very epist le; so I wri te.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his f inger impression as a dist inct ive signature . Chinese documents identi f ied with the eight century (A.D) T’ and Dynasty refers to f ingerprints being increased upon business contracts, and the Chinese Monarchs termed fingerprint as Hua Chi

I t is conjectural to what extent these earl ier instance of f ingerprints were intended for actual identi f icat ion of the persons impressing the prints. Certainly in some cases the object was simple to add more or less superst i t ious solemnity to business contracts trough the personal contact of the contract ing part ies f ingerprints with the writ ten record.

Their evidence, however that fact of the individual i ty of f ingerprints though not put to pract ical use drowned recurrently through the ages. In fourteenth century in Persia , various off icial government papers were reportedly impressed either f ingerprints, and the observation was made by a government off icial who was also a physician that no f ingerprints of two persons were exactly al ike.

In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew , a fel low of the Royal College of Physicians, in the course of a lecture commented upon the r idge patterns appearing on the f ingers. But i f any of these early adventures in f ingerprints observation had any direct inf luence on the men who are the fathers of the modern science of f ingerprints identi f icat ion, the known record does not ref lect i t .

A scienti f ic approach to f ingerprint was essential before i t could be put pract ical use on any extensive scale. The outl ine which fol lows begin with what are bel ieved to be the f irst scienti f ic observations which may reasonably be supposed to have contr ibuted to the inception of modern f ingerprint identi f icat ion. These observations were in:

1686 – by Marcello Malpighi , Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna, Malpigi, making use of a newly discovered, microscope, noted and discussed in his treaties “certain elevated r idges” describing “diverse f igures” on the palm surfaces.

He perceived them to be “drawn into 1686 and spiral” at the end of the f ingers.

Apparently the signif icance of his observation escaped him, however, for he purposed them to further. More than a century elapsed, and i t was not unti l , 1823 that John Evangelist Purkinje , Professor of Anatomy at the University of Breslau, publ ished a thesis in which he commented upon the diversity of r idged patterns “especial ly on the last phalange of each f inger and evolved a vague dif ferentiat ion of these patterns into nine variet ies. Purkinje’s paper was intended only as a scholarly treaties and had no pract ical appl icat ion to the problem of personal identi f icat ion, but thirty years later, in 1858 Sir Will iam Herschel, the Brit ish Chief Administrat ive off icer for the Hooghly distr ict, Bengal, India, began the f irst known off icial used of f ingerprints on large scale. He required natives to aff ix their f ingerprints as well as their signature to contracts.

Apparently he had no idea original ly that the marks were individual but adopted the pract ice with the thought that this very personal type of contract with off icial papers would be impressed to the native mind and would discourage, dishonesty and default .

A famil iar i ty with f inger impressions grew; however, their individual must have become evidence to him, for in 1877 Herschel introduced the use of f ingerprints in general departments at Hall and also submitted report asking permission to extend the pract ice as a means of identi f icat ion of prisoners as well as part ies to civi l contracts. The permission was not forthcoming but Herschel, within his own province, appl ied the system extensively. He did not, however, evolve a method of classif icat ion suitable for general use.

At about this same t ime, Dr. Henry Faulds , of Tsuki j i Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, began his observation of f ingerprints. The English scienti f ic journal, “Nature” in 1880 published an art icle by Dr. Faulds, discussing his studies and making suggestions as to the future possibi l i t ies of the f ingerprints sciences. His ideas are remarkable for their anticipation of present day pract ice. He recommended the use of a thin f i lm of printer’s ink as transfer medium just as i t general ly used today. He discussed quite ful ly the potential i t ies of identi f icat ion of cr iminals by their f ingerprints left at the scene of cr imes, just as in the modem science of latent f ingerprint identi f icat ion. As a matter of facts, Faulds, himself, demonstrated the pract ical appl icat ion of his theory establ ishing through greasy f ingerprint marks the identi ty of a person who had been drinking some spir i ts from the laboratory supply---certainly one of the earl iest latent f ingerprint identi f icat ion of modem t imes.

1882 – is the year in which appears the f irst authenticated record of off icials use of f ingerprints in the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson of the United States Geological Survey, while in change of a f ield in New Mexico, used his own f ingerprint on commissary orders to prevent their forgery.

An interest ing sidel ight, which had possible effect on the introduction of f ingerprint identi f icat ion into the United States, occurred in 1883 with the publicat ion of Mark Twian Life in the Mississippi. An episode in this book relates to the identi f icat ion of a murdered by his thumb print. Mark Twian further developed his theme ten years later in 1893 with the publicat ion of “Pudd’n head Wilson”, novel plotted around a dramatic f ingerprint identi f icat ion demonstrated during a court tr ial and including a str iking exposit ion of the infal l ibi l i ty of f ingerprint identi f icat ion, the more remarkable because of the dates i ts publ icat ion.

I t was also in the 1880’s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted Brit ish Anthropologist and a cousin of scientist, Charles Darwin, began observations which led to the publicat ion, 1892, of is book, “Finger Prints”. Galton’s studies establ ished the individual i ty and permanence of f ingerprints and he made another important contr ibut ion by devising the f irst scienti f ic method of classifying f ingerprint patterns.

1891 – marked the f irst instal lat ion of f ingerprint f i les as an off icial means of cr iminal identi f icat ion . Juan Vucetich , an Argentinean pol ice off icial, based his system on the patterns typed by Bert i l lon system of identi f icat ion by body measurements, which i t gradually replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently used in most Spanish speaking countr ies and a number of the countr ies as well Vucetich also claimed the f irst off icial cr iminal identi f icat ion by means of f ingerprints left at the scene of a crime.

1892 – At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who murdered her two sons and cut her own throat, through not fatal ly, blamed the attacks on a neighbor. Bloody f ingerprint on a door post were identi f ied by Vucetich as those of the woman herself and led to her confession.

1901 – marked the off icial introduction of f ingerprint for cr iminal identi f icat ion in England and Wales , the system employed was also developed from Galton’s observation and was devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry , the inspector General of pol ice in Bengal. Henry simpli f ied f ingerprint classif icat ion and made i t appl icable to pol ice identi f icat ion, and later on Sir Edward Richard Henry was credited as the father of f ingerprint science.

1902 is the year in which the f irst known systematic use of f ingerprints in the United States was begun with the establ ishment of the pract ice of f ingerprints by the New York Civi l Commission to Prevent appl icants from having better qual i f ied persons takes their tests for them. Dr. Henry P. De Forest, an American pioneer in the f ingerprint science, instal led the system in December 1902.

1903 is claimed by the New York State prison system as the date of the f irst pract ical, systematic use of f ingerprints in the United State for the identi f icat ion of cr iminals.

As early as March of this year, f ingerprints of prisoners were taken and classif ied and on June 5, the f ingerprint system was off icial ly adopted.

1904 found acceptance of the f ingerprints system accelerated when the United States Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St. Louise Missouri Pol ice Department both establ ished f ingerprint bureaus. The St. Louise bureau was inaugurated with the assistance of a Sergeant of London’s Scotland Yard who was on duty at the St. Louise Exposit ion guarding a Brit ish exhibit . The Leavenworth bureau become the f irst to offer faci l i t ies on more than a local basis when i t gradually expanded the scope of i ts operation to include a free f ingerprint exchange service among a growing l ist of contr ibut ion peace off icers.

During the f irst quarter of the 20 t h Century more and more local pol ice identi f icat ion bureaus establ ished f ingerprint systems and many sent copies of their f ingerprint records to the National Bureau of Criminal Identi f icat ion establ ished by the International Identi f icat ion, Associat ion of chief of Pol ice. The obvious need and demand by pol ice off icials led to an Act of Congress establ ishing on July.

1924 the identi f icat ion Division of the FBI. The f ingerprint records of both the National Bureau of Criminal Identi f icat ion and of Leavenworth Penitentiary, total ing 810, 188 were consolidated to form the nuclear of the FBI f i les. The national repository of cr iminal investigation date quickly proved i ts worth to law enforcement off icials faced with problems of cr iminals moving rapidly from city to city and state to state. Addit ional services were added in the FBI identi f icat ion Division as the need became apparent, on March 1, 1932. The International Exchange of f ingerprints date was init iated with a number of other nations, on February 15, 1932.

1933 – A Latent f ingerprint Section for making technical examination of latent prints or of inked prints on an individual basis, was inst i tuted. On November 10 of the same year the Civi l Identi f icat ion Section was establ ished. A steadi ly increasing rate of receipts brought the number of f ingerprints cards in FBI f i les to 10 mil l ion. In 1939, but i t was the exigencies of world I I tat brought about the phenomena period of the identi f icat ion Divisions growth.

Drawing the years just before and during the war, the number of civi l f ingerprints, including of al iens, mil i tary personnel and civi l ian employees in defense industr ies, far outstr ipped the number of arrest prints. Both types together added to the swell ing total unti l January 31.

1946 – the 100 mil l ionth f ingerprint card use was received in the Identi f icat ion Division of the FBI, the world’s largest repository of f ingerprint records. Although new methods of personal identi f icat ion are constantly being suggested even today, i t is hard to conceive of a system being devised, which can improve upon the combination of faci l i ty, pract ical ly, and infal l ibi l i ty, which is characterist ic of the f ingerprint system. As of January 1,1959. The total had grown to over 152,000,000 records as of May 11,1959.

3 BRANCHES OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. Chiroscopy – I t is an al l ied science of dactyloscopy which deals with the scienti f ic examination of the palm of the hand

2. Podoscopy- A branch of science of dactyloscopy which focused on the scienti f ic examination of the sole of the foot.

3. Poroscopy- Al l ied branch of dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the sweat pores found in the fr ict ion skin.

Three (3) fundamentals facts that have made Fingerprint a superlative method of the individualization of person. (Doctrines of fingerprint identification)

1. Perennial i ty- An individual f ingerprint r idges are formed during the fetal l i fe 100-120 days (3-4 mos) inside the womb of the mother and remain unchanged for the remainder of person l i fet ime.(Gods given)

2. Infal l iabi l i ty-I t has been shown empir ical ly (based on experienced and observation) with theoretical support, that f ingerprint are unique (one of i ts kind) no two person possess the same ridge characterist ics.

3. Immutabi l i ty – i t has been proven that the f ingerprint of a person are unchangeable, you cannot change the f ingerprint of Any individual.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. It is the only infal l iable system of identi f icat ion2. i t is the most convincing proofs to mans individual i ty3. i t enable to unmask the real identi ty of the law breaker

Fingerprint as a science - i t is an identi f icat ion of a person through the used of r idges appearing in the f inger of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot

Fingerprint as an impression - I t is the reproduction of some surface of the pattern formed by the r idges on the f irst joint of the f inger.

Two (2) types of fingerprint impression

1. Rolled impression- Rolling the fingers2. Plane impression- No need to roll the finger you just dent the finger

including the thumb.

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTAS.

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation, which does open toward the core.

2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected/ chooses.

3. When there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to the definit ion the one nearest the core, is chosen.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a r idge running between the type l ine toward the core, but at the nearer end only.

RULES IN THE SELECTION OF CORE OF A LOOP:

1. The core in placed or within the innermost suff icient re-curves.2. When the innermost suff icient re-curve does not contain any

ending r idge or rod, the core is placed on the shoulder of a loop further from the delta.

3. When the innermost suff icient re-curve contains odd number of rod, the core is placed upon the t ip of the outer rod.

4. When the innermost suff icient re-curve contains even number of rod, the core is placed upon the end of one of the two center rods further from the delta.

INTERPRETATION OF FINGERPRINTS:

Three basic types of pattern are as fol lows:

Percentage of appearance

1. Arch 5%2. Loops 60%3. Whorls 35%

The three basic types of pattern are further subdivided into the fol lowing:

1. Plain arch 5. Plain Whorl2. Tented arch 6. Central pocket loop3. Radial loop 7. Lateral pocket loop4. Ulnar loop 8. Double loop/twin loop

9. Accidental Pattern

RIDGE COUNTING:

The number of r idges interviewing the delta and the core is known as the r idge count. Every r idge that crossed or touched by the imaginary l ine between the core and the delta, neither the delta/ core is counted red l ine upon the r idicule of the f ingerprint glass is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is bifurcation of a r idge exactly at the point where the imaginary l ine would be drawn, two r idges are counted. Fragments and dots are counted as r idges i f they appear to be thin and heavy as the r idges in the immediate pattern. Variat ions inking and pressure must of course be considered.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

1. PLAIN ARCH

A type of f ingerprint pattern where the majori ty of the r idges came from one side then f low to the other side with the sl ight r ise at the center. I t has no delta and core.

2. THE TENTED ARCH

In the tented arch, most of the r idges enters in one side of the impression then f low or tend out upon the other side with a r ise at the center giving 90 degrees more or less and with a present of up thrust. I t has no delta and core.

Three types of tented arches:

1. The type in which r idges at the center form a definite angel: i .e. 90 or less

2. The type in which one or more r idges at the center form an up thrust is an ending r idge of any length r ising at a suff icient degree from the horizontal plain, 450 degree or more.

3. The type approaching the loop type possessing two of the basic or essential characterist ics of the loop, but lacking the third.

The arches and some of the loop are often confused. I t should be remembered that the mere converging of two r idges does not form a re-curve, without which there can be no loop. In the other hand, there are many patterns which at f i rst sight resemble tented arches but which on abuse inspection are found to be loop, as when one looping r idge wil l be found in an almost vert ical posit ion within the pattern are entirely free from and passing in front of the delta.

ULNAR LOOP

A Type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses a delta, core, and one or more ridge forming a sufficient recurve within the pattern area. The slope or downward flow of the innermost sufficient recurve is towards the little finger or to the ulna bone of the hand of origin.

RADIAL LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses one delta and one core, and one or more ridges within the pattern area, formed a sufficient recurve. The flow of the innermost ridges is towards the thumb or to the radius bone of the hand of origin.

THE PLAIN WORL

The plain has two deltas and one core and at least one r idge making a complete circuit , which may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle. And when an imaginary l ine drawn between the two deltas i t must touch or cross at least one of the re-curving r idges within forming a complete circuit within the pattern area. A re-curving, however, which an appendage connected with i t in the l ine of f low cannot be construed as a circuit . An appendage connected to the points is considered to spin the re-curve on that side.

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP

The central pocket loop type of whorl has two deltas and least one r idge making a complete circuit , which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary l ine drawn between the two deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving r idges within the inner pattern area. A recurving r idge, however, which has an appendage connected within the l ine of f low and on the delta side,

cannot be constructed as a circuit . An appendage connected at that point is considered to spoi l the re-curve on that side.

On l ieu of re-curve in front of the delta is the inner pattern area; an obstruct ion at the r ight angle to the l ine of f low wil l suff ice.

I t is necessary that the inner l ine of f low be f ixed art i f ic ial ly. The inner l ine of f low is determined by drawing a l ine between the inner delta and center of the innermost re-curve or looping r idge.

DOUBLE LOOP

The double loop consists of two separate loop formation with two separate and dist inct sets of shoulders and two deltas.

The world “separate” as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loop may be connected by an appending r idge provided aid. I t does not turn about at the r ight angle between the shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for the loop applies also to the double loop.

The fact that there must be two separate loop formation el iminates from considerat ion as a double loop the “S” type core, the interlocking type core, and the formations with one loop inside another.

I t is essential that both sides of a loop be equal length, nor that the two loops be of the same size. Neither is i t materials from which side the loop enters.

LATERAL POCKET LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern in which the core ridges of the two loops makes their access or exit on the same side of the fingerprint impression.

ACCIDENTAL WHORL

The accidental whorl is a pattern consist ing of a combination of two dif ferent types of pattern with the exception of plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a pattern, which possesses some of the requirements for two or more dif ferent types; or a pattern, which conforms to none of the definit ions. I t may be a combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and whorl, loop and central

pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop or other combination. The plain arch is excluded,

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (Henry system with FBI modification and extension)

Sir, Edward Richard Henry – Simpli f ied the use of f inger print and made i t appl icable into pol ice works

Mr. A.J Renoe- Superintendent of the U.S dept of just ice f ingerprint bureau (1920), the Bureau was located in the Penitentiary Leavenworth, Kansas. He devised what was known as the A.J Renoe Extensions and modif icat ion.

Wil l iam Burns- Head of U.S secret service (1924) he made division and accumulat ion of f ingerprint record cards into suff iciently small groups.

J. Edgar Hoover- Devised further extension, which in turn have been revised from t ime to t ime unti l present. He made an adequate f i le containing many mil l ion of f ingerprint.

Note: The entire plan or further revision is based on the Henry System of classif icat ion.

Division of Classification – the classif icat ion formula is divided into six possible divisions underthe extension system:

a) Primary classif icat ionb) Secondary classif icat ion

b.1 Capital letter groupsb.2 small letter groups

c) Sub-secondary classif icat iond) Major classif icat ione) Key classif icat ionf) Final classif icat ion

Classif icat ion- The method of attaining a formula in a set of f ingerprint placed in the f ingerprint record cards

Classif icat ion Formula - The numerical descript ion in a set of f ingerprints which is composed of letters and f igures writ ten above and below the classif icat ion l ine.

Classif icat ion l ine- Refers to a long l ine which is usually placed on the r ight upper corner of the f ingerprint card or chart where classif icat ion formula is writ ten.

The posit ions in the classif icat ion l ine for these divisions when complete appl ied are as i l lustrated.

K.C M.C P.C S.C S.S.C F.C

18 L 29 rW2u MO I 5

I 5 Xt OIO

a. The Primary classification – the primary classif icat ion is the numerical value of the whorls in a set print. The arbitrary value assigned to the f ingers for this purpose is as fol lows:

Why do we have a pre-establ ished fract ion of 1/1?

a. T o give the numbered value group a place in the f i leb. Zero over zero might be mistaken as outer over outer in

f i l ing

Blocking- Is the process of writ ing below each f inger print pattern the corresponding symbol of i ts name.

Patterns as to numerical value

a. Pattern with numerical value – all whorlb. Pattern without numerical value- arches and loops

Four stages to obtain primary classification

1. Pairing- 10 fingers are divided in 5 pairs

Finger # 1 and # 2 --------------- 16Finger # 3 and # 4 --------------- 8Finger #5 and # 6 --------------- 4Finger #7 and #8----------------- 2Finger #9 and #10 -------------- 1

2. Assigning numerical value

3. Knowing the numerator and denominator- The f irst pattern of every pairs are the denominator (odd f ingers; 1,3,5,7,9) while the second pattern of every pair is the numerator (even f ingers 2,4,6,8,10)

4. Summing the numerical value or values assigned to whorl plus the pre-establ ished fract ion of 1/1

The sum of numerical value of whorls i f any, in f ingers 1,3,5,7 and 9 with one added is the denominator of the primary classif icat ion. The sum of the numerical value of the whorls, i t any in, 2, 4, 8 and 10, with one added, is the numerator of the primary classif ied where no whorl appears in a set of impressions, the primary, therefore, would be 1/1/. I t is noted that 10/24 possible primaries may be obtained 1/1 to 32/32, which is the primary when whorls appear in every f inger.

b. Secondary Classification - The secondary classif icat ion is based on the types of patterns appearing on the index f ingers. Each f inger is represented by capital and small lettered symbols

Secondary classif icat ion by capital lettered group- This is done by exhibit ing the capital; letter symbol of the individual type of patterns from the two index f inger after the primary classif icat ion.

Right index f inger – Numerator

Left index f inger – Denominator

A symbol of the fol lowing symbol may come out

A – Plain archT – Tented archR – Radial loopU – Ulnar loopW – Plain whorlC – central pocket loopD – Double loopX – Accidental PatternSecondary classif icat ion by small lettered groups- the secondary classif icat ion by small lettered refers to the 3 types of f ingerprint patterns that can be exhibited by small lettered groups.

- I t can be applied to al l f ingers with a said patterns except the two index f ingers

Radial loop – rPlain arch - aTented arch- t

c. Sub-secondary classification - i t is based upon the r idge count or r idge tracing in the index, middle and r ing f ingers

Ridge counting refers to loops pattern while r idge tracing refer to whorl patterns .

Ridge count – refers to the total number of r idges intervening between the delta and the core (delta and core are not included in the counting)

Tables for symbols of loops as a result of r idge count

1. A r idge count of 1-9 inclusive of the two index f inger is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner, while 10 or more O for outer.

2. A r idge count of 1-10 inclusive of inclusive of two index f ingers is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner while 11 or more O for outer.

3. A r idge count of 1-13 inclusive of two r ing f ingers is deducted into capital symbol I for inner and O for outer.

Ridge tracing- I t is the method of tracking or trai l ing the r idge commencing from the left delta, with the number of r idges intervening between the r ight delta are accounted for and compared the table for corresponding symbol, capital letter I-M-O.

@ Tables for symbols of whorl as a result of r idge tracing

1. When the r idge being traced (from the left to the r ight delta) goes inside or in front of the r ight delta, and there are 3 or more intervening r idges, the tracing is known as inner and represented by capital letter symbol I .

2. When the r idge being traced goes either or inside to the r ight delta and there are 2 or less r idges intervening the tracing is known as meeting and represented by the capital letter symbol M.

3. When the r idge being traced goes outside to the r ight delta and there are 3 or more intervening r idges the tracing is known as outer and represented by the capital letter symbol O.

Note: Arches are represented by a minus sign (-)

d.The Major classification - are created by counting and by tracing r idges of the left and r ight thumb respectively. These divisions are to be used for the purpose of subdividing large col lect ions of prints.

In a large col lect ion of prints where both thumbs are loop they are divided into nine major divisions by counting the r idges of the thumb. The r idge counts of the left thumb are represented in the denominator by the symbol S, M, and L, which are arr ived at as fol lows:

Major division of loops

1. Ridge counts 1 to 11; inclusive are S (small), 12 to 16 inclusive, by M (med), and 17 or over, L ( large).

2.The r idge counts of the r ight thumb are represented in the numerator by the same symbols, M and L. The count in this instance for the small , medium and large is the same as just explained for the denominator when an S or M appears as denominator.

3.When there are 17 r idges or more making a “Large” (L) in denominator the combinations changes in the numerator thus, the combinations changes in the numerator, thus: 1 to 17 inclusive S, 18 to 22 inclusive M, and 23 or more L.

Left Thumb Denominator Right Thumb Numerator

1 to 11 inclusive S (small) 1 to 11 inclusive S (small)12 to 16 inclusive M (medium)17 or more r idges L ( large)

12-16 Inclusive M (medium) 1-11 inclusive S (small)12-16 Inclusive M (medium)17 or more r idges L ( large)

17 or more r idges L ( large) 1-17 inclusive S (small)18 to 22 inclusive M (medium)23 or more r idges L ( large)

The fol lowing symbols are used to i l lustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division.

S M L S M L S M L ------------- ------------- -------------

S S S M M M L L L

Major division of whorls

In a large col lect ion of prints when both thumbs are whorls they are divided into nine major divisions by the result of r idges tracing inner (1), Meet (M) and Outer (O) of both thumbs. The left thumb represents the denominator and the r ight thumbs the numerator.

The fol lowing symbols are used to i l lustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division.

I M O T M D I M O ------------- ------------- ------------

I I I M M M O O O

e. Key Classification - is the r idge count of the f irst loop is a set of prints beginning with the r ight thumb, but not including either of the l i t t le f ingers.

- I f there is no such loop, the key is the result of the r idge count of the f irst whorl being treated as an ulnar loop.

- When arches appear in al l f ingers, the symbol of the key classif icat ion is just a minus sign (-)

- The result of the r idge count of the key classif icat ion be exhibited or placed at the extreme left of the classif icat ion formula in l ine with the numerator

f. Final classification - this is the r idge count of the loop in the l i t t le f inger of the r ight hand, placed in the numerator l ine

- I f there is no loop in the r ight l i t t le f inger, then the r idge count of the one appearing in the left l i t t le f inger/s used, in which case i t is placed in the denominator l ine.

- I f no loop appear in either l i t t le f inger, the result of the r idge count the whorl is being treated for the f inal classif icat ion

- When arches appear in both l i t t le f inger the absence of a loop or whorl or either in the r ight and left l i t t le f inger the last loop is being used as a f inal classif icat ion, except the loop that is being used in the key classif icat ion.

- Arches are represented by a minus sign (-) in the classif icat ion l ine.

Classification of scarred patterns (amputated, missing at birth fingers)

a. Always indicate the amputated or missing at b birth f ingers to the f ingerprint record cards.

b. I f one is absent carry the symbol or counting by the counterpart, or opposite f ingers, which is present.

C. I f two amputated f ingers are opposite each other, both are given classif icat ion of whorls with M for meeting.

d. i f al l f ingers were missing or amputated the classif icat ion wil l be;

N= M 32 W MMM D= M 32 W MMM

e. I f both hands are amputated or missing at birth the classif icat ion wil l be.

Suspect fingerprint sample and data base making

Method/ essential of the f ingerprint sampling

Points of he f ingerprint sampling are as fol lows;

1. Washing the hands before f ingerprint sampling2. Relax3. Posit ion

4. Area to be covered on the f ingerprint col lect ion5. Roll ing direct ion of the rol l ing method6. Spreading of ink7. Thickness of the ink8. Speed in rol l ing the f ingers9. Check up after f ingerprint recording

Search, preservation and collection of fingerprint evidence

Fingerprints are very fragi le and may be destroyed by contamination or improper handling

The methods of searching, preservation and col lect ion usually affects both the quali ty and quanti ty of latent f ingerprints.

The primary concerns are preventing the addit ion of f ingerprints to the evidence and preventing the destruct ion of ones that are already present.

So the f irst step to be undertaken in a case involving that evidence is to exclude those unauthorized person and to protect the scene.

SEARCHING- The search should begin with the area surrounding the actual scene. The next logical places to search area points of possible exit and entry.

PRESERVATION- when a latent print is located, the f irst thing to do is to photograph the actual cr ime scene. A data card should be prepared and i t should contain the case number, date, location, name of off icer who discovered the print and the name of the photographer. Next is to sketch the objects on which the latent prints was found and indicate the exact location of the print.

LATENT IMPRESSIONS

Each r idge of the f inger, palms and soles bears a row of sweat ports, which in the average person constantly exude perspirat ion. Also the r idge of the f ingers and palms are in intermittent contact with other parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various objects, which may leave a f i lm of grease or moisture on the r idges. In touching an object, the f i lm of moisture and/ or grease may be transferred to the objects, thus leaving an outl ine of the r idge of the f ingers or palm there on. This print is cal led a latent impression the word “ latent” meaning hidden, that is, the print many t imes is not readi ly visible.

Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the r idges present, are of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as identi f icat ion of them may solve the crime and result in successful prosecution of the subject. Consequently, every effort should be made to preserve and identi fy them.Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt , or dust are equally important to the investigator but str ict ly speaking, are not latent impressions.

A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. Points of entry and exit should be examined, along wit surface or objects disturbed or l ikely touched during the commission of the crime. The examiner should wear a pair of l ight cloth gloves and

handle an object only in so far as is necessary and then only by edges or surface, which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of the exact location of a print on an objects and of the objects i tself should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in any tr ial result ing from the investigation. NO one should handle and objects other than the examiner him self .

Portable art icles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may readi ly identi fy thereafter.

The beam of a f lashl ight played over the surface of an objects wil l f requently show the location of latent impression, although this is not an infal l ible test their presence.

Evidence should be examined as soon as possible after i ts discovery. Fol lowing the location of any latent prints scene of a crime, the prints of al l persons whose presence at the place under inspection has been for legit imate purposes must be excluded from further attention. I t is advisable, therefore, during the init ial stages of an investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints of al l members of the household, the employees, and any pol ice or other off icial who have touched the objects on which the latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are referred to as el imination prints.

Due to the fragment nature of most latent prints i t is not possible to derive a classif icat ion which makes a f i le search pract icable, a latent impression may be identi f ied, however by comparison with the prints of a part icular suspects.

Inked f ingerprints taken for comparison with the latent impressions should be i l legibly and as complete as possible including the areas not essential to classif icat ion, since identi f icat ion are often made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should l ikewise be complete and clear and should include impressions of the f inger joints. Persons not experienced in latent comparisons should not attempt to evaluate latent fragment, since the area necessary for identi f icat ion may be extremely compared to tat of an average inked f ingerprint.

Art icles are which are to be transported by mail or express should be so packed that the surface bearing latent impressions are not in contact with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by mounting the art icles on a piece of a f iberboard or plywood. The board should then be secured in a box so that the objects wil l not touch or be taken against the side in transit . The package should be plainly marked “Evidence”, to prevent inadvertent handling on opining. Cotton or cloth surface never be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent prints.

Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single protect ive wrapper, since contact with other surface does not harm latent on such objects. Lif ts, negatives and photographs are readi ly enclosed with letters.

An explanatory letter should accompany al l evidence. I f i t is necessary to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should be placed in every package so tat the recipient wi l l know immediately the import of the contents. Al l i tems of evidence should be marked and describe exactly in the accompanying letter so that wi l l not be confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a check on what the package should contain.

In addit ion, the letter should include for the record purposes brief outl ine of the crime, i .e., date and place of occurrence, and names of vict ims and subjects. I f suspects are named for comparison, suff icient descript ive data should be set out to permit location of their f ingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, comprises individual ’s complete name, al iases FBI number, date or prior arrest or f ingerprint ing, f ingerprint identi f icat ion, date and place of birth, and physical descript ion.

Evidence is preferable forwarded by registered mail of rai lway express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt.El imination or suspect f ingerprints are best enclosed with evidence i tself , with notat ion as to the type of prints forwarded.

POWDERING ANF LIFTING LATENT IMPRESSION

The sole purpose in “developing a latent impression is to make i t visible so that i t may be preserved and compared various powders and chemicals are used for this purpose. When a latent prints is plainly visible, i t should be photographed before any effort is made to develop i t .

No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in just, obviously greasy or bloody prints, as this wil l almost surely destroy them. Objects, which have been wet or immersed in water, may st i l l bear identi f iable latent impressions. Before any examination is attempted however, the objects must be dried.

Powder brushed l ight ly over a latent-bearing surface wil l cl ing to grease or moisture in the r idges of a latent prints, making i t visible against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which wil l contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should also be considered.

A gray powder and black powder are adequate for latent print works. Many f ingerprint powders of various colors and composit ions are avai lable from f ingerprint supply houses but none are superior to the gray and black.

A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for appl icat ion to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to the direct ion of the r idges. Al l excess powder should be brushed from between the r idges. Too much powder and too l i t t le brushing are the chief faults of beginners.

Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. I t is also used on mirrors and metal surface which have been published to mirror l ike f inish, sense these surfaces wil l photograph with the f ingerprint camera. Black powder should be applied to white or l ight-colored surfaces.

Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red bronze powders, although of a gl i t ter ing appearance, wi l l photograph dark and should consequently be used on l ight-colored surfaces. Dragons’ blood powder is a photographical ly neutral powder and may be dusted on either a l ight or dark surface.

On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be used, i t being necessary only to use a contrast ing black or white background when photographing.

Prints should be l i f ted after photographing both rubber and transparent tapes are avai lable for this purpose. Rubber l i f t ing tape id procurable in black or white 4” x 9” sheets with the adhesive surface protects with a cel luloid cover. A black powder print should obviously be l i f ted on white tape and gray powder print on black tape.

Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be l i f ted on white tape, aluminum on block. Dragon’s blood is l i f ted on either black or white.

After cutt ing a piece of tape suff iciently large to cover the entire latent print, the cel luloid covering is removed and the adhesive side supplied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and f irmly to the surface, taking care not to sif t is posit ion. I t is then peeled gently from the surface and the piece of cel luloid placed over the print to protect i t . The operator should handle the l i f t in such a manner that he wil l leave no prints to his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper identi f icat ion tag bearing the init ials of the operator, date an objects from l i f ted should be placed under one corner of the cel luloid, or this information may be writ ten on the black of the l i f t i tself i f i t can belong in a permanent legible manner.

I f an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print, more legible print may sometimes be obtained by l i f t ing a second t ime (on a new piece of tape, of course).

I t should be noted that a print l i f ted on rubber tape is in a reverse posit ion. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print of such a l i f t , i t wi l l be necessary to print the negative from the reverse side in order for the print to appear in i ts correct posit ion for comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted be persons of inadequate knowledge an experience.

Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is avai lable in 1” to 2” widths for f ingerprint work. The common variety of transparent tape is not suitable due to the deteriorat ion (drying) of the adhesive surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct posit ion. Transparent l i f ts should be aff ixed to a smooth gain less, opaque background of a black or white color contrast ing with the powder used.

Every effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such l i f ts. In no instance should a transparent l i f t ever be folded on i tself or struck. To another piece of such tape as a backing. Since i t is general ly not possible to determine the correct posit ion of such a print.

Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent f ingers and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, shroud be l i f ted as units, that is, on single piece of tape, as this may faci l i tate the task of making comparisons.

PREPARATION OF FINGERTPRINTS CHARTS FOR COURT TESTIMONY

In test i fying to f ingerprint identi f icat ion, the expert often prepares charts to visual ly aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his test imony. Many t imes i t is undoubtedly dif f icult the layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the ful l import of an expert ’s test imony, due to i ts technical nature; consequently, some graphic representat ion of the facts presented is amply just i f ied and rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ult imately the sole responsibi l i ty of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in f ingerprint work, a brief explanation

of such charts fol lows, along with suggestions and remarks based on long experience in these matters.

To do the work conveniently, i t wi l l be necessary to have avai lable, in addit ion to the ordinary photographic developing and print ing materials, a project ion enlarger which wil l enlarge preferably to at least ten diameters. In the project ion method of enlargement, the image is printed direct ly from the original negative, and the preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary.

Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are:

A rol l of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to outl ine the areas of the f ingerprints on the negative to be used; some st i f f cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts a tube of rubber cement and a bott le of translucent ink, other than black or white.

A l ight-box on which to view the negative whole blocking, and a lettering set to draw the l ines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A l ight-box is basical ly a frosted pane of glass wit a l ight beneath i t to produce soft, even, none glaring i l lumination. I f no l ight-box is avai lable, a clear window may be ut i l ized in “blocking” the negatives.

If the experts f ind i t necessary to have an outside source prepare is photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation.

The original latent print and inked print with which i t is identical can be photographed 25 t imes the actual size. This procedure el iminates guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. Whatever areas of the two prints are deemed requisite to i l lustrate the method of identi f icat ion are then outl ined (blocked) on negative with the masking tape, so the only those areas wil l show in the subsequent enlargements. General ly, i f the legible area of the latent print is small , i t is well to show the complete print. I f the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which wil l not make the cart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.

On blocking, the negative is aff ixed to the window pane or l ight-box by means of str ips of photographic tape across the corners, wit the side to be blocked up. The prevent constant shif t ing of the negative while i t is being prepared. The latent print should be blocked f irst. Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Cares should be exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formation shown and the r idge formation in the same upright or horizontal posit ions. This may be faci l i tated by f ixing a negative, bearing ruled squares between the negative being blocked and the glass to which i t is attached.

If the latent print was developed or photographed as a l ight print on a dark background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and blocked in order that both prints may appear as black r idges on l ight. This is done by placing the original negative adjacent to a new sheet of f i lm and exposing i t . The resultant negative contains the same image as the original except tat the color of the image has been reversed.

If the negative is a photograph of an upper l i f t , the print appears reverse posit ion; tat is, as a mirror image, and the negative wil l

accordingly have to be blocked from the dul l or emulsion side in order for i t to appear in a posit ion comparable to that of the inked prints.

Fai lure to present the prints in question in the same color and posit ion may confuse the observer and nul l i fy the purpose for which the chart is made.

The degree of enlargement is not important in i tself , so long as the r idges of the latent print are readi ly dist inguishable by the eye. Ten diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 wil l serve. I t should be remembered however, that small enlargements are dif f icult to see a few feet away and tat background. A white border of at least 1/1/2 inches or a width equal to one-third the enlarged area should be left from cart ing purposes.

Any chart prepared must be technical ly correct; tat is, the corresponding r idge characterist ics in the two prints must be similarly numbered and indicated.

Several ways of point ing out the similar r idge formations have been observed but the one which appears soundest is also simplest and consists or merely marking the characterist ics with l ines and numbers.

Al l the r idge characterist ics in the prints need not be charted. Twelve have the r idge characterist ics are ample to i l lustrate for identi f icat ion, but i t is neither claimed nor implied that this number is required.

Al l f ingerprint identi f icat ions are made by observing that two impressions have the r idge characterist ics of similar shapes which occupy the same relat ive posit ions in the patterns.

Method involving superimposit ion of the prints are not recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a very few instances, due to the distort ion of r idges in most prints through pressure and twist ing. Such a procedure is not necessari ly a test of identi fy.

Likewise, presenting charts with the shapes of the characterist ics drawn in the margin is not recommended. Individual r idge characterist ics may vary sl ight ly in actual shape or physical posit ion due to twist ing, pressure, incomplete inking condit ion of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background, etc. Identi f icat ions are based on a number of characterist ics viewed in a unit relat ionship and not on the microscopic-appearance of single characterist ic.

Since the enlarged-photograph appear in black and white, an ink other than black or white should be used to l ine the chart. Such an ink should be preferably translucent so that i t wi l l be possible to see the r idges which i t reverses. A translucent carmine drawing ink serves well . In placing the l ines the chart should be arranged so that they do not cross or touch.

The chart wi l l present a clearer, hearer and more pleasing appearance i f i t is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. I t is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around the photograph.

Ordinari ly, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print ( latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the

characterist ics in an orderly sequence; and, i f the situation warrants i t , al l of the points may be i l lustrated on a single side of the photograph.

A single l ine should be drawn from each characterist ic to a numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to draw the l ine exactly to the characterist ics point, not short of i t , beyond i t or obscuring i t . Erasures should be avoided. I f the ink runs or blots, i t is sometimes possible to remove i t with a cloth in denatured alcohol, without damaging the photograph.

If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, i t might be well to draw a small circle around each characterist ic and then draw the l ine from a circle to the number, since the r idge wil l be much thicker than the i l lustrat ing l ine. Al l l ine and numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might be cal led upon to explain.

The chartered enlargements are readi ly mounted on st i f f cardboard with rubber cement, which maybe purchased in small tubes. After cementing the photograph to the cardboard, i t should be placed under a heavy f lat object which wil l cover the entire surface to prevent warping and wrinkl ing. After drying, tr im the two enlargements to the same square size with heavy scissor, a pen knife or scalped, and fasten them together, book fashion. Of course, i f charts are large, 0 to 36 inches square, mounting is unnecessary and they wil l have to be supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks or metal r ings.

Some courts do not permit numbering or l ining of the photographs and the enlargements alone in these cases wil l have to suff ice. I f there is some question about admissibi l i ty of the charted enlargements, i t is well to prepare an extra-uncharted set.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Bifurcation – is the dividing of r idge into two or more branches.

2. Enclosure, Eye or eyelet – is the spl i t t ing of a r idge into two but meet at a certain point to continue as a single r idge.

3. Divergence – is the spreading apart of two r idges which have been paral lel or nearly paral lel .

4. Ending r idge – is a r idge that terminates.

5. Dot r idge – is a r idge that resemble a period.

6. Type l ines – two innermost r idges which start paral lel or nearly paral lel diverge, and surround the pattern area.

7. Pattern Area – is that part of a loop and whorl in which appears the cores, deltas and r idges.

8. Delta – is that point on a r idge or in front of the near the centers of the divergence of the type l ines. I t may be a bifurcation, an abrupt ending r idge, a dot, a short r idge, a meeting of two r idges or a point on the f irst recurr ing r idge located nearest the center and in front of the divergence of the type l ines.

9. Core – is the approximate center of the patterns area.

10 Ridges- Lit t le l ines found at the f inger/palm of the hand and sole of the foot.

11. Focal point- i t is within the pattern area of a loop and whorl, which are enclosed and cal led delta and core.

12. Frict ion skin- the epidermal hair less skin found on the lower port ion of the hands and feet covered with minute r idges and without pigment or coloring matter.

13. Furrows- The canal or depression in between r idges.