fi

*

Involving local farmers in

(-- .

rehabilitation of degraded tropical forests: somelessoms

from Ghana

Dominic Blay' Mark Appian , Lawrence Darnnyag , rancis ,Luuldcanen', and An Pappinen

By

\,

'Forestry Research institote of Ghana (FomG), P. 0. Box 63, urnasi,'Viildci Tropical Resources instifute, P. 0* Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari ),

University of Helsinki, Finland

'Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, Fin an

<.

*Author for correspondence; mark, a

Fax: 358-9-19/58646

.

Iah heIsmki. fi Tel: +358-9-19/58639,

nani Tech, ,,,,,N, I"!, i^a .

.

I^

Abstract

The role of conrrnunity-based plantation development in forest re a i i ion p

alleviation is a pressing issue for the goverrrrnent of Ghana. n t is paper, ptaungya systems andanalysis of the prospects of a community-based plantation using

to forest rehabilitation and livelihood improvement in Ghana.indigenous trees as means

The project management strategies, communication process anare discussed with the aim to reconrrnending aand their impact on local participation

b I d in rehabilitation oflocal formers can best be involved in rehabilitation omechanism through which

degraded sites in the future in Ghana. Data were collects t oug a yersonal interviews of four hundred and thirty one fanning house o s an e y' ' I' ' in scattered hamlets in and around forestsinformants from nineteen communities living in scattered ham ets in an

reserves. The results show a high rate of local participation in proj p' ' ' t' ' 'tiation, about 250 hectares of plantations hadactivities. Four years after the project s initiation, about 2 ec res p

' di enous and one exotic species and farmers hadbeen established using twelve priority indigenous and one exotic species anfarming practices and availability of food and forestindicated improvement in their

and associated values, gettingproducts. Restoring forest quality as a timber resourcedomestic use, and having access tofood stuff and timber and non-timber formoney,

prioritised by respondents asfertile land for farming were the top tree issues

in the project activities. Overall, this projectmotivational toctors for engaging

demonstrates that reversing tropical forest degradation is possi e, or

involve Grit in tree domestication combined with activities at a resdemonstrates the prospects of utilisingneeds and environmental concerns, This case also

<:11

C

A

2

.

.

indigenous tree species, not only exotic species that dominated tree p an ing in p ,

for plantations and landscape rehabilitation in Ghana.

incentive mechanism,Key words: Community-base forest rehabilitation, Ghana,

modified taungya system, priority, indigenous tree species, participation.

<:1

<1^

q

.

3

.

J

.

I. Introduction

1.1 Forest degradation in Ghana and remedial measures

savarina (56%) or closed forest (35%). AllMost of Ghana's 238,500 square kilometers is

the savarina, are consideredthe vegetation types in Ghana, except for those comprisingThese forests play a verytropical forests and located in the southern third of the country.

the livelihood of 21 million inhabitants, particularly the ruralimportant role supporting

cornmunities. However, the combined effect of over-exploitation o ores r ,and mining activities haveunsustainable fanning practices, logging, wildlan es

32% of the reserved forest andsignificantly reduced the forest area and degraded near y1993; Ministry of Landsover 70% of forests outside reserves (flawi!loine and Abu Iuam,

and Forestry, 1996; Dykstra at a1. , 1996).

(~

The average density of many valuable indigenous trees species Is n

forests and some are sometimes less than one coinmercia tree per

"primary" forests (I. ., amprecht, 1989). Continued forest loss at a current amiua

% (FAO, 2000) threatens the existence of these indigenous tree species an assbiodiversity nitough not only habitat loss, but also the potential an o gene

of fr'agriientation 0.10vick at a1. , 2003). Forest loss is also affecting t e ive ishortages ofenvironment of particularly the rural poor in different ways in g

firewood, shortages of non-timber forest products, an acce

1990) which affects agricultural productivity (Abeney and(Stoorvogel and Sinaling,

.

.

4

,

I

.

sustaining the diversity of the indigenous tree speciesOwusu, 1999). For these reasons,

concern not only for Ghana,and the value of the natural forests is a matter of increasingThis has led to attention focusing on thebut for the entire West African region.

rehabilitation of the forest, particularly the degraded areas, wit t e invo v

people.

(,.\ ^

Nowadays there is increasing attention for local conmnunity- use ores ' 'the conflicting goals of livelihood improvement andan innovative response for meeting

sustainable forest management oninistry of Lands and Forestry, , am

Nduwayezu, 2003; Castr6n, 2005). Such communitybased re a i i ion ' ' '1992; siaw,often included the promotion of the establishment of plantations (e. g. vans,

2001 ; Yirdaw, 2002), and the introduction of sustainable farming sys Gins

grown together with crops (e. g. Proh, 1997; Appiah, 2001; Eranze an , ;to reduce pressure on forests and avoid futiler degradation oAppiah, 2003) in order

rehabilitation initiatives involving localforests. However, despite the increasing

can boast of being highly successful (Appiah,communities only few of such initiatives

because of the lack of local peoples coriumiiment whic is a2001; World Bank, 2002),or the absent or poorly utilised2003),result of poor partnership approaches (Brown

incentives (Brown, 2002), or a mismatch about the perception o prio 'tybenefits between project initiators the local coriumunities or a

,I,

I, . ,

these,

in this paper, we present an analysis of the prospect o a coriumuthe Forestry Research instirute of Ghana (FomG) using taungyaproject initiated by

.

5

.

,

.

systems and priority indigenous trees as a means tocommunication processesimprovement in Ghana. The project management strategies,

local participation are discussed. The aimand incentive mechanisms and their impact on

be involved inis to recommend a mechanism through which local formers can es

This study began with therehabilitation of degraded sites in the future in Ghana.and incentive mechanismassumption that the use of appropriate partnership approac OS

based on local perception provides the enabling conditions for success an g-

local engagement in forest rehabilitation progi'ammes.I~~*\- .

forest rehabilitation and livelihood

1.2 Case study: community-based forest rehabilitation project jin aria

initiated by the FomG and supported financially by t eIn 2000, a project was

international Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) and partly by the Govemmen"rehabilitation of degraded forests with collaboration of IOCaGhana under the theme

co unties (PD 30/97 Rev 6 OR))". This project provides a case sin y o coforest rehabilitation through the promotion of plantation eve opm

forest reserves using indigenous tree species in a ino i Ie u gy y

(

Under the MTS, farmers were given land to grow armua agricu p

forestry species during the early years of the plantation es ,

es ecially annuals such as plantain, COGoyam and vege a e ,especially annuals such as plantain, COGoyam an vege a ,

daterrnined priority tree species. The food crops were norma y cu i ,q

.

6

q

~

after which crop growth is impeded by the shade

the owners of forest plantation products, with the Forestry Conmnission,

forest-adjacent coriumunities as partners. All participants in the MTS are e igi e orsh e of the benefits accruing from the plantation. All equitable one I -s armg

framework is based on the contributions of the participants: farmers are to carry ou in

of the labour, including pruning, maintenance and tending; the Forestry o11nnis '

expected to contribute technical expertise, train farmers to carry ou eirfor stock inventory andefficiently, supply equipment and tools, and be responsi e

traditional authorities) are toauctioning or marketing of products; the landowners (i. e.

the forest-adjacent communities are to provide support services incontribute land; and

the form of protection of the investment from fire and encroac en .

<:1:1

from the trees. Farmers are essentially

The taungya system (TS) (originally developed in colonial Btitish india in e a efirst started in Ghana in the 1960s, and much of the plantation esta is en

in those forest reserves that had poor stockingwas PIarmed amough this system

were planted, However, the TS(F'AOAINEP, 1981). Both indigenous and exotic species

was unsuccessful as a means of conversion from namral orest manag

Iantation management, as conflicting interests between food crop pro uc 'Another factor contributing to the foilure of the system was the actgrowing developed.

Conrrnission was the owner of plantations establishedthat, unlike the MTS, the Forestry

through the TS, and only land owners, not formers, receive ene sin 1987, the TS was officially stopped, partly for the above reasons anConsequently,

1994). Rapid depletion andpartly to give way to rehabilitation of foiled areas Orah,

<1^, -\

landowners and

\

a

7

J

.

of the forest resources has led to reintroduction of the TS withdegradation

modifications as described above.

2. Methodology

^~

2.1 The study area

tree forest districts namely, Donnaa (p'amu-BerekumThe study was undertaken in

Offiriso (Aliensu-Forest Reserve) in the dry semi-deciduous forest cos) ecological zone,

Brohuma Forest Reserve) in the dry semi-deciduous fire zone OSFZ) su type ores

ecological zone and Begoro (Southern Scam Forest Reserve) in the moist semi- eci uoussoutheast OVISSE) forest subtype covering the ITTO-funded Project sites. e a ove

forest zones lies between latitudes 4' 3" and latitude 8 in the sou Gin p obetween 1250 and 1500(Figure I). The mean annual rainfall in these forest areas ranges

from about 25' C in the wet season UVlarch-min. The mean daily temperature ranges

October) and about 27'C dimng the dry season 0100ember -February). The orests in econsidered as tropical forests oragner and Cobbinali, 1993) andproject areas are

generally show a bigli species diversity, generally low content of soil nutrients, inu ipcanopy layers, and slow growni rates for mature forests, Hall and Swame ( ) repoover 2,100 plant species in these areas of Ghana. According to Hawthorne ( ), a

in these forests, of which 680 attained aof 730 tree species have been recorded

dimension of 5 cm or more at breast height with heiglits reaching between 10 to in.

<1

some

q

.

8

,

,

even reach 60m in height. The comparatively drier southernSome emergent trees

marginal forest like the Painu-Bereinm forest reserve in the Donnaa ores is 'cAliensu-Brohuma Forest Reserve are species-poor while t e ou Gin arp

reserve in a moist semi-deciduous forest zones in Begoro forest district is one o e

important for commercial timber species rerun, 1994).

Ghana where the government,The selected project sites represent the few areas inand local comumunities are acting togetherinternational organizations, private individuals

as stakeholders in forest rehabilitation, resources conservation an manage

Begroro and Offiriso forest districts, fanning was a way olocal people in the Donnaa,

of food, income, and security. But many of thelife and represents their primary source

ral households either lack any access to land or a secure stake in e an ythese areas. Fortherrnore, theConsequently, hig!I levels of forest degradation persist in

forests in the area have been subjected to heavy timber exploitation (1-1a an wa' ,

1981) raising concern for rehabilitation.

,, \

\.-.,

q

*

9

.

,

(-\^

I

@

10' N-

o

D

(1)

8' N-

Fi ure I. Map of Ghana showing the study sites. DS= Dry-Semi- eci u ,

DSFZ= Dry Semi-Deciduous Fire Zone forest type, MssE= Moist Gini-Southeast forest type, BAR=Brong Allafo Region, ASR= Ashanti egion,

Region.

.

2' W

150

kilometers

^

o

^ Begoro district, MssE, ER,

Key

Painu-Be rekum Forest Reserve,Dormaa district, DS, BAR.

Afi'ensu-BTOhoma Forest Reserve,Oninso district, DSFZ, ASR.

Southern Scam Forest Reserve6' N-

300

D' EN

2.2 Data collection and analysis

,

2004 and February 2005 (the period of theData were obtained between December

fanning season in the area, when land preparation an p an ing

10

.

.

for farmers to allocate time for the interviews) using three lines ofand it was easy

direct observation in the field and interviews withevidence, namely review of literature,

resident project formers and key infomiants.

Relevant literature such as the Project Progress Report, and con erence DCum ,the subject underGhana's forest policy were criticalIy reviewed for information on

(~

investigation.

using personal interviews from twoData were mainly collected trough a survey

samples. The first sample consisted of four hundred and thirty one arming oof farmers in the targeted ten communities living inrepresenting fourteen percent

scattered hamlets in and around forests reserves. 143, 143 an g

farming communities in each of the tree forest districtwere randomly selected from the

I). A household was defined as thein Donnaa, Offiriso, and Begoro respectively (Figure

basic hamming unit comprising husband, wife and children. The average ouse o

respondents was 6.7 (standard deviation (STD) = 4.73). The majority o t e antlers(average age 42.24, STD = 13.03) were between 1640 years old, wi a veryminority between 81 and 90 years' In many cases the selected ouse o e

(n = 388) and 10 % (n = 43) were females, who were either widows or ivorce . pinte iews were also arranged involving the sub-chiefs (community heads) an eir oca

residents to discuss some general issues.

I~~

,

,

11

.

*

The second sample consisted of 30 'key infomnants* (10 from each District) w OSe

selection was guided by the Project co-ordinator detennined at the projec incep '

workshop. They were people anticipated to have particular irisig t or opinion a

subject under investigation. The key infonnarits included three sta mein ers oTraditional Council, the Head of the District Assembly, Districtproject, the Chief of the

heads of the Forestry Department and fanner groups leaders.

.,..

\., The interviews were conducted in the local dialect (Twi) of the farmers using pre-testewere minediately recorded in the spacessemi-structured questionnaire and responses

created in the questionnaire during the interviews. information solicite inc u e : ieducation, household sizeinfonnation on household backgt. ound i. e. income, age,

info ation, forming practices, (ii) issues on the datemiinants for participa ion ii. e. use of prefi^rred tree species, Project incentives an ene I s,replanting of tree

management strategies, consultation process and other project practices, (in)in the project activities and lastly (v) opinions onwillingness to sustain participation

other issues such as land tenure, Questionnaire responses most re evant o e j

of this paper are presented. Descriptive (mean, standard deviations etc) sin is icsused to analyse the data.

<:1

,

.

"

12

.

,

3. RESULTS

3.1 Analysis of project goals and implementation approac

("I\

It w clear from the project documents and from the interview wit projec ini '

the project aimed at rehabilitation of degi'aded forest areas wit in an ou siThis was done throug!Ireserves by promoting the establishment of plantations.

with the collaboration of localsustainable tree-based hamming (taungya) systems

communities as well as introduce income generating activities suc as gr

to jin rove the basic living conditions for the local people and to r uce pres

fast degrading forest resources.

(.\

Respondents, farmers and key inforrnants were asked a out ow ' 'local coriumunities and the general process ofabout the project was communicated to

indicated that the project organised a series of pre-consultation. Their responses

and elders), district assemblyworkshop meetings with the community heads (chiefs

officials, local collrrnunity-based forestry organisations an armer gr pdiscussions on indigenous knowledge and local people s experiences in g

education workshops were frequently organised andmanagement. Further, development

this fo ed the core of consultation and awareness creation campaign . pthe opportunities, modalines, and expectedfommi for explaining the project concept,

.

*

13

,

o

roles and responsibilities of the various participants and how the project activities cou

contribute to raising living standards. The meetings and workshops provi e e

opportunity for determining local priority tree species that were uti ise in e p anestablishment.

Communication with the local communities continued at different times an ev ,

through informal visits to funners' farms or homes by the project team, e oca peop e

also represented by their elected members on the project steering coinmi ee,

enabling the local conrrnunity to participate in deterrnining the goa s an irec ion o

project and more importantly presenting their priorities,

<. 1. ^ were

Questionnaire participants listed the following significant commitments from t e tojec :I. Provision of free forming land until such a time that crops can not be grown on e an

due to tree canopy cover.

2. Distribution of free seedlings to tanners at the initial stages o project in o uc ' y

the Grid of 2004 satellite nurseries had been established to raise tree see ings o i

tree species in all the ten project participating communities.

3. Provision of training to farmers for the establishment and management o ee nurs

4. The Forestry Comumssion to co-operate fully with the introduction o e cu iv

priority tree species through extension services.

5. Provision of livelihood alternatives to local people by training t em in gi.

rearing and bee keeping,

(-.

14

G

6. Provision of working tools (Wellington boots, cutlasses, wheelbarrows etc) and armual

token allowances to deftay some of fanners labour cost.

3.2 Willingness of local farmers to engage in

\ ~,

The most important achievement in the short life of the project is the overw e mingThis is demonstrated by the factsupport it has enjoyed from the Chiefs and the people,

that about 70% of the people in the ten conrrnunities have planted trees and t e majority

of those who have not taken part expressed interest in doing so or were engage in

' ' ' d, I tation ro'ects. The Project managers havesimilar, but Ghana government initiated, plantation projects. The Project managers ave

documented a visible reduction in new farm clearings within and outsi e t e ores

reserves in 2004 compared to 20010. ,uu^alien, 2006).

forest rehabilitation

I\

I, ..'

their tree planting activities and willingness to maintainRespondents were asked about

their support for the project activities. Their responses (100 fo) indicated that a t efanners interviewed were very interested in taking parr in the reha i itstion progya

d were keen to maintain their support for the programme in future. Aria ysing e a

on tree planting activities, it was realised that by the time of the interview a tota atlirough the modifiedof forest plantations had been established in degr. aded forest areas

taungya system using a mixture of 13 priority tree species that were etermine iconsultation with local farmers. The species included one exotic (Cedrel" odoraio) an

twelve indigenous (A1bizia .^)?gi", AISto, rin boonei, Animgerio roba, siC, E, ,tandrop raging.

15

.

NCUcle@ diderrichii, Pertcqpsisorigole"se, E. z, tile, Iotagy@ onto the co, K iporensis,

Tennin"lid iyore"sis and 71 SI!perbo) tree species (Table I) thatel@to, Catbc, pen!andr@,

such as plantain, cocoyam, maize andwere planted together with traditional crops

vegetables,

TABLE I. Priority tree species and their corresponding families and va ue as perceiveby the farmers in Ghana (n = 431)

<1\S ecies

Kh^?a iyore"sir

Catba penta"din

finingend robustaErrto"drophrogmcz angole"se

Enjo"drophr@gin" titile

K}:oy, a ontothecaPencopsis gint"Nowle@ did87nchii

rainil

Menaceae

,,*

Bombacaceace

Res onees Traditional usesMedicinal (fever, treating sexual++

A1bizi^.^:I, ,gi,

SapotaceaeMenaceae

Menaceae

Menaceae

PapilionaceaeRubiaceae

AIS!oni@ booingi

+. I.

weakness in male), timber forconstruction etc, shade on farm.Shade on laini, source of fibre,medicinal purpose, soilenrichment, favourable cropinteraction.

Timber.

Shade on farm, timber, craftsmmortars, etc).Timber, crafts (mortars, canoesetc).Timber, crafts (mortars)*Timber, building of canoes.Timber, crafts (traditional drruns,mortars) bridges, telephone &electricity poles.Timber, shade tree on farms,Nitrogen-fixing, medicinal(aphrodisiac, appetizer).Timber medicinal (arithelmintic,astluna etc), crafts (traditionaldrums, stools, spoons, bowls etc).Shade on farm, timber, crafts(mortars, canoes), building ofIiglit bridges.Poles, building construction,

Terminalin tvore"sis

++

+I-

Cedrelo odorat0 (12xotiq)(firewood), timber

The level of preference/usefulness is indicated by += useful, +F= very usefti .

Mimosaceae

++

+I-

+I-

++

Apocyiiaceae

Combretaceae

+

Minaceae

+

+

+

ener

16

*

3.3 Estimated farmers cost for supporting tree-based systems

The questionnaire survey showed that formers

and nurturing and maintenance of the treespreparation, management of nursery, planting

together with crops, When tanners were asked about their views on the cost income or

participating, it was shown that an average small scale peasant armer wi an granging between 625 in' and 5000 in will use, as of 2004, between about one ini ion anfour million Ghanaian CGdis for land preparation, tree planting and maintenance over

It was rioted that costs depended on species of crop cultivatedfour year perlod (Table 2),

and the kind of fortilization or pest and diseases protections t at were use .

participants from Donnaa and Begoro Districts were mostly maize an p andistinct from the tomato farmers in theand had little or no input of mineral fertilizer as

Offiriso District, who used fertilizer and pesticide.

^ .~

(*.,

were directly involved in the land

<. 1

TABLE 2. The average initial cost incurred by farmers in plantation esta is en

Ghana using the modified taungya system (IUSdoUar = 9000 CGdis(t)rate at 2004

August).

FarmingCommunityTMimkrom,Donnaa district Planting materials (suckers, crop seeds)

Nursery development and maintenancePegging and planting (crop, tree seedlings)Weeding and maintenance

,

Farming activities

Land clearing & preparation for sowing

Total

Unit cost/area

280,000^/5000 in

17

Total cost

q:)

280,000320,00045,000

180,000560,000

1,385,000

,

01antan,Begoro district

Land clearing & preparation for sowingPlanting materials (suckers, crop seeds)Nursery development and maintenancePegging and Planting (crop, tree seedlings)Weeding and maintenance

Total

., .

\~,

Land clearing & preparation for sowingBinita,Offiriso district Planting materials (suckers, crop seeds)

Nursery development and maintenancePegging and planting (crop, tree seedlings)Weeding and maintenance

Total

Cost of land acquisition and tree seeds are excluded as they were provi e ee o -c gby the project. The cost incurred over 4-year period.

3.4 Expectation of local coin",""mes for their inputs into forest re a i i a 'on

270,000t/625 in

<1

for their willingness to make input intoWhen respondents were asked about the basis

forest rehabilitation, it was clear that regaining natural forest/restore ores res

(45.9 % of responses), getting money, food stuff and timber for domestic wor ( o oresponses), and having access to fortile land for fanning (13.2 fo responses) were e top

Thus, for the majority of the fanners thethree issues prioritised by respondents,

development of plantations through the modified taungya system on degrade communitylands is one way to achieve land rehabilitation and restoration of forest services as w

a means to secured income, food and agricultural land, Other expectations men io y

6.6% of the furriers were the fact that they wanted to diversify risk by engaging in t e

Toject activities. A significantly newer number of former^ mentione ot er expec

270,000520,000

60,000140,000300,000

1,290,000

234,400^/4050 in2

,

2,344,000500,000

75,000225,000

1,424,000

4,568,000

,

18

,

.

as fanning tools, sharing in the benefits of trees at materity, employment opportunities,

and contribution to Ghana' economy (Table 3).

TABLE 3. Farmers expectations for their input in degraded forest rehabilitation in aria(n = 431).

Motivational factors

~, ,

I. Restore forest resources and associated values

2. Source of income, food stuff and timber

3. Access to fertile land for forming

4, Diversifying income an forest products sources

5.1ncentives such as boots, cutlasses

6. Promised share in benefit of planted trees

7. Opportunity to be employed

8. Contribute to the improvement of Ghana s economy

Total

I '\\ .\, I 3.51mmediate priority needs of local farmers for their inputs in forest re a i i a ion

from 83 % of the farmersimmediate needs, the responsesAsking about fanners

interviewed indicated a need of foodstuff and forest products. The rest (17 fo) mentione

among other needs money, guarantee to land for fanning and to p ante trees* na y ' g

the data gathered on furriers perceived immediate benefits from the roject, i canthat for about 72 % of the respondents, access to fortile an t roug e

taungya system was considered a significant benefit Crable 4), significant y ig er an

Percent

45.9

26.7

13.2

6.6

3.4

2.0

.

1.5

0.7

100.0

19

,

a

received in the form ofthe other benefits mentioned such as the benefit of money

allowances (9.8%), restored productivity of degraded lands (7.3 fo), improved accesse to

forest and food products (8.7%) and improved living standards on the whole (2 ").

TABLE 4. Local communities' perceptions of Project benefits (n = 431)

, .\

\_.:I

Perceptions

I. Enabled access to farming lands

2. Money and allowances received, support for school foes

3. Allowed degraded lands to be reclaimed/revived

4, Forest tree products and foodstuff from Agroforestry

5.1mproved living standards

Total

., ~\

\~ ,

4. Discussions

4.1 Empowering local communities through people-centere pa 'c'p '

Percent

For forest rehabilitation projects to be successful the involvement o ino iva

coriumunities is inevitable, Their participation is considered as one o e indespite thisprinciples in such local level development projects (OECD, 1985). owever,

knowledge, local people are still in many cases not active y or gen y '

development projects in the sense that project initiators remain e ina' ' '

72.2

9.8

.

7.3

8.7

2.0

100.0

20

,

e

and literally give advice to

attitude has proved over and over again to have resulted in project ai ure an

unsuccessful partnerships in forest management (Fisher, 1995). But this current project

has shown that when real decision-making roles are devolved to local people an t ey

have the feeling of shared responsibility, they are likely to foster sound environmental

management. This reinforces the view of Zooneveld (2001), who studied participation in

and Appiah (2001) who studied local participation in forestlocal government,

management, that participation of individuals are higher if they felt they ha s are

control over development initiatives,

F ,'

( _I

furriers on what to do (Bornni-Feyerabend, 1996). This

Participation is, in essence,

themselves in developing prograinmes

Undoubtedly, the successfuleffectiveIy contribute to the development process.

direct result of the process ofimplementation of the field initiatives was in no doubt a

communication or consultation, character ised by arrangements that invo ve vari

degrees of authority and responsibility being shared between stakeholders. AGCor ing tofonn the basis ofin the consultation processBerkes (1994), such arrangements

be developed and implemented bycollaborative management and partriership, and must

mutual agreement of all parties involved. The direct involvement o oca armers '

deciding on the farming practice and farm species, organisation of wor ops, oca

meetings and the exchanging of ideas and knowledge were unique in aria an in y

have enhanced local people's coinmittnent and feeling of shared responsi i ity. oug

,\\,,

the empowennent of the people to effectiveIy involve

that serve the interest of all as well as to

,

21

,

b

such consultation process local people's needs and interests were identified and that a so

minimised the differences in interests and encouraged greater participation.

q

4.2 The prospects of forest rehabilitation msing agroforestry

The development of agro-forestry on degraded conmnunity lands seems to be perceiveland rehabilitation and restorationby all the respondents as an important way to achieve

of forest services. Elsewhere in Ghana, in other countries, these views are share ytheir farms forfarmers who have been planting or nurtuning indigenous tree species on

similar purposes (e. g. Appian, 2001; Maildriuri and Ra0* 2002; Russell and Funzel,their local environmental2004). This indicates a clear understanding of local people to

problems linked to forest loss and how they can be addressed using agroforestry. tfurther demonstrates that this local kilowledge is not restricted to particular ethnic groups

that have been indigenous to an area but that all types of people in different regions

it is important to take advantage ofpossess kilowledge of their environment. Thus,

farmers' interests in using agroforestry as the means to rehabilitation of egra e ores s

funnirig technologies with scientific inputs thatby supporting the available indigenous

could enhance the utilisation of diversity that is found in the indigenous tree species an

increase the productivity of the systems* More interests will be generated i e ons are

made in this direction.

I '~\\...^

.

22

a

In the present case study area the human-influenced systems are characterised by the

planting of indigenous forest tree with traditional crops. Several indigenous forest

species, mostly species serving the purpose of timber and non-timber forest products

were directly planted, or preserved and protected in fanning systems. These indicate that,

the domestication of trees was not fleasible only for wealthy farmers as has often assumed

to be the case (Annold, 1992; Teklchaimanot, 2004). However, historically, the planting

of indigenous tree species while maintaining and managing non-timber plant and animal

resources is a new dimension of forest management and biodiversity conservation in

Ghana. Of late this new trend of forest management has received a great deal of attention

especially for the production of non-timber forest products such as medicinal pro ucts,

fodder, cane, foods, and fibre, rather than for wood only (R. OS-Tonen at a1. , 1995; Leakey

at a1. , 1996; Simons and Leakey, 2004). This approach is similar to that successfully used

in northern Thailand (Enjott, 2006), higliligl, ted in the EU-supported Project Forest

Restoration and Rehabilitation in Southeast Asia (F'ORRSA), coordinated by VITRl at

the University of Helsinki (WWW://WWW. honeybee. heIsmki*filmmeko/vitr'Vindex. him).

In Ghana, where trees and non-timber forest products constitute a major source o

livelihood, couple with the ability of the species to do well under the MTS, there are

increased prospects to introduce them in cultivated areas, which can be considered as one

of the most promising forest land use options. This will not only be an efficient way tothe forests for therehabilitate degr. aded forests and ensure the supply of timber from

wood-based industries, but also to improve the livelihood of the forest dwellers in Ghana

oreklehaimanot, 2004).

<:1

(1)

23

.

.

4.3 The importance of identifying priority species

All important stage in a participatory rehabilitation process is the detenniriation of whic

tree species should receive priority U. ,eakey at a1. , 1996), as local people may diffor in

their preferences for trees species (Appian 2001). in this case study, it was found that the

farmers differed in their preference for tree species. It was also found that there were

useful species in the area whose scientific or local names were unleriown. This means t at

the selection of additional species for agroforestry or plantations needs to be care y

the case in theplanned in consultations and collaboration with the Grid users as was

current Project, According to Wiersuni (1991) and Scher (1991) this process may

enhance the willingness of the end users to accept the new species or cu tiva ion.

Farmers may not only be motivated to participate in the process, but they wou a so e

encouraged to undertake better land management. Cultivation of new tree species cou

lead to the use of farmers' inputs in their gi. owrri assessment, breeding and genetic

which is recommended deterrnining "frameworkmanipulation (Leakey at a1. , 1996),

species" for any effective domestication process such as the one being underta en y e

current Project (Leakey and Newton, 1994; Wiersum, 1996; Wiersum, 1997; Enjott,

2006).

q

I*...,

4.4 The sigmifica"ce of incentive mechanism

24

~

.

incentives mechanism is defined as subsidies in various fonns to encourage esira

1984). In forest management, various incentives have beenaction by people (Gregersen,

used. They include direct and indirect incentives. Direct incentives inc u e cos s ar' g

(in kind or money), subsidized credit, fiscal incentives, and reduction of uncertaintythough loan guarantees (Gregersen and Houglitaling, 1978). indirect incentives inc u e

of extension services and education (Gregersen andmarket infomiation, provision

Houghtaling, 1978). Hueth (1995) also identified some other forrns of incentives in oreswage payments, directed creditmanagement to include input financing, food for work,

and special prizes for competition among farmers involved in t e ores pforest rehabilitation requires thesuccessful long-terni local people s support for

application of any of these kinds or fomis of incentives that recognizes oca

preferences.

(^

. *

different incentive structuresThe most challenging issue is to detemnine how these

1991). Poor understanding of theseoperate in a specific SOCio-cultural area (CGmea,

incentive structures has contributed to the often weak local participa ion,

is properly addressed, local farmers can be encouraged to suppoFor the in:^ionty of tanners in themanagement as has been shown in this case study.

study area, the need for financial help was an issue, argiiing t a e p psacrifice of time and labour, which will consequently reduce t eir itne an

them to affordFinancial assistance was necessary to enableother agricultural activities.

to a for the cost of health services, food, school foes and agr, icu tara inp

fertilisers and boots which would have been purchased y procee s

I~

I, ,I

25

,

G

activities. The provision of direct financial aid, and agricultural inputs by the project wasinitial incentive scheme and highliglited thecertainly welcomed by farmers as an

significant positive effect that availability of financial support would have on community

participation in forest management and tree domestication. This is in agreement wit t e

findings or experiences of Wily's (2002) from other African countries.

<1.11

to fertileFurthermore, even though farmers think financial aid was important, access

lands througli the improved taungya system was more important and encouraged local

participation, This result was expected from coriumunities where fanning is t eir main

occupation and land for farming is often scarce. The need for food and forest pro uctsland. For a crosscan be associated with the subsequent hope of formers having access to

section (6.6%) of the fanners engaging in tree planting activities this was a way to he p

diversify risk. This response was expected as producing multiple cornniodities w to

could reduce production risks. Diversification may also make better armual use o a our.

Moreover, mixing longer-tenn forest production with the annual agricultura pro uc ion

income offsets the start-up and maintenance costs of the tree production an in a es e

overall system more profitable.<1

Undoubtedly the provision of direct financial support, access to land, free see ings an

extension services and the perceived benefit of risk diversification was seen as sharing o

costs and considered to be the fundamental incentive which encouraged participation in

t. H er, this also indicates that there is a wide variety oftree planting and management. However, this also indicates that there is a wi e variety oincentives that can be used in coinmunity-based activities, but reaching consensus on

26

G

what kind of incentive to offer to local people, and when incentives of different types are

appropriate, can be an issue. More difficult still is how to combine individuals interest so

as to contribute to joint rehabilitation and management of the forest. The resu t om t is

case study does offer some understanding of workable incentives smuctunes in such sodo-

economic settings.

I",

\- .

4.5 Cost and benefit sharing:

A key issue in Ghana concerning participatory forest rehabilitation programmes is owstakeholders. Athe cost or responsibility and benefit will be distributed among

framework for the implementation of benefit sharing is provided in the ationa ore

1994). in the area of collaborativePolicy of 1994 0vlinistry of Lands and Forestry,

management, relevant measures such as social responsibility agreements were inc uUnder such agreements, a maximum of five percent of amiual Toya ties accruing

now kilown as 'Timberoperations of logging companies (concession agreementsbe used for the provision of social amenities to theUtilisation Contracts') was to

population of the contract areas. This was to encourage the equita e s armg oarising from the utilisation of forest resources, knowledge and practices o in igcornmunities, for sustainable natural resources management. While t e sums in qu

of Us $427,630 nationally), they did mark the ruralwere modest (a maximum

communities' rig!It of influence and apparently showed the political wi or co-

management of the forests in Ghana* Nevertheless, understanding of amiers cos orthe introduction of a better socialtheir inputs in forest rehabilitation could enhance

(1)

*

27

.

D

the estimated initialresponsibility agreement or incentive mechanisms. in this study,

costs of plantation establishment was modest and show how little effort towar s

providing incentives could lead to the rehabilitation of degraded forests* The costs s oualso be a baseline for developing additional and preforred incentive structures for

reforestation programmes in these areas.

<:1 5, Conel"siom and policy implicatioms

The outcome of the project within four-year period of establishment is an improvement o

local farming practices, and the establishment of about 250 hectares of plantations using

twelve priority indigenous and one exotic tree species. This flirt er emons a es

tree species not only in plantations but for landscapeprospects of utilising indigenous

restoration in Ghana,

<:1The project's activities enjoy a high participation rate with the IOCa peop e s owi g

profound interest in the flitune of the project activities and are keen to inves eiand labour in the rehabilitation activities. This is because; theresources, time, money,

whole project approach was community-led and appropriate incentives (e. g. provision o

farming lands, agricultural inputs, extension services, grants an Dines ica 'animals for food and income) were used.

28

.

,

This project demonstrates that reversing the tropical forest degradation is possi e. ordomestication combined with activities that addressthis, we need local fomiers in tree

livelihood needs (such as improvement of funnirig practices) and environmental

concerns.

We recoininend that fomiers should be protected from losing their share of procee s om

trees by the provision of a national legal forest framework* When furriers are assure o

their rights to the dividends due to them through legal documents, they wi ave more

incentives to expand the existing forest rehabilitation prograinmes* Although a tenure

system can be based on mutual agreement, only carefully prepare in ing ocumenbased on well-fonnulated national policy and supportive legislation can ensure as ing

results in forest rehabilitation in Ghana.

C:

are an increasingly significant source of wood inLastly, indigenous tree plantations

Ghana. The improvement of wood productivity by first detemiining framework plantation

species should be an important economic goal*(1)

Acknowledgements

This Project was initiated and implemented by the Forestry Research institute o ariathe University of(FomG) with the institute of Renewable Natural Resources (ERNR),

Science and Technology and Forestry Commission (FC) as collaborating partners. e

international Tropical Timber Organisation OnO) provided the bulk of the funding.

.

29

,

,

while the Government of Ghana provided some funding and other logistical and technical

assistance.

q-. References

Abeney, EA. and Owusu, I. G. K. (eds. ): 1999, Workshop for media personnel on forestry

and wildlife reporting proceedings, institute of Renewable Natural Resources, ,

Ghana. 95 pp.

Appian, M. : 2003, Domestication of an indigenous tropical forest tree: i vicu rsocio-economic studies on IToko (Militia excelso) in Ghana, Ph. D dissertation,

, f H I inki Tro ical Forestry Reports 25.104Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki Tropical Forestry epo s(-.

PP.

Co-Farmership in Forest Management: The Gwira-Banso Joint ForestAppiah, M. : 2001,

Management Project in Ghana, Environment, Development and Sustainability, ( ),360.

30

*

.

Amold, I. E. M. : 1992, Conrrnunity forestry-ten years in review, Connnnunity Forestry

Note 7, FAO, Rome. 32 p.

Berkes, F, : 1994, Co-management: bridging the two solitudes, Northern Perspec ives ,

18-20.

^

Bornni-Feyerabend, G. : 1996, Collaborative management of protecte ina a ar :

Tailoring the approach to the context, IUCT. I, Gland, Switzerland, 67 pp.

Brown, K. : 2002, Innovations for conservation and development, e Gogr p

Journal 168,6-17.

Broom, K. : 2003, Three challenges for real people-centere conserva ion,

and Biogeography (12) 2,89-96.

CCastr6n, T. : 2005, Ownership and incentives in Joint Forest ariagemen : y.

Development Policy Review 23 (1), 87-104.

CGmea, M. M. : 1991, Putting people first, Second Edition, Oxford University ness,

575 pp.

S. A. 0. and 1.1duwayezu, I. B. : 2003, Rehabilitation of degraded sub- urniChainshama,

lands in Sub-Sailaran Africa: A synthesis, Tree, Agroforestry and C jinate ang

31

e

*

dryland African (TACCDA) Proceedings, vinWETFRN/IJFRO-SPDC Workshop,

Hyytial;i. , Finland, 29 June-4 July 2003*

Constantino, L. : 1995, Financial incentives for industrial plantations in Argentina, e

World Bank Story, in Proceedings workshop on the use of financial incentives or

industrial forest plantations. Working paper ENV4. Washington D. C. inB.

<1 Dykstra, D. P. Kowero, G, S. Ofosu-Asiedu, A. and Kio, P. (eds. ): 1996, PromotingStewardship of Forests in the Humid Forest Zone of Anglophone West an Gritra

Africa, Final Report of a collaborative research project undertaken by UNEP (The niteNations Environment Prograinme) and CIFOR (The Center for international Forestry

Research). Center for international Forestry Research (CIFOR). Jakarta, hidonesia,

PP.

(~,

Yirdaw, E. : 2002, Restoration of the native woody-species diversity, using p an ion

species as foster trees, in the degraded higlilands of Ethiopia. Ph. D dissertation,University of Helsinki Tropical Forestry Reports 24.61 pp.

Evans, I. : 1992, Plantation forestry in the tropics: tree planting or in us 'a , s ,

environmental and agroforestry purpose, Second Edition. Claredon Press, x or .

.

PP.

a

32

D

,

FAO: 2000, Global forest resources assessment main report. FAO Forestry Paper

479 pp.

Collaborative management of forest for conservation and developmentFisher, R. I. : 1995,

issues in forest conservation, rocN, Gland, Switzerland, 65 pp.

<:1

Forestry Departtnent: 1995, Steps towards sustainable forestry and use of timber

resources. Flaming Branch, FD, Ghana. Prepared for XVlll Session of the In an

XVI Session of the ITTO Permanent conmnittees, ACcra, Ghana 10-18 May pp.

Franzel, S, and Scherr, S*I. (eds. ): 2002, Trees on farms: assessing the adoption potentia

of agi'of orestry practices in Africa, CABI Walling ford,

Enjott, S, anusamsunthom, V, , and Kuarak, C. : 2006, Trees of kilowledge: framewor

forestry for biodiversity recovery in northern Thailand, Forest Restoration nit, cience

Faculty, Chiang Mai University 2 pp.<. 11

FAO/UNEP: 1981, Tropical forest resources assessment project, ores resourc

tropical Africa. Part 11: Country briefs. FAO, Rome.

C

.

b

33

e

a

Gregersen, H* and Houghtaling, L*: 1978, Government subsidies to stimulate forestry at

the farm communities' level, in Proceedings Eiglith World Forestry Congi. ess. Jakarta

indonesia.

Gregersen, H. M. : 1984, incentives for forestation: a comparative assessment. . .

Wiersum, ed. Strategies and designs for afforestation, reforestation and tree planting.

Wagenigen, The Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University.

<:11Hall, I. B. and Swame, M. D. : 1981, Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a

tropical rain forest: forest vegetation in Ghana, W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. 383 pp.

Hawthorne, W*D. : 1989, The flora and vegetation of Ghana s forests. in: G aria ores

inventory proceedings. Overseas Development Agency/Ghana Forestry Department,

Acera. pp. 8-13.

<:1Hawthorne, W, D. and Abu-Iuam, M. : 1995, Forest protection in Ghana. Forest

Conservation, Series No. 14,1UCN, Gland.

Hueth, D. , L. : 1995, The use of subsidies to achieve efficient resource allocation in

upland watersheds. Working paper EN\/-I, Washington, D, C. inB.

,

Lamprecht, H. : 1989, Silvicultiire in the tropics, Tropical forest ecosystem an t eir ee

species-possibilities and methods for their long-tenn utilisation. ESChbom 9b

34

C

C

Leakey, R. R. B. , Ternu, A. B. , MeInyk, M. and Vantomme, P. (eds. ): 1996, Domusticationand commercialisation of non-timber forest products for agroforestry* on- o0 ores

Products, No. 9. FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 14.

Leakey* R. R. B. and Newton, A. : 1994, Domestication of tropic trees or inon-timber forest products. MAB Digest 1.10 17, UNESCO, Paris 94 pp.

Luuldcanen, 0. : 2006, Rehabilitation of degraded forests with colla oration o oc

coriumunities, InO Project (P'D 30/97 Rev 6 (F) Technical Report, Forestry Researc

Institute of Ghana, 56 pp,

Maildriuri, R. K. and Rao, K. S. : 2002, Rehabilitation of degraded land, Lan -use an

cover change impacts and strategies in the Indian Himalaya Mountains, ews e

International Human dimensions Programme on Global Environmen c g

Ministry of Lands and Forestry: 1996, Forestry Development Master an. , ,

Ghana. 26 pp.<. 1

Ministry of Lands and Forestry: 1994, Forestry and Wildlife Po icy. , CGra,

16 pp,

r

C. Cancone, A. Bermingjam, E. : 2003,Novick , R, R, Dick, W. C. Lemes, M. Navarro,

Genetic structure of Mesoarnerican population of Big-leaf mahogany (Swigie"to12,2885-2893.macropb?!10) inferred from macrsatellite analysis, Molecular EGO ogy,.

b

35

a

,.

OECD: 1985, Management of water projects: decision-making and investinent appraisa .

Paris OECD.

Prah, E. A. : 1997, Joint forest management- the Gwira-Banso experience.

Commonwealth Forestry Review 76(3), 171-174.

\. JPrah, E. : 1994, Sustainable management of the tropical bigliforest of Ghana.

International Development Research Centre, London. 73 pp.

Ros-Tonen, M. , D^kinari, W. and Lainmerts van BUGren, E. : 1995. : Coinmercia an

sustainable extraction of nori-timber forest products: towards a policy and managemen

oriented research strategy. Tropenbos Foundation, Wagenirigen. 32 pp.

Russell, D. and Franzel, S. :2004, Agroforestry, markets ad the African sina o er,

Agroforestry Systems, 61,345-355.

Scherr, S. I. 1991, Methods of participatory on-funn agr'of orestry researc . ,

Nairobi, 72.

.~.

Simons, A* I. and Leakey, R. RE. : 2004, Tree domestication in tropical agrofiJrestry,

Agrofi. estry Systems, 61: 167-181.

r.

.

a

Siaw, D. E. K. A. : 2001, State of forest genetic resources in Ghana, Forest gene to

resources working papers (FGR/17E). Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome Italy

36

D

4

.

Stoorvogel, J. I. and Sinaling, E. M. A. : 1990, Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in

Sub-Stharan Africa 1983-2000.28, Wageningen: The Winand Staring Centre for

integrated Land, Soil and Water Research (SC-DLO).

I'\

Teklehaimariot, Z. : 2004, Exploiting the potential of indigenous agi'of oretry trees: Parkia

bigloboso and Intendri@p@rodox" in sub-Saharan Africa, Agroforestry Systems, 61,207-

220,

Wagner, M. R. and Cobbinati, I. R. : 1993, Deforestation and sustainability in Ghana: the

role of tropical forests, Ghana Journal of Forestry 91,36-39.

Wiersum, K. F, : 1991, Soil erosion and conservation. in: Avery, M. E and Chin,

(eds. ). Biophysical research for Asian agroforestry, Winrock international, USA, 292 pp.

(-,

Wiersum, K. F. : 1996, Domestication of valuable tree species in agroforestry systems:

evolutionary stages from gathering to breeding. In: Leakey, R. R. B. , Ternu, A. B. , MeIny ,

M. and Vantorrmie, P, (eds. ). Domestication and commercialisation of non-timber forest

products for agrofi, restry, Non-Wood Forest Products 9* FAO, Rome, Italy. pp. - .

Wiersum, K. F, : 1997, From natural forest to tree crops, co-domestication of forests an

tree species, an overview, Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 45,425-438.

"

~

.

A

37

a

"

~

Wily, L. A. : 2002, The Political Economy of conrrnunity Forestry in Africa: Getting t e

power relations Right. Forest, trees and. People Newsletter 46. Uppsala, SWGdis

University of Agricultural Sciences.

World Bank: 2002, A revised Forest Strategy for the World Bank Group, Washington

DC, World Bank.

I'\~ Zooneveld, L*: 2001. A toolkit for participation in local governance: learning to in e

participation work, Novib, Netherlands.

C,

\

.=.

,

,

,.

38