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7/29/2019 Forest Fire Paper
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Fire and Forest Health
Philip Worlanyo Dugbley
Department of Silviculture
Faculty of Forest Sciences
Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract
Without forests humans can not survive. Forests are vital parts of our environment and their
benefits are immeasurable. Forest fires are sometimes essential for forest regeneration but also
detrimental if repeated systematically in the same area. Thus, forest fires can have positive and
negative effect on forest, and its impact on forest health and vitality varies greatly depending on
its usage and frequency of occurrences. Fire is a natural disturbance that occurs in most
terrestrial ecosystems. It is also a tool that has been used by humans to manage a wide range of
natural ecosystems worldwide. As such, it can produce a spectrum of effects on soils, water and
forest ecosystems. This at the long run usually has significant effect on forest health. There are
several management techniques and tools that are used to manipulate a forest to meet specificobjectives. When it comes to forest health and maintaining fire-dependent ecosystems, there is
no better tool than prescribed fire. The use of prescribed fire is a great tool for silvicultural,
ecological, and wildlife management purposes. Fire scientists, land managers, and fire
suppression personnel need to evaluate fire effects on these components, and balance the overall
benefits and costs associated with the use of fire in forest ecosystem management.
Keywords: Prescribed and wildfires; Forest health; Forest soil and ecosystem; Fire eco principle
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]7/29/2019 Forest Fire Paper
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1.0 Introduction
There have always been forest fires and no one can avoid them because in places such as the
temperate zones, fires can occur naturally. Many forests have evolved with fire and recurring
burns help plant and wildlife to thrive. Fire from any unban inter-phase can play a major role in
restoring forest health. However, the use of fire in restoring forest health is a challenge, since
forest is a community of different plants species. Therefore, the resistance and resilience of a
forest must be taken into consideration. Thus, the ability of the species and forest as a whole to
withstand drought are heavily impacted.
In past years, fire was hazardous for small trees, but recently insect and diseases have replaced
the perceived fire effect. Fire has therefore become an important tool in controlling insect pests
and diseases. In harsh conditions such as during drought, plants become susceptible to beetle
insects and diseases. Fires in forests produce some of the most profound impacts on almost allecosystems. Wildfires and prescribed fires affect the vegetation, soils, wildlife, and water
resources of watersheds. They impose a wide range of effects depending on the mosaic of fire
severities and post-fire hydrologic events. For example, changes in soils after fires produce
varying responses in the water, floral, and faunal components of forest ecosystems because of
their complex interdependencies (DeBano, 2000). The effects of fire on soils are a function of the
amount of heat released from combusting biomass, the fire intensity and the duration of
combustion. Since forest health is also somehow affected by soil conditions, it will be wealth
stating the impact of fires on forest soils.
The objective of this paper therefore, is to summarize the possible impacts of fires (both wild and
prescribed) on forest health; including forest soils and its ecosystem.
2.0 Fire Ecology Principles
Forest ecosystems, most importantly those of the western part of the world, had evolved under
regimes of periodic forest fires (Vale, 1982). Its important to note that healthy forests do burn.
This is partly a result of summer drought conditions that characterize many portions of the West.
In much of the Western parts, temperatures tend to be warmest when conditions are driest.
These factors are unfavorable for biological decomposition by bacteria, fungi, and other
decomposers. As a result, decomposition is often extremely slow.
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Nutrients are locked up, and unavailable for further growth. Litter that falls to the forest floor
gradually builds up. In Western Europe, fire, more than any other factor, is responsible for
recycling the nutrients in this dead plant material. Deprived of periodic fires, most western
ecosystems gradually decline in productivity for lack of available soil nutrients. In contrast,
under natural conditions, net nutrient levels often increase after a fire (White, 1985). The
periodicity between fires varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. For instance, in dry, low-elevation
ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest, before the era of fire suppression, fires once burned
almost every 3 to 20 years.
Long before fire suppression had any influence on fuel loading, there was huge forest fires
associated with the Western Europe. In 1910, for example, more than 3 million acres burned in
northern Idaho and western Montana, including many low-elevation areas characterized by
frequent low intensity fires (Sargent, 1993). The conditions for a major burn often have more to
do with drought, wind, and ignition sources than with fuels. Also, since young trees have poorly
developed root systems, young trees are among the first to experience drought stress and are
extremely flammable. Thus activities like salvage logging may actually increase the likelihood
of major fires, rather than reduce it, by increasing the amount of young forest re-growth.
3.0 Impact of Fire on Forest Soil
Both prescribed and wild fires definitely produce large impact to forests ecosystem and health.
Physical impacts of fire on soil include breakdown in soil structure, reduced moisture retention
and capacity, and development of water repellency, all of which increase susceptibility to
erosion. These fires increase water repellency in forest soil, which results into infiltration and
soil erosion. Fires also affect soil colour, pH, bulk density, texture, and so forth (Chandleret al.,
1983)
Chemical changes in soil after forest fire is very significant. This is because changes in nutrient
cycle and soil organic matter can change the productivity of forest ecosystems. Fire-impacted
soils experience changes in nutrient pools cycling rates, loss of elements to the atmosphere, and
loss of organic matter. The effect of forest fire on soil organic matter (SOM) varies from
complete combustion to increase in its amount and the effect on nitrogen is also variable.
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Most studies have reported increase in the total plant available forms of nitrogen, ammonium
(NH4+) but reduction in the amount of total nitrogen. This reduction in the nitrogen is because of
volatilization. Other nutrients are less affected in comparison to nitrogen. High availability of
nutrients results into this sudden flush of nitrogen in the soil followed by a rapid growth of
herbaceous plants and a significant increase in plant storage of nitrogen (Kutiel and Naveh,
1987).
Biological properties of soil are also highly affected. Of the three main properties of soil, soil
biological properties is the most and easily affected component. This is due to the sensitivity of
microorganisms and invertebrates towards high temperatures. Biological properties are altered
by changes or loss of microbial species and population dynamics, reduction or loss of
invertebrates, and partial elimination (through decomposition) of plant roots. Although the most
severe impacts on soils occur in stand-replacing wildfires, prescribedd fires can produce local
effects as well. The changing trend is that, fire decreases the number and species richness of both
soil-dwelling invertebrates and micro-organisms. But in comparison to micro-organisms, soil
dwelling invertebrates are less affected because of high mobility and burrowing habit. Soil
microorganisms are complex and how they respond to fire will depend on numerous factors,
including fire intensity and severity, site characteristics, and pre-burn community composition.
4.0 Effect of Fire on Forest Ecosystem
Most fires perform a variety of ecosystem services. For example, fires cleanse the forest. Heat
from fires can kill forest pathogens in the soil, including root rots, as well as parasitic insects and
fungi that may be found in fallen trees or snags (Rabkin, 1995). Laboratory studies have
demonstrated that smoke from fires can kill certain arboreal forest pathogens, reducing for a
time, the influence of some tree diseases. Smoke also aids the germination of some plant species.
Fires also change nutrient flows. Dead litter burns and turns to ash. The heat and combustion
change the chemical composition of soils. Depending on how hot they burn, fires can volatilize
certain nutrients, like nitrogen, that are lost as gases into the atmosphere (Vale, 1994). However,
the nitrogen pool available to plants is large relative to most fire-induced losses, and nitrogen is
quickly replaced in the soil through nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which usually increase significantly
after a burn in most ecosystems.
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Studies have also shown that, bacteria and other nitrogen fixers typically make up all the
nitrogen losses to volatilization within two years of a burn. Other important plant nutrients,
including phosphorus and calcium, are released from litter by fires and leached into the top
layers of the soil. Despite some losses to waterways and the atmosphere, the overall effect of all
but the most intense fires is the redistribution of nutrients from the forest canopy and floor into
the soil, thus increasing soil fertility.
Figure 1.0___
Immediate and long-term ecosystem responses to fire. (Adapted from Borchersand Perry 1990. In: Natural and Prescribed Fire in Pacific Northwest Forests, edited by J.D.
Walstad, S.R. Radosevich, and D.V. Sandberg).
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5.0 Impact of Prescribed and Wild Fires on Forest Health
Basically, there are two types of forest fires: prescribed (controlled) fires and wildfires.
Prescribed fireis the controlled application of fire to naturally occurring vegetation under
exacting weather conditions, in a definite place, for a specific purpose, to achieve particular
results. Prescribed burning of naturally accumulated forest floor materials or slash following tree
harvest is also a standard practice to reduce fuel levels, with the intention of minimizing the
extent and severity of wildfires or facilitating germination and growth of desired forest species.
They are primed when soil is moderately moist, and consequently they show a low severity
(Walstad et al. 1990).
In contrast, wildfiresgenerally occur in the presence of
an abundant and dry fuel load and, thus, are very severe.
However, due to the inhomogeneous spatial distribution
of severity, naturally burnt soils often appear as chaotic
mosaics of areas little affected by the fire alternating
with others seriously impacted (Rab, 1996).
Soil properties can experience short-term, long-term, or
permanent fire-induced changes, depending chiefly
on type of property, severity and frequency of fires,
and post-fire climatic conditions after fire occurrences. Fire can be detrimental or advantageous.
Several aspects of fire, such as heat, intensity, timing, and frequency, can be manipulated to meet
a desired objective. To maintain a healthy ecosystem, the biological characteristics within a stand
are changed through manipulation. Used correctly, fire is a good tool to accomplish land
management objectives. There are several reasons for using prescribed fire. For a fire to occur,
three elements are needed in sufficient quantities namely; fuel, oxygen and heat.
Prescribed fire is a good tool to reduce fuel loadwithin a stand to prevent uncontrollable
outbreaks of wildfires in most forest situations. Site-prep fires reduce debris loads after a harvest
event and also enable easier planting, giving the seedlings a head start on their competition with
other plants. Prescribed fire, or controlled burning, plays many roles in the management and
manipulation of forestlands. It also plays an important role in improving the health and diversity
of certain forestland types.
Figure 1.1 Forest Wild fire
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Habitats are made available for wildlife that would otherwise not have existed. Fire set within
developing stands of forest tress will also open up the soil, allowing sunlight to reach the forest
floor and stimulate the growth of new forbs and browse. This will benefit numerous wildlife
species by adding diversity to the food supply and other fire-adapted plant and animal species
will begin to thrive as well.
6.0 Summary and Conclusion
Prescribed and wild forest fires have multiple impacts on environmental factors such as soil, air,
water, wildlife, and fire-dependent plant species. One natural function of fire is rejuvenation,
thus, it recycles substances such as nutrients. Controlled burning therefore is a valuable and
irreplaceable management tool foresters and wildlife managers utilize to meet desired
management objectives. Unfortunately, the inability to use scientific forestry practices, such as
selective harvest, has lead to catastrophic forest fires that endanger forest and even forest fringe
communities. Policies are needed that will provide sustainable timber yields and give forest
managers the necessary tools to effectively manage forests and prevent wildfires.
In order to keep our forests healthy, we need to take some actions to:
Prevent the buildup of dangerous flammable material in our forests. Find ways to keep timber-dependent industries alive so we can manage forests and put
forest products to use.
Find the proper balance in managing forests so they will contribute to our economic wellbeing while also providing recreational opportunities
In conclusion, prescribed fire is an important ecological tool and maintaining fire as an
ecosystem process is still an option. For instance, in a research dubbed the TEAKETTLE
GREEK EXPERIMENT with the goal of identifying the effect of fire and thinning on forest
health, scientist found out that burning helps in reducing the amount of shrubs which aid in the
fast establishment and growth of seedlings. Respiration and decomposition also responded
positive to the burning which implies that, fire can enhance certain processes in the forest
ecosystem. Moreover, fire also helps in releasing soil nutrients presumably that are tied up in
organic materials thereby making nutrient more available for plants.
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On the other hand, in the same experiment, thinning aided in reducing moisture stress in forest
trees and making them less vulnerable to pests and diseases. It also helped in reducing lager fuel
tress. After the experiment, scientist on this project suggested that moderate thinning with
frequent use of fire are the best ways to keep teakettl e forest ecosystem healthy.
Researches in other areas of the United States also confirm the value of fire in restoring forests
that evolved with frequent lower intensity burns. The "TEAKETTLE GREEK EXPERIMENT"
contributes to this new understanding that fire plays a vital role in restoring forest health.
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2. DeBano L. F. 2000. The role of fire and soil heating on water repellency in wild-landenvironments: a review. Journal of Hydrology, 231-232: 195-206
3. DeBano, L.F., D.G. Neary, and P.F. Ffolliott, 1998. Fires Effects on Ecosystems. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 333 p.
4. Kutiel P, Naveh Z. 1987. The effect of fire on nutrients in a pine forest soil. Plant andSoil, 104: 269-274.
5. R. White (1985):, Introduction: American Indians and the Environment, EnvironmentalReview 9 101103.
6. Rab M.A 1996. Soil physical and hydrological properties following logging and slashburning in the Eucalyptus regnans forest of southeastern Australia. For Ecol Manage
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7. S. Rabkin(1995):, Portable Magic, Yosemite 57, no. 3 27.8. S. Sargent, 1993 Tuolumne Tomboy, Yosemite 55, no. 3 pp 699. T. Vale and G. Vale, 1994. Time and the Tuolumne Landscape: Continuity and Change
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11.Walstad JD, Radosevich SR, Sandberg DV (eds) 1990.Natural and prescribed fire in thePacific Northwest forest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis
12.Borchers, J.G.; Perry, D.A. 1990. Effects of prescribed fire on soil organisms. In:Walstad, J.D.; Radosevich, S.R.; Sandberg, D.V. (eds.) Natural and prescribed fire in
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