fOrESTrY

How to Use This PamphletThe secret to successfully earning a merit badge is for you to use both the pamphlet and the suggestions of your counselor.

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Forestry

Boy sCoUts oF AMerICAMerIt BADGe serIes

Requirements1. Prepareafieldnotebook,makeacollection,andidentify

15speciesoftrees,wildshrubs,orvinesinalocalforestedarea.Writeadescriptioninwhichyouidentifyanddiscussthefollowing:

a.Thecharacteristicsofleaf,twig,cone,orfruitingbodies

b.Thehabitatinwhichthesetrees,shrubs,orvinesarefound

c.Theimportantwayseachtree,shrub,orvineisusedbyhumansorwildlifeandwhetherthespeciesisnativeorwasintroducedtothearea.Ifitisnotnative,explainwhetheritisconsideredinvasiveorpotentiallyinvasive.

2. DoONEofthefollowing:

a.Collectandidentifywoodsamplesof10speciesoftrees.Listseveralwaysthewoodofeachspeciescanbeused.

b.Findandexaminethreestumps,logs,orcoresamplesthatshowvariationsinthegrowthrateoftheirringpatterns.Inthefieldnotebookyoupreparedforrequire-ment1,describethelocationororiginofeachexample(includingelevation,aspect,slope,andthepositionontheslope),anddiscusspossiblereasonsforthevariationsingrowthrate.Photographorsketcheachexample.

c.Findandexaminetwotypesofanimal,insect,ordamageontrees.Inthefieldnotebookyoupreparedforrequirement1,identifythedamage,explainhowthedamagewascaused,anddescribetheeffectsofthedamageonthetrees.Photographorsketcheachexample.

35901ISBN 978-0-8395-3302-3©2005 Boy Scouts of America2010 Printing

BANG/Brainerd, MN1-2010/059120

forestry        3

3. Dothefollowing:

a.Describethecontributionsforestsmaketo:

(1)Oureconomyintheformofproducts

(2)Oursocialwell-being,includingrecreation

(3)Soilprotectionandincreasedfertility

(4)Cleanwater

(5)Cleanair(carboncycling,sequestration)

(6)Wildlifehabitat

(7)Fisherieshabitat

(8)Threatenedandendangeredspeciesofplantsandanimals

b.Tellwhichwatershedorothersourceyourcommunityreliesonforitswatersupply.

4. Describewhatforestmanagementmeans,includingthefollowing:

a.Multiple-usemanagement

b.Sustainableforestmanagement

c.Even-agedanduneven-agedmanagementandthesilviculturalsystemsassociatedwitheach

d.Intermediatecuttings

e.Theroleofprescribedburningandrelatedforest-managementpractices

5. Withyourparent’sandcounselor’sapproval,doONEofthefollowing:

a.Visitamanagedpublicorprivateforestareawiththemanageroraforesterwhoisfamiliarwithit.Writeabriefreportdescribingthetypeofforest,themanagementobjectives,andtheforestrytechniquesusedtoachievetheobjectives.

b.Withaknowledgeableindividual,visitaloggingopera-tionorwood-usingmanufacturingplant.Writeabriefreportdescribingthefollowing:

(1)Thespeciesandsizeoftreesbeingharvestedorusedandthelocationoftheharvestareaormanufacturer

4        forestry

(2) Theoriginoftheforestorstandsoftreesbeingutilized(e.g.,plantedornatural)

(3)Theforest’ssuccessionalstage.Whatisitsfuture?

(4)Wherethetreesarecomingfrom(landowner-ship)orwheretheyaregoing(typeofmillorprocessingplant)

(5)Theproductsthataremadefromthetrees

(6)Howtheproductsaremadeandused

(7)Howwastematerialsfromtheloggingoperationormanufacturingplantaredisposedoforutilized

c.Takepartinaforest-firepreventioncampaignincoopera-tionwithyourlocalfirewarden,statewildfireagency,forester,orcounselor.Writeabriefreportdescribingthecampaign,howitwillhelppreventwildfires,andyourpartinit.

6. Dothefollowing:

a.DescribetheconsequencestoforeststhatresultfromFIVEofthefollowingelements:wildfire,absenceoffire,insects,treediseases,airpollution,overgrazing,deerorotherwildlifeoverpopulation,improperharvest,andurbanization.

b.Explainwhatcanbedonetoreducetheconsequencesyoudiscussedin6a.

c.Describewhatyoushoulddoifyoudiscoveraforestfireandhowaprofessionalfirefightingcrewmightcontrolit.Nameyourstateorlocalwildfirecontrolagency.

7.Visitoneormorelocalforestersandwriteabriefreportabouttheperson(orpersons).Or,writeaboutaforester’soccupationincludingtheeducation,qualifications,careeropportunities,anddutiesrelatedtoforestry.

forestry        5

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

UnderstandingForests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Trees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

IdentifyingandCollectingPlantSpecies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Animal,Insect,andDiseaseDamage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

UsingForestResourcesResponsibly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

WhyManageForests?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

VisitingaManagedForestryOperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

CareersinForestry................................74

ForestryResources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6        forestry

Introduction.

IntroductionHumanshavealwaysdependeduponforests.Forestshaveprovidedfood,fuel,shelter,andmanyotherresources.Theyhavebeenworshipped,feared,boughtandsold,protected,destroyed,andrestored.Forestedlandsaredeeplywovenintoourmythsandlegends,music,literature,andart.Withoutforests,ourexistencewouldbefarlessrich.Infact,withoutforests,wewouldfinditdifficulttosurviveatall.

Today,theforestsoftheworldcontinuetobeamongthemostinterestingandimportantnaturalresourcesontheplanet.Nearly30percentoftheworld’slandisforested,andathirdoftheacreageofNorthAmericaiscoveredwithforests.ThesegreatstandsofvegetationshieldEarthfromtheforcesofwind,rain,andsunlight.Theyslowerosion,enrichthesoil,protectbodiesofwater,andprovideshelterforwildlife.Fromtheequatortonearthepolarregions,forestsarehometoplantandanimalspeciesthat,inmanycases,wehaveyettofullyunderstand.

Forest vegetation

helps clean the

air by absorbing

carbon dioxide and

releasing oxygen.

Perhaps you have hiked with your troop into a forest and camped under the shade of big hardwoods or in deep stands of pine and fir. You may have seen wildlife among the trees and in nearby meadows. Perhaps  you have cast a line into a stream or  a lake and had the thrill of catching  a couple of fish. When you are in  the middle of a forest having such a good time, it is easy to understand the value of the recreational opportu-nities that forests offer.

.Introduction

Youmightnotspendmuchtimethinkingabouttheprod-uctsthatcomefromforests,buttheyarevitaltoourwayoflife.Yourhomeprobablyhaslumberinitthatwasmilledfromtreesharvestedhundredsofmilesaway.Muchofthefurnitureinyourhouseismadeofwood,andsoisthepaperusedtoprintthismeritbadgepamphlet.Manyofthefoodsweputonourtablesandthedrugsinourmedicinecabinetshaveforestorigins.Infact,ifyouwrotedownalltheforestproductsyouandyourfamilyuse,thelistwouldbeverylong.

Forestsprovidejobs,too.Somepeoplemanagetimberlandsandharvesttreesandotherforestresources.Thewood-productsindustryisakeyindustryinmanystatesandtheprimaryeconomicengineinmanyruralcommunities.Theoutdoor-recreationindustrycreatestensofthousandsofpositionsaswell.

Theverylandonwhichforestsgrowisindemand,too.Forestsarestillbeingclearedtomakewayforhomes,farms,andcities.

InstudyingthispamphletandworkingthroughtheForestrymeritbadgerequirementswithyourcounselor,youwillexploretheremarkablecomplexityofaforestandidentifymanyspeciesoftreesandplantsandtherolestheyplayinaforest’slifecycle.Youwillfindthatforestschange.Youwilldiscoversomeoftheresourcesfor-estsprovidetohumansandcometounderstandthatpeoplehaveaverylargeparttoplayinsustainingthehealthofforests.

With so many pressures upon forests, we have the responsibility to be good stewards to ensure that  forests are healthy today and that we can pass them on to future generations in as good or better condition  than we found them. That is the goal of modern forestry. To accomplish it, we need to understand as much as we can about forests and how to use and enjoy them without causing harm.

forestry        7

8        forestry

Understanding Forests.

UnderstandingForestsAskadozenpeopletodefineaforestandmanywillprobablygiveadefini-tionalongthelinesof“abunchoftrees.”Whiletreesareimportantmem-bersofaforest,theyareonlypartofabiologicalcommunityofthousandsofspeciesofplantsandanimals,extendingfromdeepwithinthesoiltothetipsoftheloftiestbranches.

Shrub layer

underStory layer

litter layerherb layer

forestry        9

.Understanding Forests

forest strataAmatureforestconsistsoflevels,orstrata.Typicalforeststrataarethecanopy,understory,shrublayer,herblayer,andlitterlayer.Allthestrataareessentialtothehealthofaforestecosystem.

Canopy.Branchesandleavesthatformthehighestreachesofaforestarepositionedtocapturesunlightandtoprovideshelterandshadeforthestratabelow.Formedbythelargestandoldesttrees,thecanopyishometobirds,climbingmammals,andinsects.

Understory.Smallerandyoungertreesgrowinginthebrokenshadeandlowerlightlevelsbeneaththecanopylayerformtheunderstory.Ascanopytreesdieandlightlevelsincrease,someoftheunderstorytreeswillgrowtotaketheirplace.

shrub layer.Bushesandthicketsofplantswithwoodystemsformthestratumthatrisesabovethegrounduptoabout15feet.Itistheshrublayerthatcanposeaseriouschallengetocross-countrytravelerswhendensevegetationmakeshikingdifficult.

Herb layer.Aforest’sherblayeriscomposedofthegroundcoverofgrasses,flowers,ferns,andothersoft-stemmedvegeta-tion.Dependingonlightlevels,elevation,andothervariationsintheenvironment,thislayermaybesparseordense.

Litter.Whatforesterscalllitterisasimportanttoaforestasanyofitsotherlayers.Madeupoforganicmaterialincludingdecomposingleaves,needles,branches,treetrunks,andotherdeadvegetation,litterishometomicroorganismsandtobee-tles,snails,millipedes,andhundredsofotheranimalspecies.Itprotectsthesoilandprovidesamoistbedfornewplantstotakeroot.Aslitterdecays,phosphorus,potassium,magnesium,calcium,nitrogen,andothernutrientsreturntothesoilwheretheycanbeabsorbedbylivingplants.

To plant scientists,

forest generally

refers to land with

a tree canopy that

covers at least

10 percent of the

area. With some

species of trees,

this percentage

may be as low

as 5 percent.

Included in this

definition of a

forest are lands

that have been

recently planted

with trees or that

are temporarily

understocked

(recently harvested

tree farms, for

example) but are

not dedicated to

another land use.

10        forestry

Understanding Forests.

Nurse LogsLongaftertheirdeaths,fallentreesandtheirstumpscontinuetoplayanimportantroleinthelifeofaforest.Termites,beetles,worms,andothercreaturesburrowintothewood,allowingmoisturetoseepin.Fungiandmossestakehold,softeningthewoodandcreatinganinvitinggerminationbedforlargerplantspecies.Astheseoldtrees,ornurse logs,slowlydecompose,theyreturnnutrientstotheforestfloorandbecomehosttoyoungplantsthatsproutfromtheirsurface,thusensuringthehealthoffuturegenerationsofvegetation.Theyalsoprovideimportantcoverforsmallmammals,reptiles,andamphibians.

10        forestry

forestry        11

.Understanding Forests

forests as ecosystemsAforestisanecosystem,thatis,agroupoflivingorganismslivinginaparticularenvironmentthataredependentuponeachotherandtheirenvironment.Notwoforestecosystemsarealike.Many,however,sharegeneralsimilaritiesbasedontheirlocation,elevation,andotherfactors.Thosesimilaritiesprovideawayofcomparingoneareawithanother.

types of forestsBroad-leavedforestsdominatetheeasternUnitedStatesandCanada,whileconiferforestsdominatewesternNorthAmerica.ForestsintheeasternorsouthernpartoftheUnitedStatesincludeoak-hickory,oak-pine,longleafpine–slashpine,andspruce-firforests.WesternforestsincludeDouglasfir,westernhemlock,Sitkaspruce,redwood,ponderosapine,piñon-juniper,andlodgepolepineforests.Therearemanyhemlock-spruceforestsinOregonandWashington.Hemlock-spruceforestsalsoarethepredominantforesttypeinsouthernAlaska.

forestry        11

A population is a group of the same animal or plant species living together. A community consists of all the populations of plants and animals in an area. An ecosystem is made up of those communities plus their physical surroundings—the land, weather, water, amount of sunlight, and everything else that affects it.

White pine

oak

sugar maple elm

Douglas fir

Hemlock

trees.

TreesAlthoughaforestisanecosystemcomposedofmanyspecies,treesarethedominantformofforestlife.Treesarecharacterizedbytheirsize(usuallytallerthanaperson)andbythefactthateachusuallyhasasinglewoodystem,ortrunk.Shrubs,ontheotherhand,havemultiplewoodystemsandseldomgrowmuchbeyond8to15feethigh.

rootsMuchofatreeliesbeneaththeground’ssurface.Tinyroothairsabsorbmoistureandsenditupintothetree.Arootsystemisalsotheanchorthatholdsatreeupright,eveninhighwinds.Sometreeshavetaprootsthatextenddeepinto

theground.Others,especiallythosegrow-inginthinorrockysoils,mayhaveroots

thatspreadoutjustbelowthesurface,sometimesachievingaradiusaswideasthetreeistall.

trunk and BarkBarkisthenonlivingouterarmorofatree’strunkandbranches.Underthebarkisathinlayeroftissuecalledthecambiumlayer,whichismadeupoftwodistincttypesofcells—thephloemandxylem.Thephloemchannelsfoodproducedbytheleavesintothetrunk,branches,twigs,androots.Thesecellsalsoformthebarkofthetree.Thexylemcellsmakeupthesapwoodthat

rootS

trunk Sapwoodphloeminner barkouter bark

leaveS

Anatomy of a tree

annual ringS

medullary raySheartwood

Cross-section of the trunk

Crown

More than 1,000

species of trees

grow in North

America, and

thousands more

flourish in other

parts of the world.

forestry        13

.trees

transportsthemoistureandnutrientsfromtherootstothecrownofthetree.Sapwoodeventuallyformstheheartwoodinthecenterofthetrunkthatgivesthetreemuchofitsstructuralstrength.Theyearlygrowthofxylemcellsformsthe“annualrings”thattellthetree’sage.

LeavesChlorophyll,achemicalcompoundinleaves,absorbsenergyfromsunlighttoconvertcarbondioxide,water,andsoilnutri-entsintoplantfood.Thisprocess,calledphotosynthesis,alsoreturnsoxygentotheatmosphere.GreenplantsproducetheoxygenthatsupportsallofEarth’sanimallife,humansincluded.

Eachfall,thefoliageofmanybroad-leavedtreesturnsfromgreentobrilliantred,orange,andbrown.Infact,thosebrighthueswereintheleavesallsummer,hiddenbeneaththegreenofthechloro-phyll.Asthegrowingseasoncomestoanend,atree’sfoodproductiondropsandsodoestheamountofchlorophyllintheleaves.Thegreenfades,allowingthefierycolorstoshowthrough.

Alltreesareeitherconifertreesorbroad-leavedtrees.Conifers,alsoknownasevergreens,arecone-bearingtreeswithneedlelikeorscalelikeleavesthatmaystayonthetreesforseveralyears.Broad-leavedtreesarefloweringtrees.Theyalsoaredeciduous—theygenerallylosetheirleavesinthefall.

ConifersConifersaregymnosperms,thatis,plantswithnaked(uncov-ered)seedstuckedinsideofcones.Exposedtotheelements,coniferseedsarefertilizeddirectlybywindblownpollenwhentheirconesopenslightlyinthespring.Ratherthanrelyingoninsectstoaidinfertilization,conifersreleasepollenthatiscarriedbythewindfromtreetotree.Thismakesanidealmeansoftransportationinalpineregionsandotherenviron-mentswherethereareplentyofbreezesbutperhapsnotmanyinsects.Thepyramidshapeofpines,firs,spruces,andotherconifershelpsthemshedrain,snow,andwind.

The cambium

grows a new layer

of sapwood and

bark around the

trunk each year.

Another change causes a layer of cells at the base of the leafstalk to cut tissues holding the leaf on the tree. the leaf falls to the ground where it will decompose, returning nutrients to the soil.

14        forestry

trees.

Theneedlelikeleavesofmostconifersdonotfalloffattheendofsummer,allowingthosetreestospurgrowthassoonasthedaysbegintowarminthespring.Althoughconifersarewell-suitedtohighelevationsandnorthernlatitudeswheregrowingseasonsareshort,thereareexceptions.Forexample,manyspeciesofpines—loblolly,longleaf,slash,shortleaf,andVirginiapines—growwellintheSouth.Also,thecoastred-woodgrowsatlowelevationsnearthePacificOcean.Thefactthatredwoodscanthrivemostoftheyearhelpsthemattaintheirgreatheight.

PinesThewhitepineisfoundthroughouttheNortheastandisthetreeshownonthestateflagofMaine.Ithassmooth,tightbarkandleafclustersoffiveneedleseach.Otherpinescommonintheeasternstatesincludethepitchpinewiththreeneedlesperclusterandthejackandredpineswithtwoneedles.IntheSoutheast,thelongleafandloblollypineshavethreeneedlestoacluster,whileslashandshortleafpinesdisplaytwo.

ThelargestpinesgrowinthemountainsoftheWest.Sugarpinescanreachaheightof200feet.Lookforfiveneedlesineachofitsleafclusters.Theheavyconesofsugarpinescanbeupto18incheslong.

Ponderosapineshavelongneedlesingroupsofthree.Getclosetothebarkofaponderosaandyoumaysmellapleasantvanillalikearoma.Jefferyandknobconeareotherwesternpineswiththree-needleclusters.Lodgepolepines,namedforthestraight,cleantrunksonceusedbysomeAmericanIndiantribesforconstructingtepeesandlodges,featurepairsoftwoneedleseach.

Several deciduous

conifers, including

cypress, dawn

redwood, and

larch, do lose

their leaves in

the fall.

Ponderosa pine

Colorado blue spruce

Lodgepole pine

forestry        15

.trees

sprucesTheneedlesofsprucetreesarefour-sided.TheEngelmannspruceoftheCascadeMountainsandRockyMountainshassoftneedleswithablue-greenhue.Thebluespruce,whosenaturalhomeistheRockyMountainregion,hasstiffneedlesandiswidelyplantedasanornamental.ThetallestAmericanspruceistheSitkaspruceoftherain-drenchedPacificNorthwestcoastalforests.

firsFirneedlesareflat,flexible,andappeartobearrangedinorderlyrowsalongthesidesofbranches.Theneedlesaredarkgreenontop,whiletheundersidesshowtwowhitelines.Firconesgrowuprightontheupperbranchesofthetrees.ThebalsamfiroftheEastandthewhitefiroftheWestarestately,fragrantrepresentativesoftheseevergreens.

Larches and tamaracksThesoftneedlesofthelarchandtamarackgrowintuftsoutofbumpsonthebranches.Unlikethoseofmostotherconifers,theleavesfalloffinthewinter.Larchesandtamaracksaretall,slendertreeswithsmallcones.

HemlocksHemlocksarelargeevergreensdistinguishedbyshort,flatneedleswithdarkgreentopsandsilveryundersides.Thesmallconeshangfrombranchesthatcandroopintheshapeofagracefulpyramid.

Douglas firsAcloserelativeofthehemlockistheDouglasfir,atreefoundprimarilyinthewesternUnitedStates.AlsoknownastheDouglasspruce,redfir,andOregonpine,itisactuallynotaspruce,fir,orpinebutratherapseudotsuga,orfalsehemlock.Itsflatneedlelikeleavesspiralaroundthebranches,givingbranchendstheappearanceofbottlebrushesorsquirrels’tails.

sequoias and redwoodsTheworld’slargesttreesaretheredwoodsandgiantsequoiasofCalifornia.Redwoodscangrowtomorethan300feetinheight,andsequoiascanreachadiameterofmorethan25feet.Someofthesetreesareseveralthousandyearsold.

Balsam fir

Larch

tamarack

eastern hemlock

Douglas fir

16        forestry

trees.

Cedars, Junipers, and CypressesTheleavesofcedarsaretiny,bright-greenscalesarrangedlikesmallshinglesonflattenedtwigs.Easternredcedaris,infact,ajuniper.Junipershavetwokindsofleaves.Somearescalyandflatlikeacedar,whileothersareprickly.Juniperconeslooklikemoldyblueberries.ThebaldcypressoftheSouthdropsitsneedleseachwinter.

Broad-Leaved treesBroad-leavedtreesareangiosperms,orfloweringplants.Theymakeovules,oreggs,thatdevelopintoseedsafterfertilization.Unliketheconesprotectingtheseedsofconifers,seedsofbroad-leavedtreesareenclosedinnuts,fruits,orsomeotherformofseedcase.

Identifying Firs, Spruces, and Pines As a quick rule of thumb to determine some of the larger families of evergreen trees, examine their  needles and note their shape.

Flat = Fir  Needles in pairs = PineSquare = Spruce  Shingled, scaly needles = Cedar

some species of cypress grow in swamps. the portions of their roots exposed above the water are called knees.

forestry        17

.trees

Asyoumayhaveguessed,mostbroad-leavedtreeshavewide,flatleaves.Thetrunksofmanybroad-leavedtreesbranchoutintoround,airyshapes.Broad-leavedtreesdowellwhereconditionsduringthegrowingseasonarenotharsh,buttheyalsoarefoundinareaswithcoldwintersanddeepsnows.

Everythingaboutbroad-leavedtrees,fromleafshapetotheorientationofbranches,influencestheirsurvivalandtheirabilitytoadapttotheirenvironments.Losingtheirleavesinthefall,forexample,protectsbranchesfrombreakingundertheweightofwintersnows.

Willows and AspensThepussywillowtakesitsnamefromitsfurryflowerclustersthatresembletinykittenscling-ingtothewillow’slong,straightbranches.Thesandbarwillowisoftenoneofthefirstplantstogrowonnewlyexposedgroundwhenariverchangescourse.

Aspensthriveonsunlight.Theytakerootquicklyonmountainslopesburnedbyfire,protectingthesoilfromerosionandprovidingbrowsefordeer,elk,moose,andotheranimals.Asslower-growingconifersmature,theytowerabovetheaspensandeventuallycreatesomuchshadethattheyreplacetheaspens.

Nut treesWalnutsandhickorieshavecom-poundleaves,eachmadeupwithanumberofleaflets.Ahickoryleafhasthreetonineleaflets,whiletheleafofawalnuttreemayhavemorethanadozen.Walnutsandhickorynutsaretheseedsoftheirtrees.Botharegoodtoeat,asarethenutsofthepecantree,whichisatypeofhickory.Mockernut,bitternut,andpignuthavesmall,bitterkernels.Woodfromthewalnutisprizedforfurnitureandgunstocks,whilehickorywoodisusedforshort-handledtoolssuchashammersandhatchets.

Pussy willows

Bitternut hickory

Walnut

18        forestry

trees.

the Birch familyThisfamilyofbroad-leavedtreesincludesbirches,hornbeams,andalders,whicharecommonlyfoundintheEastandNortheast,whilethewesternredalderisaprominentbroad-leavedtreefoundintheWest.Theovalleaveshavejaggededgesandshinysurfaces.

AmericanIndiansusedsheetsofwhitebarkfromthepaperbirchtobuildtheircanoes.Thebarkofyellowbirchpeelsawayfromthetrunkincurls.Grayandblackbircheshavemuchtighterbark.

Thewoodofthesmooth-barkedAmericanhornbeamissotoughthatthetreeissometimescalledanironwood.Theappearanceofthetrunkandbarkofanironwoodtreeremindsomepeopleofaperson’smusculararm.

Aldersgrowinmoistgroundthroughoutthecountry.Theyhavebroadleaves,stalkedbuds,andsmall,conelikefruits.FoundalongthePacificCoast,redalderisatremendoussourceoflumberandotherwoodproducts.

Beeches and ChestnutsYoucanidentifyabeechtreebyitssmooth,palegraybark.Beechleaveshaveastrongmidveinandparallelsideveins.Thebeech’sburrlikefruitcontainstwotriangularnuts.

ThechestnutwasoncecommoninforestsoftheeasternUnitedStatesuntiltheappearanceofchestnutblight,afungusthatkilledsomanyofthetreesthatyouwillprobablyhaveahardtimelocatingachestnuttoday.

oaksCarpentersandcabinetmakershavelongprizedwoodfromAmericanoaktrees.Oaktimbersareslowtorot,eveniftheygetwet.TheRevolutionaryWarshipUSSConstitution(nicknamed“OldIronsides”)wasmadeofliveoak,aspeciescommontothecoastalSouth,andhand-hewnoakbeamswereusedinmanyColonialhomes.

Birch

American beech

forestry        19

.trees

Theacornisthefruitofanoak.Mostoakshavenotchedleaves.Thelobesontheleavesofsomeoaksarerounded,whilethoseofotherscometosharppoints.Theliveoakisanexcep-tion.Itsevergreenleaveshavesmoothedgesandnolobesatall,butitsacornshelpidentifyitasanoak.

elmsElmsarelarge,gracefulshadetreesoncefoundintownsandcitiesthroughoutthenation.DutchelmdiseasehaskilledmostlargeelmsintheeasternUnitedStates.TheleavesofAmericanelmsandslipperyelmsareegg-shapedandlopsidedwithsawtoothededges.LeavesofAmericanelmsareshinyandsmooth.Despitethename,theleavesoftheslipperyelmhavedull,roughsurfaces.

Papaws and sassafrasThecommonpapawbelongstothecustardapplefamily.ItisfoundinforestsoftheEastandMidwest.Thefruitofthepapawlooksandtasteslikeachubby,overripebanana.Onasinglesassafrastreeyoucanfindleavesofmanyshapes—someoval,somelikethree-fingeredmittens.

MagnoliasMagnoliatreesarefoundinthesoutheasternUnitedStates.Theirlarge,distinctiveleavesareshinydarkgreenontopandpaleunderneath,andthebloomscanfillsummereveningswithwonderfularomas.Onemagnolia,thecucumbertree,bearsamassofmanysmall,elongatedpods.

Anothermemberofthemagnoliafamilyisthetuliptree,namedforthetuliplikeappearanceofitsflowers.Averytalltree,itthrivesinSouthernstatesbutisseldomfoundwherewintersaresevere.

Although the edible acorns of American oaks have a bitter taste to humans, squirrels and a number of other animals find them irresistible.

American elm

the magnolia is known for its large blooms, which have a pleasantly sweet fragrance.

20        forestry

trees.

Gums and sycamoresThesweetgumtreehasstar-shapedleavesthatturnbril-liantcolorsinfall.Itsfruitslooklikespinyballs.

Thefruitofthesyca-morehasasimilarshapebutiswithoutthespines.Thebarkofasycamoregivesthetrunkadistinctivepatchworkoflargewhite,green,andyellowblotches.

Plums and CherriesAdozenvarietiesofwildplumtreegrowintheeasternUnitedStates.Theyaresmalltreeswithshinyovalleavesandpurpleorreddishfruits.Thehardpitinsideeachfruitcontainstheseedofanewtree.

Wildbirdcherriesorpincherriesaresmalltreeswithtinyredfruitsinclustersoftwoorthree.Otherwildcherrieshavefruitsarrangedinbuncheslikegrapes.ThewoodoftheblackcherryisoneofthemostvaluableintheUnitedStates,prizedforitsbeautifulcolorandgraininfinefurniture.

American sycamore

fruit of the plum tree Wild cherries

forestry        21

.trees

AshesAxhandlesandbaseballbatsareoftenmadefromthehard,smoothwoodoftheashtree.Eachashleafismadeupofmanyleafletsthatgrowinpairsoneithersideofthestalk.Theleavesareinpairs,asarethebranchesofthetree.

MaplesTheleavesofmaplesarearrangedinpairsoppositeeachotheronthebranch.Theirmainveinsjutoutlikefingersfromthebaseoftheleaf.Fruitsofmapletrees,calledkeys,eachhavea“wing”attachedthatcausesthemtotwirlthroughtheair.Maplewoodisusedforfurniture.Especiallyvaluedisbird’s-eyemaple,namedforthecircularanddottedpatternsofitsgrain.

BuckeyesInsideatough,spinyburristhefruitofthebuckeye.Itssizeandshinybrownsurfacemakeitlooksomethingliketheeyeofadeer,andthusitsname.Leavesofthebuckeyehavefivelongleaflets.

BuckeyeMaple syrup is made from sugar maple sap.

Ash tree leaves

A plant key can guide you step-by-step to the identity of a plant species.

forestry        23

.Identifying and Collecting Plant species

Scientific

nomenclature, or

naming, uses Latin

terms to describe

each tree species.

This system

allows botanists

and others who

study plants to

share accurate

information with

one another

about particular

plant species.

IdentifyingandCollectingPlantSpeciesIdentifyingtrees,shrubs,andvinescanbeagreatdealoffun.Itisatremendoustoolforlearningaboutaforest.

Themostusefultoolsfordiscoveringthescientificnamesofplantsandlearningsomethingabouttheirrange,uses,andgrowinghabitsareplant keys,availablebothasbooksandasinteractiveInternetWebsites.Eachplantkeymayaddressspecifickindsofvegetation(trees,forexample,ormushroomsorwildflowers),andfocusonaspecificregion(thetreesofNorthAmerica,forinstance).

Using a Plant KeyMost plant keys are constructed with an either/or  format, asking you to make a series of yes-or-no  decisions that will steadily narrow your choices until you come upon the specific description of the plant you want to identify. A typical sequence might lead you this way:

•  Needlelike leaves or broad-leaf leaves?  If broad-leaf, then . . .

•  Compound leaves or simple leaves?  If compound, then . . .

•  Thorns or spines present or absent?  If without thorns or spines, then . . .

•  Leaves smooth, toothed, or lobed? If lobed, then . . .

•  Are the leaves arranged opposite each other on  the twigs, or do they alternate? If opposite, then . . .

•  Are leaves heart-shaped or oval? If oval, then . . . 

24        forestry

Identifying and Collecting Plant species.

Plantidentificationismosteffectivewhenitisdoneinaplant’snaturalsetting.Thereyoumayhaveawiderangeofcluespresentsuchasappearance,aromas,andevidenceoftheinteractionaparticularplanthaswithotherspeciesofplantsandanimals.Youcanalsoobservethefullarrayofleavesandnoticewhethertheyareinclusters,opposed,orstaggered.

Leavesareonlyonepartofaplant.Thecontextoftheplant—thesurroundingsinwhichyoufindit—isvitaltounderstandingit,too.Thefollowingquestionscanhelpyoubeginyourexplorationofatree,shrub,orvineanditsroleinitsecosystem.

• Howisitsimilartoanddifferentfromnearbyplants?

• Howaretheleavesorneedlesshaped?

• Doesitbearflowersorfruitingbodies?

• Whatkindofsoilisitgrowingin?Forexample,isitsandy,wet,dry,orrocky?

• Whatanimalsvisittheplant?Doanycreaturesuseitforfoodorasshelter?

• Howdoesitsenvironmentinfluencetheplant?Forexample,doesitgrowinsunshineorshade?

• Howdoestheplantaffecttheenvironmentaroundit?

Native, exotic, and Invasive speciesNative speciesofplantsarethosethatarethenaturalinhabit-antsofanarea.Thefactthattheyhaveevolvedovermanygenerationsinaforestmeansthateachspecieshasaclearnicheintheecosystem.Anativeplantspeciesinteractswithothernativespeciesofplantsandanimalsinbalancedwaysthathelpanecosystemmaintainahighdegreeofstability.

Anonnative species,alsoknownasanexotic,isaspeciesthathasbeenintroducedtoaforestfromsomewhereelse.Someexoticspecieshavelittleimpactonotherspecies.Theginkgotree,forexample,isanativeofChina.ImportedintotheUnitedStatesmorethan100yearsago,itgrowswellwithoutseri-ouslychallengingnativeplants.Somenonnativespeciesspreadaggressively,though.Nonnativesthatpushoutorkillnativespeciesareknownasinvasive species.

Noxious weedsareinvasivespeciesdesignatedbylawasundesirableandrequiringcontrol.Theseplantsareusuallyexotics.Invasivespeciesincludethepassionflower,Scotch

Weeds that

crowd out native

vegetation can

create a

monoculture, an

area dominated

by a single

species. When

that happens,

plant diversity

is lost.

forestry        25

.

broom,purplefringe,yellowstarthistle,andspot-tedknapweed.TheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturemaintainstheFederalListofNoxiousWeeds.

Manynativeplantshavefibrousrootsystemsthatprovidesoilcover,stability,andwaterinfiltration,whilemanyexoticshavenarrowtaprootsthatleavebaresoilexposedtoerosion.Otherweedshaverootsmoreaggressivethanthoseofnativeplants,allowingthemtoaccessmorewaterandthuscrowdoutnativevegetation.

Making CollectionsAfunwaytoincreaseyourabilitytoidentifytrees,shrubs,vines,andotherforestvegetationisbymakingcollectionsofleavesandwoodsamples.Foraleafcollection,selectsmallbranchesthatshowleafarrangementandtwigtraits.Youmightalsogatherflowers,fruits,andwintertwigsforeachtree,shrub,orvine.

Wind, water, livestock, wildlife, vehicles, and people and their pets can spread weed seeds. Backcountry users traveling with horses, mules,  or other livestock often carry hay that is specially treated to prevent  the weed seeds it may contain from taking root and competing with native vegetation.

yellow star thistle

26        forestry

Identifying and Collecting Plant species.

Inthefield,youcanstorecollectedleavesandsmallbranchesbetweenthepagesofaphonebookandmakenotesonthetree’sname(ifyouknowit),thedate,whereyoufoundit,andotherinformationabouttheplant.Useabeltorstraptokeepthebookpressedshutsotheleavesstayflatanddonotfalloutasyoucarryit.

Whenyougethome,puteachleafbetweentwosheetsofpaper,laythesheetsonaboardorotherflatsurface,andthenplaceheavybooksorsomeotherweightontop.Allowseveraldaysfortheleavestoflattenanddry,thenmounttheminanotebookalongwiththedetailsofwhereandwhenyoufoundthem,theidentityofeachplant,andinformationyouhavelearnedaboutitsnaturalhistoryanduses.

Leave what you find is among the principles of Leave No Trace, adopted by the BSA as a means for enjoying the outdoors in a responsible manner.

•  Allow others a sense of discovery, and preserve what you find.

•  Leave rocks, plants, animals, archaeological artifacts, and other objects as you find them.

•  Observe, but do not touch, cultural or historical structures and artifacts.

Before you

begin, get

permission from

the landowners

or land managers

of the area where

you want to do

your collecting.

.Identifying and Collecting Plant species

Wood samplesPiecesofwoodarevaluableinidentifyingandunderstandingthetreesfromwhichtheycame.Appearance,color,grain,texture,weight,generalfeel,andsometimeseventhearomaofawoodallarecluestoitsgrowingpatterns,strengths,weaknesses,anduses.

Learning About a tree’s HistoryEachyearduringthespringandsummer,mosttreesincreasetheirdiameterbyaddingtwonewlayersofwood.Thelayerformedbythecambiuminthespringgrowsquickly.Becausethecellsarelarge,thisspringwoodlookslightincolor.Duringthesummer,thewoodgrowsmoreslowly.Becausethecellsaresmaller,thissummerwoodappearsdarker.

Whenatreeiscutoracoresampletaken,thelightanddarklayersshowasalternatingringsoflightanddarkwood.Counttheringsofdarkwoodandyoucanestimatetheageofthetree.Aspectssuchassoilmoistureandfertility,weather,fire,overcrowding,insectattacks,andtheabilityofthetree’sleavestocapturesunlightinfluencethesizeandshapeoftherings.

Astheinfluencingfactorschangefromyeartoyear,theshape,thickness,color,andevennessoftheannualringsalsowillchange.Dendrochronologists(scientistswhostudytreerings)usetreeringstodeterminepastpatternsofdroughtandgatherdatatopredictfutureperiodsofdryandwetweather.

Your merit badge counselor can provide guidance  on where and how you can collect wood samples, leaves, and other items from a forest in ways that will leave no trace and do no harm. For example, your counselor may suggest that, rather than cutting branches in a forest for wood samples, you gather samples of different species of wood from lumber-yards and home improvement stores.

28        forestry

Identifying and Collecting Plant species.

Core samplesCountingtheannualringsonastumpofatreethathasbeencutdownisrelativelyeasy.Inordertostudytheringsofalivingtree,forestersrelyonamethodcalledcoring.Theybeginbyusinganincrement borertodrillaholeintothecenterofthetreetrunk.Theborerisahollowtubethat,whendrawnoutofthehole,takeswithitacore sample.Thelightanddarkbandsinthecoresampleshowhowmanyringsthetreehasgrown.Theirdistancefromoneanothercanindicateyearsofrapidgrowthandseasonswhengrowthwassluggish.

the hole made by an increment borer will heal over with next year’s growth, but the small (1⁄4 inch) hole in the heartwood remains. foresters usually core a tree no more than once, thus minimizing injury to the tree.

for requirement 2b, you are asked to sketch or photograph three stumps, logs, or core samples.

th

e tr

ee—

a lo

blo

lly p

ine—

is b

orn

.

1904

th

e tr

ee g

row

s ra

pid

ly, w

ith

no

dis

turb

ance

. t

her

e is

ab

un

dan

t ra

infa

ll an

d s

un

shin

e in

sp

rin

g a

nd

su

mm

er. t

he

rin

gs

are

rela

tive

ly

bro

ad a

nd

are

eve

nly

sp

aced

.

1909

th

e su

rro

un

din

g t

rees

are

har

vest

ed. t

he

larg

er

tree

s ar

e re

mov

ed a

nd

th

ere

is o

nce

aga

in

amp

le n

ou

rish

men

t an

d s

un

ligh

t. t

he

tree

can

n

ow g

row

rap

idly

aga

in.

1927

A fi

re s

wee

ps

thro

ug

h t

he

fore

st. f

ort

un

atel

y,

the

tree

is o

nly

sca

rred

, an

d y

ear

by y

ear

mo

re

and

mo

re o

f th

e sc

ar is

cov

ered

ove

r by

new

ly

form

ed w

oo

d.

1930

th

ese

nar

row

rin

gs

may

hav

e b

een

cau

sed

by

a p

rolo

nge

d d

ry s

pel

l. o

ne

or

two

su

mm

ers

wo

uld

no

t h

ave

dri

ed t

he

gro

un

d e

no

ug

h t

o

slow

th

e tr

ee’s

gro

wth

th

is m

uch

.

1942

An

oth

er s

erie

s o

f n

arro

w r

ing

s m

ay h

ave

bee

n

cau

sed

by

an in

sect

like

th

e la

rva

of

the

sa

wfl

y. It

eat

s th

e le

aves

an

d le

afb

ud

s o

f m

any

kin

ds

of

con

ifero

us

tree

s.

1957

th

e tr

ee is

gro

win

g s

trai

gh

t ag

ain

, bu

t it

s n

eig

hb

ors

are

gro

win

g, t

oo.

th

eir

crow

ns

and

ro

ot

syst

ems

take

mu

ch o

f th

e w

ater

an

d s

un

shin

e th

e tr

ee n

eed

s.

1924

Wh

en t

he

tree

was

6 y

ears

old

, so

met

hin

g

pu

shed

aga

inst

it, m

akin

g it

lean

. th

e ri

ng

s ar

e n

ow w

ider

on

th

e lo

wer

sid

e as

th

e tr

ee

bu

ilds

“rea

ctio

n w

oo

d”

to h

elp

su

pp

ort

it.

1914

A T

ree’

s Li

fe

30        forestry

Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.

Animal,Insect,andDiseaseDamageTherelationshipsofspeciesinaforestecosystemareverycomplex.Variousspeciesdependupononeanotherforshelterandfood.Mostinteractionsareharmlessorbeneficial.Insectsthattakenourishmentfromtheflowersandfruitsoftreesmayhelpthetreespollinate.Birdsbuildingnestsinthebranchesoftreesmayeatinsectsthatmightotherwisebeathreattoforests.Organismsthatliveinthesoilbreakdowndeadvegetationsothatitcanenrichthesoil.

AnimalsTheactionsofsomespeciescanbedamagingtoaforest,atleastfromhuman’spointofview.Duringahardwinter,forexample,deerandrabbitsmightsurvivebystrippingandeatingthebarkofyoungtrees.Thatcankeeptheani-malsaliveuntilspring,butitcankillthetreesaforesterhadhopedwouldgrowlargeenoughtoharvest.

As you identify trees, vines, and shrubs in the field, make it a point to look for any damage caused by wildlife, insects, or disease. then, to fulfill requirement 2c, sketch what you have found.

forestry        31

.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage

InsectsForestinsectsanddiseasesdestroymoretreeseveryyearthanareconsumedbywildfires.Mostinsectsattackonlycertaintreespeciesoronlytreesofacertainage.Whitegrubs,forexample,eattherootsofyoungnurseryandforestseedlings,makinggrowingtreesinnurseriescostly.ThewhitepineweevilattacksyoungwhitepinesintheNortheast,causingthemtogrowcrookedandreducingtheamountoflumberthatcanbemadefromthem.

Insectssuchasthesprucebudwormandlarvaeofthegypsymothdefoliatetreesbyeatingmanyoftheleaves.ThesprucebudwormdamagesspruceandfirforeststhroughoutNewEngland,easternCanada,andMinnesota.IntheWest,theyhaveweakenedsomeforestsandleftthemopentocata-strophicwildfires.Thegypsymothlarvaeattackhardwoodsintheeasternstates.Fortunately,forestersthattakequickactionoftenaresuccessfulinstoppingthespreadofgypsymoths.

Thepineconebeetlecandestroyalmosttheentireyearlyseedcropofsomewesternpines.Emeraldashborers,intro-ducedtotheUnitedStatesinshippingpalletscomingfromChina,attackashtreesthathavenonaturaldefensesagainstthem.

epidemics of bark beetles periodically kill tens of thousands of acres of pine in the southern, southwestern, and rocky Mountain regions of the United states. these pests generally attack mature trees.

32        forestry

Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.

one of the reasons the gypsy moth has spread is that gypsy moths often lay their eggs on cars and other vehicles, which are then transported across the country by unsuspecting motorists.

the emerald ash borer causes extensive damage to ash trees by destroying their water-supply system.

forestry        33

.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage

DiseasesTreesarealsosubjecttomanydiseases.Leaf spots, rusts, wilts, blights,andcankerscanweakenorkillforesttrees.Sometreediseasesaffecttheleaves;othersattackthemainwoodyparts(trunk,branches,twigs).Stillothersdamageonlytheroots.Herearesomeexamplesofcommontreediseases.

Dutch elm diseaseiscausedbyafunguscarriedfromtreetotreebytheelmbarkbeetle.ItisoneofthemostdevastatingdiseasesevertoattacktreesandledtothedisappearanceofmostoftheelmsthatoncegracedstreetsofU.S.citiesandtowns.

White pine blister rustkillswhitepines.DiscoveredinNewYorkstatein1903,itspreadwidelyamongtheeasternwhitepines,andby1921wasaffectingwhitepinesinwesternstates.Whitepineblisterrustcannotspreadfrompinetopinebutmustspendpartofitslifeoncurrantorgooseberrybushes.

Chestnut blightwasbroughtintotheUnitedStatesfromAsiaabout1900.TheblightdestroyednearlyallthenativechestnuttreesintheUnitedStates.

Wilting in the upper branches of this tree is a telltale sign of Dutch elm disease.

this tree is infected with white pine blister rust.

34        forestry

Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage.

oak wiltattacksoaks,developingmostrapidlyinredoaksandblackoaks.Manyinfectedtreesdiewithinafewweeksormonths.

ManyinsectsanddiseaseswiththepotentialofdamagingtreesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaarenativetotheforeststheyinhabit.Becausetheyareapartoftheforestecologyandhaveaniche,theyoftencanbecontrolledthroughadjustmentsoftheirhabitat.InsectsanddiseasesbroughttoNorthAmericafromotherpartsoftheworld,suchasthegypsymoth,theemeraldashborer,andDutchelmdisease,canposemoreseriousproblemsbecausetheyhavenonaturalcontrols.

A healthy forest with many species of plants and animals can withstand attacks of insects and diseases better than one already under stress.  A vigorous forest has the greatest variety of natural defenses. For  example, birds, rodents, and other small animals attracted to the lower strata of a forest can control insect populations that could otherwise pose problems for trees.

tree infected with oak wilt Commercial orchard

forestry        35

.Animal, Insect, and Disease Damage

Incommercialforestswheretreesareraisedasacrop,insectinfestationsaresometimessuppressedwithpesticides(chemicalsforcontrollinginsectsanddisease).Pesticidesalsoareusedinotherforeststostopthespreadofundesirableinsectssuchasthegypsymoth,whichisprevalentintheEastbut,becauseofeffectivecontrol,hasnotbecomeestablishedintheWest.Theexpenseofchemicalagentsdependslargelyonthesizeoftheareatreated,thecostofthepesticide,thetypeofequipmentused,andtheaccessibilityofthearea.

Forestresearcherscontinuetosearchforalternativemeth-odsofminimizinginsectsanddiseaseoutbreaks.Forexample,artificialscentscanbeusedtoconfusethematinghabitsofcertaininsectsandthusreducetheirnumbers.Insomeforests,scientistspromotethepopulationsofinsectsthatfeedondisease-bearinginsects.

Protecting forests from threatsWhateveritsorigins,damagefromcertaininsects,diseases,fires,andinvasivespeciesoftencanbereducediftheforestishealthy.Someadditionalpreventiveactionsthatencouragehealthyforestsmightincludethefollowing.

• Protectingagainstwildfire

• Fencingwoodlandstokeepoutexcessivenumbersofcattle,sheep,andotherdomesticanimals

• Makingcuttingstopromotestandswithmixedspeciesofrobusttrees

• ThinningtreestopreventovercrowdingOther Dangers to ForestsTrees may be sick because of one of the following reasons.

•  Insufficient light, inadequate drainage, or poor soil.

•  The trees are not the right species for the site.

•  The habitat has been changed by the raising or the lowering of the water table or by a change in exposure to light. 

•  The trees have been damaged by drought, flooding, frost, or ice.

•  Damage from fire, excessive grazing, or pesticides.

•  Damage from automobile exhaust, acid rain, or other pollutants.

•  The trees are too crowded.

forestry        37

.Using Forest resources responsibly

UsingForestResourcesResponsiblyForest resourcesarematerialspeopleuse.Peopleuseforestsformanythings,suchaswood,water,food,andrecreation.Asprovidersofrawmaterials,forestsarevitaltooureconomy.

treesTheforestresourcesyouprobablyknowthebestaretreesandtheproductsmadefromthem.Weusewoodfromtreestomakefurnitureandtobuildhomes.Woodalsocanbeusedasafuel.Otherprod-uctsmadefromwoodincludepaper,pencils,bats,telephonepoles,andbowlingpins.

Manybuildingmaterials,includingdimensionallumber,plywood,laminatedveneerlumber,andI-joists,comefromsoftwoodtrees.Softwoodtreesalsoareusedformakingpaper.SoftwoodtreesincludeDouglasfir,fir,redwood,whitepine,ponderosapine,hemlock,cedar,andsouthernpinessuchasshortleaf,loblolly,andslash.Chipsandsawdustleftoverfromthemanufactureofwoodproductsareusedformakingpaper,particleboard,andmedium-densityfiberboard.

38        forestry

Using Forest resources responsibly.

Hardwoodsareusedtomakefurniture,flooring,paneling,andmanyotherconstructionmaterialsandcertainengineeredwoodproducts.Someofthemoreeconomicallyimportanthard-woodspeciesareoak,maple,ash,walnut,cherry,gum,andyellowpoplar.

recreationPeoplehavelongenjoyedvisitingforests.Camping,hiking,picnicking,swimming,boating,andwintersportsgrowinpopularityeveryyear.Forestrecreationisalsoanimportantsourceofjobs.Businessesnearforestscanprovidefood,lodging,andsuppliestovisitors.

Companiesofferinginstructioninoutdoorskillsandorga-nizedopportunitiestoenjoyforestshiremanyseasonalandfull-timeemployeestomeettheirdemands.Themanufactureandmarketingofoutdoorequipment—everythingfrombird-watchingbinocularstocampinggear—isamultimillion-dollarbusiness.Allthiscouldnotexistwithouthealthyforestsaccessibletothepublic.

Forest products are essential for tires, aspirin, tooth-paste, and the manufacture of clothing, fuels, paints, and many other products.

forestry        39

.Using Forest resources responsibly

Thosewhomanagepublicandprivatelandsmustbalancetheneedsoftheenvironmentwiththewishesofitsusers.Tothatend,agenciesandlandownersdevelopmanagementplansthatidentifyhowandwhenvariousareasmaybeused.Theirgoalistoencouragepeopletohavefunintheoutdoorsinwaysthathavelittlenegativeimpactupontheland.

Protectingforestecosystemsusedforrecreationisacooperativeeffortinvolvingthosewhoenjoytheoutdoorsandthosewhomanageit.Mostforestvisitorswanttotakegoodcareoftheareaswheretheytravelandcampandwillgladlydosoiftheyknowhowthatcanbedone.

LeaveNoTrace,asetofprinciplesfamiliartooutdoorenthusiastsandtothemanagersofforestedareas,providesunderstandable,effectivewaysforeveryonetobegoodstewardsofforestswhileenjoyingthem.Therewardforeveryoneisahealthyenvironmentthatcanbeusedforrecreationtodayandbygenerationstocome.

Leave No trace outdoor ethics

Plan Ahead and Prepare 

Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces 

Dispose of Waste Properly 

Leave What You Find 

Minimize Campfire Impacts

Respect Wildlife

Be Considerate of Other Visitors

40        forestry

forests Are ImportantMost of the products shown on this chart come from trees that  grow on commercial forest land. This land—749 million acres  in the United States—is the land we depend on for our timber supplies. Nearly three-quarters of all commercial forest land is privately owned. The remaining 27 percent is owned by the  federal government, states, counties, cities, and towns.

If forest land (both private and public) is well-managed, it can provide continuous crops of raw materials for industries and steady jobs for our increasing population. However, forests are needed for other purposes, too—to protect watersheds, to supply  forage for livestock, to furnish a home for fish and wildlife, to provide sites for recreation. Forests are important to us all.

What We Get From Trees

forestry        41

42        forestry

Using Forest resources responsibly.

the Water CycleAsimportantasforestsareinprovidinguswithrawmaterialsandopportunitiesforrecreation,theyalsoarevitalaswater-sheds.Forestlandsareprimarysourcesofwaterformostpeopleinthiscountry.Insomeareas,theamountofwatercomingfromtheforestfordrinking,irrigation,power,recreation,andnavigationisfarmoreimportantthananyotherforestresource.

Watercirculatesthroughtheenvironmentinacyclethatisenergizedbythesun.Heatfromthesunevaporateswaterfromforests,oceans,lakes,andstreams.Thevaporsformcloudsthatcanbecarriedlongdistancesbythewind.Whentheaircoolsorbecomesloadedwithmoisture,thevaporcanfallasrain,snow,sleet,orhail.

Muchoftheprecipitationpercolatesintothesoil,whereitcanbeabsorbedbytherootsofplants.Someofthatpreci-pitationfindsitswayintoundergroundaquifersandothernaturalreservoirs,thenrisesagaintoflowfromspringsorwells.Smallstreamsjointogethertoformriversthatreturnwatertolakesandoceansand,throughevaporation,onceagaintotheatmosphere.

Cloud Formation

transpiration

Evaporation

strEam to oCEan

prECipitation (rain)

surFaCE runoFF

pErColation (soak-in)

Ground WatEr

the water cycle

forestry        43

.Using Forest resources responsibly

Forestcoverisimportant,too,indetermininghowmuchwaterinfiltratestheforestsoilandhowmuchrunsoffthesurfacetonearbystreams.Wisewatershedmanagementcanhelpensureadequatequantitiesofwaterattherighttimesandguaranteethatwaterqualityisgood.

finding your WatershedTofindyourwatershed,locatethestreamnearestyourhome.Followituphill(againstthecurrent).Noticetheotherstreamsjoiningit.Allofthosestreamsandthelandfeedingwaterintothemformyourwatershed.

Insomecases,watercomestoacommunitythroughpipelines,aqueducts,orcanals.Ifyouconsiderthosetobeartificialstreamsandfollowthemagainsttheirflows,youwilleventuallyfindtheopencountrywhereterrain,moisture,andvegetationmeettocreatethewatersheduponwhichyouandyourneighborsdepend.

Trees extract water from the soil and transpire, or give off water vapor, through their leaves. This water becomes part of our atmosphere and may later fall as rain or snow. The amount of water released into the air through transpiration depends on factors including  soil moisture, air temperature, and the speed and direction of the wind.

Watershed dam surrounded by homes

44        forestry

Using Forest resources responsibly.

Clean AirForestsareamongEarth’sgreatfiltersforcleansingtheatmo-sphereandreplenishingitwithoxygen.Animalsabsorboxygenandexhalecarbondioxide.Carbondioxideisalsoproducedwhenplantsandanimalsdecayandwhenwood,coal,gasoline,andothercarbon-basedmaterialsburn.

Plantsmustabsorbcarbondioxideinordertosurvive.Inachemicalreactionchargedwithsunlight,chlorophyllallowsplantstocombinewaterwithcarbondioxidetoproducethesimplesugarsplantsuseforfood.Theprocessiscalledphoto-synthesis—makingsomethingwiththeaidoflight.Aby-productofphotosynthesisistheoxygenanimalsneedforsurvival.

Wildlife HabitatForestsarehometoatremendousrangeofanimals,includinglargeforestanimalssuchasbear,deer,andelkandsmallercreaturesincludingbirds,squirrels,salaman-ders,frogs,andfish.Theseanimalsinhabittheforest;thatis,theyuseitasahome.Thefouressentialsforananimal’shabitat—theareawhereaparticularspeciespreferstolive—arefood,water,space,andshelter.Throughcarefulmanagement,for-esterscanhelpthewoodsprovidehabitatforalargenumberofwild-lifespeciesinthesameforest.

Plants absorbing carbon dioxide can store it—a process called  sequestration—and slow its return to the atmosphere. Carbon is stored in a tree’s trunk, its roots, and in the soil of a forest. Wood eventually will decay and release the carbon back into the atmosphere, but it can be stored in wood products and the forest floor for long periods of time. Many scientists believe sequestration might play a role in reducing  the effects of carbon dioxide as a factor in changing the climate of  the planet.

forestry        45

.Using Forest resources responsibly

fisheries HabitatForestscanbecriticaltothesurvivaloffish.Treesandshrubsshadestreams,keepingwateratatemperatureinvitingtofish.Insectsthatmaketheirhomesinstreamsidevegetationprovidefoodforfish.Leaves,branches,andothervegetationthatdropintothewaterformpoolsandotherplacesforaquaticlifetorest,feed,hide,andspawn.Forestmanagersmakeprovisionstopro-tectwaterqualityandfisherieshabitatinforests.

threatened and endangered speciesChangesthataffectforestecosystemscauseanimalsandplantstoadapttonewconditions,migratetomorehospitablelocations,orsufferreductionsinpopulation.Forexample,firesmovingacrosswoodlandsandprairiesalterthehabitatsofmanycreatures.Anearlywinterstormmightcatchmanyanimalsunpreparedformigrationorhibernation.Floodscanwashawaythehomesofbeaversandalterthespawninggroundsoffish.Droughtcanreducesourcesofnutritionforgrazinganimalsand,inturn,forspeciesthatdependonthoseanimalsforfood.

Whilenaturallyoccurringchangesaffectmanyplantsandanimals,thosechangesoftenplayimportantrolesinmaintain-ingahealthybalanceofspeciespopulations.Unfortunately,thesamecannotalwaysbesaidforthedisruptionscausedbyhumans.Peoplehavenotalwaysbeenawareoftheconse-quencesoftheirdecisionsthatinvolvetheusesofforests.Asaresult,someanimalsandplantshavebecomesoreducedinnumberthattheirverysurvivalisendangered.

Lawstodayhelpprotectmanyofthesethreatenedspecies.GenerationsofAmericanshavealsohadthewisdomtosetasidetractsofunspoiledforest,protectingthemintheformsofparks,wildernessareas,andwildliferefuges.Managedforestsalsoplayanimportantroleinprovidinghabitatforthreatenedspecies.Somethreatenedandendangeredspecies,includingthenorthernspottedowl,grizzlybear,andCaliforniacondorarewell-knowntomuchofthepublic.Therearehundredsofotherendangeredspeciesthatdependuponforestsforsurvival,andalthoughpeopleseldomseethem,theirprotectionisimportantformaintainingarichecosystemdiversity.

Once a species

dies out, it is

gone forever.

46        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

WhyManageForests?Aforestleftentirelytoitselfwould,overthecenturies,remaininbalance.Therewouldbechanges,certainly,butonthewholeitwouldremaindiverseandvibrant.Whenhumansmakechangesinforests,though,thatmightnotalwaysbethecase.Everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse.Forestmanagersneedtomakewisechoicesabouthowweuseandchangeforestssothatwedonotdamagethem.

A Brief History of Humans’ relationships With North American forestsAmericanIndiansusedforestsforcenturiesbeforeEuropeansettlersarrivedonthecontinent.Manytribesusedforestmaterials.InthePacificNorthwest,tribesusedforestmaterialstobuildcedarhousesandboats,andtomakeclothing.Forestsalsoweretremendoussourcesoffood,bothfromplantsandfromwildlife.

Attimes,tribesoverusedcertainforestedareas.Sometimestheyintentionallyburnedforeststoclearlandforcultivationortomakeiteasiertopursuegame.Ifaforestbecameoverusedortooheavilydamagedtosupportatribe,thegroupwouldmoveonandtheforest,leftalone,wouldrecover.

EuropeansettlersthatcametoNorthAmericarealizedfromthebeginningthevalueofforestsassourcesofrawmaterials.ShipsthatbroughtsettlerstotheAmericasoftenreturnedtoEuropewithacargoofNorthAmericanlumber.Forexample,whentheMayflowerreturnedtoEurope,itcarriedbackclap-boardsandotherforestproducts.Manysettlerssawtheforestsasaforcetobepushedback.ForestedlandintheMidwestandWestcouldbeobtainedfromthegovernmenttohomestead.Railroadcompaniesweregivenmillionsofacresofforestedlandasincentivestoconstructtheraillinesthatwouldspanthecontinent.

Long ago, American Indians of the Northeast and Upper Midwest built canoes using the birch bark tree.

forestry        47

.Why Manage Forests?

Forestedlandseemedsoplentifulthatitwastoooftenharvestedwithoutconcernforitsfuture.Duringthelate1800sandearly1900s,poorharvestingpracticesinmanyareasofthecountryledthegovernmenttoestablishagenciestomanagethepubliclands.Theseagenciesbroughtmorebalancetotheuseandprotectionofforests.

Governmentmanagementofspecialareascanbetracedbacktothecreationofthefirstnationalpark—Yellowstone—setasidein1872.In1916,CongressestablishedtheNationalParkService.Itsmissionistopreservenaturalandculturalresourcesfortheenjoyment,education,andinspirationofcurrentandfuturegenerations.

CongresspassedtheCreativeActin1891,designatingmuchofthenation’spubliclyownedforestsasprotectedforestreserves.TheForestReservesActfollowedin1897,changingtheforestreservestonationalforestsandchargingtheirmanagerswithimprovingandprotectingthenation’slong-termsupplyofwoodandwater.TheBureauofForestrybecametheForestServicein1905whencontroloftheforestreserveswastrans-ferredtotheDepartmentofAgriculture.

Nonindustrial

private

landowners in

the United States

own 58 percent

of the forests;

governments

own 29 percent

of the forests;

and the forest

industry owns

the remaining

13 percent.

48        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

Inthedecadesthatfollowed,forward-thinkingagencypersonnelandaconservationmovementmadeupofdedi-catedcitizensestablishedtheideaofbalancingtheneedsofAmericanseagertousepubliclandsforrecreation,andasasourceoflumber,arepositoryofbiologicalresources,andprotectedremindersoftheforestsastheywerebeforehumansintervened.TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960officiallyestablishedmultiple-usemanagementoftheforests.

TheBureauofLandManagement,theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,theFishandWildlifeService,theNaturalResourcesConservationService,andotherpublicagenciesalsostrivetomanageforestedpubliclandsthatfallwithintheiradministrativeboundaries.Stateandlocalagenciesoverseesmalleracreagesofpubliclands.Privatelandownerswithforestedproperties—fromlargeforest-productcompaniestofamilieswithafewacresoftreesaroundtheirhomes—haveastakeinthepropermanagementofforestresources,too.Theirinvolvementinwise,sustainablemanagementisextremelyimportant,sinceprivatelyownedforestsaccountformanymoreacresintheUnitedStatesthandopubliclyheldforests.

The goals of private forest owners vary widely. Small tracts may be owned for many reasons, including  timber production, family recreation, and the protection  of wildlife habitat. While  public forests are usually managed for a variety of  reasons and uses, many large private tracts are owned primarily for timber production. However, forests can be managed for timber production while at the  same time protecting other important forest features.

forestry        49

.Why Manage Forests?

How forests Change Afactoflife(anddeath)ineveryecosystemisthatchangehappens.Nothingeverstaysthesame.Plantsandanimalsmustadapttomeetchangesintheenvironmentortheywillnotsurvive.Take,forexample,aforestthathasrecentlyburnedinawildfire.Overseveralgrowingseasons,grasses,shrubs,vines,andsmalltreeswilltakerootinthesoilmadefertilebytheashoftheburnedforest.Thesesun-lovingpioneerplantswillthriveforafewyears,whileslower-growingtreesestablishthemselvesintheshadeoffastergrowingtrees.Gradually,slower-growingtreesriseabovethefirstgenerationofvegetation.Shadedout,thepioneertreeswilldieandagainrenewthesoil.Thelargertreesandtheotherstratawillcon-tinuetogrowandchangeuntilthereisastable,diversestandofmanyspeciescalledaclimax forest.

Theclimaxforestmightstandformanyyears,butchangewillcontinuetohappen.Firemightagainsweepthroughthetrees,aninsectepidemiccoulddramaticallyaltertheforest’scompositionandappearance,oranumberofthetreesmightbeharvested.Whateverhappens,anewphaseofthecycleofchangewillbegin.

Change and DiversityFrommicroscopicbacteriatoeagles,wolves,andotherpredatorsatthetopofafoodweb,anecosystemishealthiestwhenrichinthevarietyandnumbersofspeciesthrivingwithinit.Thisenvironmentprovidesflexibilityfortheecosystemasawhole.Plantsandanimalswillbemoreadaptivetochange.Thisdiversityofspecies(thatis,manyplantsandanimalsthatareunlikeoneanother)offersastorehouseofenvironmentalpossibilities,therawmaterialforadaptationandsurvival.

50        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

Forinstance,whenbeesharvestnectarfromtreeblossomstomakehoney,pollenstickstotheirlegsandtheycarryitfromonetreetoanother.Thisrelationshipbenefitsbothspecies;thetreesprovidenourishmentforthebees,andthebeesplayavitalroleinthepollinationofthetrees.Ifbeepopulationsdonotsurviveaharshwinter,though,ordiefrompesticidessprayedtooneartheirnests,thetreeswillhavelostareliablemeansofspreadingpollenandmightnotbeabletoreproduce.

Ontheotherhand,adiverseecosystemmightincludehummingbirdsandinsectsthatpollinateplants.Adiversityofvegetationcanensurethatplantspeciesthatdonotrelyonbeesforpollinationwillmoveintotheecosystemnichethathadbeenoccupiedbythebee-dependenttrees.

Human-Caused ChangeHealthy,diverseecosystemstendtobestableandtochangeslowly.Normally,theforcesofnaturetakedecadesorcenturiestocreateperceivablechangeinforestsandotherecosystems.However,naturaleventssuchashurricanes,wildfires,orvolca-noescanaffecttensofthousandsofacresinamatterofdaysorevenminutes.

Humansalsocancauserapidecosystemchange.Peoplepaveopenlandforhighways,parkinglots,anddevelopmentsandcleartimberedareastomakewayforagriculturalcropsandcities.Carsandtrucks,factories,andpowerplantscanpumpexhaustintotheatmospherethatcanhaveadirectimpactonforestsnearandfar.

forestry        51

.Why Manage Forests?

Ourabilitytocausedramaticchangeinforestscarrieswithittheresponsibilitytomakewisedecisionsonissuesthatcanaffectforesthealth.Whilehumansarecapableofactivitiesthataredestructivetoecosystems,wealsocandomuchtoprotectandhealtheenvironment.

Proper forestry techniques can be applied when forests are harvested for lumber and other products. Doing so will result in a new forest being established more quickly than in the aftermath of natural events.

Small actions matter, and personal choices are important. As a group, everyone can work toward creating communities that exist in harmony with  the environment. As concerned citizens, each person can learn about environmental issues and the roles that forests play in environmental, economic, and social well-being.

52        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

sustainable forest ManagementOurforestsfacetremendouschallenges.Thelossofopenspace,thepotentialforwildfirefromthebuildupoffuels,thedevastat-ingeffectsofinvasivespecies,andtheimpactsofunregulatedrecreationalchoicessuchasusingoff-roadvehiclesinfragileareasaresignificantthreatstoourforests.Inaddition,demandsforforestproductsgroweveryyear.

Sustainableforestmanagementtakesforestplanningastepfurtherbyemphasizingtheimportanceofconsideringtheneedsoftoday’sforestuserswhilealsoensuringthatfuturegenerationswillbeabletoenjoyhealthyforests.Accomplishingthatgoalrequiresamanagementapproachthatlooksatforestsasecosystems,notjustasstandsoftrees.Whilesustainablemanagementviewsforestsassourcesofrawmaterialsandrecreation,italsoinvolvesstewardshipthatgivesfullattentiontocaringforwildlifehabitat,increasingthediversityofspecies,andprotectingthequalityoftheair,water,andsoil.

Multiple-use management addresses the desires of a broad range of forest users. Harvesting, recreation, wildlife, and other interests are all considered in multiple-use forest plans.

forestry        53

.Why Manage Forests?

silvicultural systemsAmongthemanytoolsofforestmanagementaresilvicultural systems.(Silvameans“forest”inLatin.)Silvicultureisthescienceofplanting,growing,andharvestingstandsoftreestomeettheobjectivesofthelandmanagerorforestowner.Foresterscanusesilviculturalsystemstoimprovethehealthofforestsandtoacceleratetheproductionoftimberforharvest.Thechoiceofamanagementsystemfurtherdependsonthecharacteristicsofthetreespeciesthatmakeuptheforesttypeandthefeaturesoftheterrainwherethetreesaregrowing.

Trained foresters

can determine

how best

to develop

a silvicultural

system that

provides for

the best mix

of benefits to

humans and

protection of

the ecosystem.

The value of a stand of trees as wildlife habitat is influenced not only by the tree species but also by their age, size, form, and health. Old trees have stout limbs on which heavy birds can nest. Bare branches provide roosts. Rotten spots can be hollowed into nests. Large dead trees are particularly important. These snags should be left standing whenever possible to provide habitat for hole-nesting wildlife and insect-eating wildlife.

Studies by the Department of Agriculture’s U.S. Forest Service indicate that at the time of European settlement, forests covered a billion acres of what was to become the United States. Today, there are 749 million forested acres. Most of the loss came in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country during the years between 1850 and 1900. The total forest area of the nation has been relatively stable for more than a hundred years even as the population of the United States has more than doubled. 

54        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

Themaintreatmentsmakingupsilviculturalsystemsinvolvethefellingoftreesandtheregenerationofanewforestforthefuture.Systemsthatresultintreesofapproximatelythesameagearecalledeven-agedsystems.Thetreesmayormaynotbeequalinsize.Systemsthatresultintreesofmanyagesaretermeduneven-agedsystems.Eachsystemincludesstepstoestablishseedlingsandactionstoencouragethehealthandproductivityofadevelopingstand.Sometreespeciesgrowbestinaneven-agedforest,whileothersgrowbestinuneven-agedstands.Cuttingsinforestsarefurtherclassedasregeneration harvest cuttingsthathelpreproduceorcreatenewforeststandsandintermediate cuttingsintendedtoimprovethehealthandqualityofanexistingstand.

regeneration Cutting systemsDependingonthelargermanagementplansofforesters,standsoftreesmaybecutusingsystemsthatleadtoappropriateharvestingoftimberandtothereproductionoftreestands.

Clear-Cut systems.Clear-cuttingistheharvestingofalltreesinanareaexceptthosethatarenecessarytomaintainwaterquality,fishhabitat,andotherhealthyecosystemconsiderations.Theclear-cutcanthenberegeneratedbybroadcastingseeds,fromsprouts,orbyplantingseedlings.Thenewstandmayalsobeallowedtodevelopnaturallyfromseedsdroppedbytreesborderingtheclear-cut,fromseedsalreadyontheforestfloor,orfromstumpsproutsandrootsproutsofcuttrees.Thenewtreeswillhaveequalaccesstosunlight.Thestrongestwillgrowrelativelyquicklyandwillbestraightandtall.

Clear-cutting system

forestry        55

.Why Manage Forests?

Clear-cuttingcanbecontroversial,inlargepartbecauseofthechangesinappearanceitcreatesonthelandbutalsobecauseclear-cuttingcanhavealargeimpactonmanyspecies.Animalssuchasrabbits,moles,andgophersthatdependonshadeanddensevegetationwillbeforcedtomigratetootherareasinordertosurvive.Ontheotherhand,forestopeningscreatedbyclear-cuttingcanincreasethehabitatfordeer,bears,certainbirds,andotherspeciesthatgetpartoralloftheirfoodandshelterfromlowvegetationandbrushwithlittleornooverheadshade.Additionally,certainspeciesoftreesrequirefullsunlighttothriveandwillnotgrowwellundertheshadeofothertrees.

Incertainsituations,clear-cuttingisthebestsilviculturaltoolavailabletoaforestmanager.Clear-cuttingisoftenusedinforeststhathavebeendamagedbyfireorthathavebeenpoorlyharvestedoverthedecades.Clear-cuttingalsocanbeusedeffectivelytomaximizetheproductionoftreesgrownforpulpwoodandofothersun-lovingspeciesthatwillnotgrowwellintheshadeofothertrees.

Clear-cuttingshouldbedoneonlywhencarefullyplannedbyprofessionalforestersandcarriedoutusingproperharvestingtechniques.Forestersmustconsidertheeffectsclear-cuttingwillhaveonwildlife,theland,andthesurroundingforest.Forexample,streamscanbepollutedbysiltordirtifforestroadsandloggingtrailsarenotproperlydesigned.Bufferzonescom-posedoftreesthatareleftuncutmustbeestablishedalongstreamstoprovidecontinuedshadeandnourishmentforfish.

seed-tree system.Forestersusingtheseed-tree systemtoharvestamaturestandoftreesleaveafewhealthyseed-producingtreesoneachacre.Thesetreesprovidetheseedsneededtoregenerateaneweven-agedstand.Afterthefreshcropofyoungtreeshasbecomeestablished,theseedtreesthemselvesmaybeharvested.Thissystemismoreeffectivewhenusedwithevergreensthanwithhardwoods.

Even-aged

management:

Clear-cutting,

seed-tree,

shelterwood

Uneven-aged

management:

Single-tree

selection,

group selection

seed-tree system

56        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

shelterwood system.Theshelterwood systeminvolvesaseriesofpartialcuttingsinthematurestandoveraperiodofyears.Earlycuttingsimprovethevigorandseedproductionoftheremainingtreesandhelppreparethesitefornewseedlingstotakeroot.Thetreesthatareretainedproduceshade—theshelterwood—forseedlingsandyoungtrees.Asthenewtreesgainviability,theshelterwoodtreescanbeharvestedandthenewcropoftreesallowedtodevelopasaneven-agedstand.

single-tree selection system.Thesingle-tree selection systemdiffersfromothersystemsinthatitcreatesandmaintainsanuneven-agedstand.Forestersexamineastandandjudgeeachtreeonitsindividualmerits,harvestingatreeasitmatures.Seedlingsorsproutscanthengrowinthespacescreatedbytreeremovals.Periodicthinning,harvesting,andregenerationresultinastandmadeupoftreesofmanyagesandsizes.Becauserelativelyfewtreesareharvestedatonetimeandbecausetheforestfloorisgenerallyshaded,thissystemfavorsspeciesthatthriveinlowlight.

shelterwood system

single-tree selection system

forestry        57

.Why Manage Forests?

Group selection system.Thegroup selection systemrequirestheharvestingofsmallgroupsoftrees.Theopeningscreatedbythismethodresembleminiatureclear-cuts,althoughtheresultingregenerationoccupiestoosmallanareatobeconsideredaneven-agedstand.Asinthesingle-treesystem,thinningandharvestcuttingsaredoneatthesametime.Thenewtreesthatgrowinthesesmallopeningsareregardedaspartofalargerstandthatcontainstreesofmanyages.Ineitherselectionsystem,frequentharvestswillmaintainabalanceoftreeagesandsizes.

Intermediate CuttingsIntermediatecuttings,suchasimprovementcuttings,salvagecuttings,andsanitationcuttings,canbedistinguishedfromregenerationcuttingsbytheirpurpose.Regenerationcuttingscreateanewstandoftrees;intermediatecuttingsimproveanexistingstandormaintainthevigor,thedesiredcomposition,andthestructureofthestandsintermsoftreespecies,ages,andsizeclasses.

Atreeneedsaplaceinthesun,soilofitsown,androomtoexpandifitistothrive.Whenastandoftreesistoodense,aprofessionalforestermayprescribethinningtoeasethecompeti-tionandtoaccelerategrowthofthetreesthatremain.Thetreesthatareremovedmightbesoldasposts,poles,orpulpwood(foruseinmakingpaper).Iftheyaretoosmalltohavemarketvalue,thethinningiscalledprecommercial.Thesetreesarecutandlefttodecay,returningnutrientstothesoil.

All silvicultural systems require loggers to go into  forests. Whether it is a large operation involving trucks and heavy machinery or a selective cut made using draft horses or helicopters, there will be some impact on small trees and other vegetation and on the soil. In choosing a forest-management system, silviculturalists must consider the full impact on the land, not just a system’s effect on trees.

Group selection system

58        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

Improvement Cuttings.Inastandcontainingamixtureofdesirableandundesirabletrees,animprovement cuttingmaybemadetofavorthedesirableones.Undesirabletreescanincludeundersizedtreesoronesthatarecrowdinglargertrees.Determiningwhichtreestoremovedependsonalargersustainableforestmanagementplantobalancethedesirefortimberwiththeneedforwildlifehabitat,aestheticappeal,orrecreation.

salvage Cuttings.Naturalcatastrophes,suchaswindstorms,icestorms,andfires,sometimescausegreatdestructioninforeststands.Salvage cuttingsareprescribedtomanageeconomiclossbyharvestingdamagedtrees,toreducetheriskoffirebyremovingdeadmaterialbeforeitfallstotheforestfloorandbecomespotentialfuel,andtoclearthewayfornewgrowththatwillkeepaforesthealthy.

sanitation Cuttings.Ifsometreesinastandareharmedbyinsectsordisease,theforestermayrecommendasanitation cuttingtoremoveinfestedorinfectedtreesthatposeathreattoneighboringhealthytrees.

Intermediate cutting

forestry        59

.Why Manage Forests?

replanting a forestAfterawildfireortheharvestofastandoftrees,reseedingwilloccurnaturally,butitcantakeseveralyears.Forestersmaydecidetocontrolandhastentheprocessbyplantingseedlingsorbysowingseeds.

Seedinghasseveraladvantagesoverplanting.Itisfasterandlessexpensive,anditcanbedoneinplaceswhereplantingisdifficultorimpossible.Aircraftcansometimesbeusedtosowseed.Seedinghassomedisadvantagesbecausespacingisuncontrolled,andbirdsorrodentsmayeattheseedbeforeitgerminates.Ingeneral,itislesscertainthatagoodstandwillbeestablished.

Timber-Stand ImprovementImprovement, salvage, and sanitation cuttings are methods used for timber-stand improvement. As with all approaches to managing forests, the goal of timber-stand improvement is to encourage stands of trees to thrive, to resist disease, and to fulfill the goals of an overall forest plan that protects ecosystem viability.

60        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

Becausecertainspeciesoftreesareadaptedtocertainsoils,forestersselectandplantthosethatwillgrowbestonaparticularsite.Theyconsiderwhichspecieswillmakethebesttimberorpulpwood,protectwatersheds,favorrecreation,improvewildlifehabitat,ormeetthelandmanager’slong-termsustain-ableforestobjectives.

Anareatobeplantedmaybepreparedinadvancebyprescribedburningorbyothermeansofbaringthesoilsuchasusingabulldozeroracultivatingmachine.Plantingmachinescanbeusedwherelargeareasaretobereforestedandthesiteislevelandfreeoflargestones.Inmoreruggedterrain,plantingmustbedonebyhand.

Planting seedlingsByplantingseedlings,foresterscanspacetheplantsforgoodgrowthandvigor.Seedlingsmustbecarefullyhandledandtherootskeptmoistatalltimes.Plantersuseamattockoraspecialplantinghoecalledahoedadtocreateaholeofproperdepth.Theythensetaseedlingataboutthedepthitwasgrowinginthenursery.Aslight“collar”onitsstemusuallymarksthisdepth.Theplanterspreadstherootstoasnaturalapositionaspossibleandthentampsthesoilfirmlyaroundtherootsandthestemtogetridofairpocketsthatmightallowtheplanttodryoutanddie.

right

right and wrong methods for side-hole planting

wrong

forestry        61

.Why Manage Forests?

Center-Hole Method

step 1—Drive the mattock blade straight down.

step 3—Open the top of the slit by pulling back on the mattock. Insert the tree.

step 4—Close the slit using the mattock blade.

step 5—Tamp the soil with your heel.

step 2—Open a slit by raising the handle.

62        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

The full-page illustration shown here reviews some of the factors that must be considered in forest management and some of the practices used in managing a forest in Montana.

  1. The slope and aspect (the direction the slope faces) help determine what to grow. On a north-facing slope, Douglas fir or larch will grow well. On a south slope, ponderosa pine is a good choice.

  2. Elevation is just as important as slope and aspect. Seeds from trees that grow at 5,000 feet often will not grow well at 1,000 feet, and  vice versa.

  3. Seeds sown from a helicopter must have their “wings” removed first. Otherwise the seeds float to the wrong area.

  4. Seeds should be dyed an unappetizing color, such as blue-green or silver, to keep birds from eating them.

  5. Nature itself often will seed the forest if the very best trees are left standing about 50 feet apart.

  6. Hand-planted seedlings need shade to help them survive better.  Rocks situated on the south side of the seedlings will provide shade.

  7. Rodent populations should be assessed before seeding. Rodents might eat the seeds.

  8. Seeds should be coated with a fungicide to prevent fungi from  attacking the seedlings.

  9. Seeds scattered on snow will be carried into the soil and kept moist as the snow melts.

  10. The ground cover should be burned or scarified to create bare soil where seeds can germinate.

  11. Seeds from trees that have straight trunks, dense crowns, and few low branches will produce the best seedlings. Seed from superior trees can grow into superior forests.

  12. Thin the trees when they are about 10 years old to give those that remain plenty of room to grow. 

  13. To get seeds from cones, wait until the cones ripen and brown on the trees, but not so ripe that they open themselves. Gather the cones and place them in a room heated to 90 degrees for four or five days. The cones will open and the seeds will drop out.

1

5

68

9

10

13

11

12

7

2

3

4

64        forestry

Why Manage Forests?.

sowing seedsForestersmaysowseedratherthanplantseedlings.Thismethodismainlyusedforpine.Pineseedscangerminate,orsprout,onbaresoilsurfaceswithlittlemoisture.PinetreesgrowinmostregionsoftheUnitedStates.Pinecones,whichcontaintheseed,ripeninthefall.Theconesaregatheredwhentheyhaveturnedbrownbutarenotsoripethattheyhaveopened.Whenkeptfourtofivedaysinastorageareaheatedto90degreesFahrenheit,theconeswillopenandtheseedswilldropout.

Seedsmustgothroughaperiodofdormancy(rest)beforetheycangerminate.Winterdoesthisnaturallyforthem.Seedsgatheredforseedingusuallyarekeptcoldoverwinterandsowninthespring.Forestersruntestsontheseedstolearntheirgermination rate,thepercentageoftheseedsexpectedtogrow.Thegerminationrateforseedsthathavebeenproperlyhandledoftenexceeds90percent.

Improving treesThegrowthrate,appearance,andotherqualitiesoftreesdependgreatlyongenes,thecodesthattellcellshowtogrow.Forestersusegenetic improvementtogetbettertrees.Oneofthewaystodothisistogatherseedsfromsuperiortrees—treesthatgrowstraightatarapidrate,standfirmagainstwinds,producelargeamountsofseedsandqualitywood,andresistinsectsanddiseases.Seedsfromsuchsuperiortreesareusedtoreplantstands.Toincreasethesupplyofimprovedseeds,forestersmayartificiallypollinatetreestodevelopseedorchardsofsuperiortrees.

fertilizersForestersusefertilizerinsomestandstoimprovethegrowthoftreesandotherplants.Addedtotheforestsoil,fertilizersmaybeespeciallyhelpfultotreesgrowingonpoorgroundandmayincreasethenumberofseedlingsthatsurviveontheforestfloor.Althoughexpensive,fertilizedtreesandotherplantsmaygrowhealthierandfasterandbereadyforharvestingsooner.

Young stands

of true fir trees

in the Pacific

Northwest are

sometimes

fertilized to

encourage

development of

boughs that

can be harvested

to make

holiday wreaths.

66        forestry

Fire.

FireFirecanbeusefulinforestmanagementwhenitisprescribed(plannedaheadoftimetoattainacertaingoal),butfirethatisnotprescribed—awildfire—candamagewholeforests.

WildfireNearly9outof10forestfiresarecausedbypeoplewhohavebeencareless.Onlyonewildfireoutof10iscausedbylight-ning.Regardlessofwhatcausesthem,wildfirescanleavegreatscarsonthecountrysidebydestroyingtrees,brush,grass,andeventhefertiletoplayersofthesoil.

Onceafirestarts,therateatwhichitspreadsdependsonthetypeoffuel,

theweather,andthetopographyoftheland.Flashfuelssuchasdrygrass,leaves,andtwigsburneasilyandquickly.Greenandwetfuelsburnmoreslowly.Themoredryfuelthereisintheforest,thefaster

afirewillspread.Weatherconditionsalsoaffect

howfastandhowfarafirespreads.Sunshinedriesfuels.Ontheotherhand,

raindampensfuelsandmakesthemburnmoreslowlyiftheyburnatall.Perhapsthemostcriticalweatherfactor,though,iswind.Windcandryoutfuels,fanafiresothatitburnsfaster,blowflamestowardmorefuel,andcarrysparksthatsetnewfires.Airtemperatureandhumidityalsoareimportant.Iftheairishotandtheamountofmoistureintheairislow,fuelscandryoutandburnmorequickly.

forestry        67

.Fire

Theshapeofthelandalsoaffectsthemovementofafire.Thesteeperahill,forinstance,thefasterafirewillmoveupit.Firesburnmoreslowlydownhill,thoughburningpineconesorlogscanrolldownwardandignitenewfiresatthebottomoftheslope.Fuelsonsouth-facingslopesmightburnfasterthanthoseonnorth-facingslopes,becausetheyhavebeenexposedtomoresunlight,whichhasdriedthem.Firebreakssuchasroads,streams,rockcliffs,andbareearthcansloworstopthespreadoffire.

Theworstwildfiresusuallyoccurwhenflamesclimbintotheforestcanopy.Thesecrown firescanspreadquicklyand,ifnotcontained,mightdamagethousandsofacresofforest.Wildfirescandestroythegroundlitter,whichactsasaprotec-tivesoilcovering.

Intensefirescanchangethecompositionofsoil,causingittorepelwater.Waterrapidlyrunsoffthissoilintostreamsandreservoirsandmaycausefloods.Italsowashessediment,ashes,anddebrisfromtheburnedareasintowatersheds.Mostfishcannotliveinwatersthatbecomepollutedwithash.Woodlandfiretemporarilydestroysfoodsuppliesthatanimalsandbirdsdependon,anditoftenmakesanareaunsuitableforoutdoorrecreation.

Lessharmfularesurface firesthatstayinthelowerstrataofaforest.Movingmoreslowlyandatloweroveralltemperaturesthancrownfires,surfacefirescanclearoutbrush,smalltrees,anddeadwoodwithoutkillinglargetreesorsterilizingthesoil.Asurfacefiremightallowtheforesttorecoverandbecomeevenmorevigorousthefollowingspringorsummer.

68        forestry

Fire.

Surfacefirescausedbylightninghaveanaturalroletoplayinmanyforestsbyconsumingmuchofthebrushanddeadwoodchokingaforest’sunderstory,releasingnutrientsintothesoil,andprovidingafertilebedfornewgrowth.Maturetreescanoftenwithstandtheheatofoccasionalfires,becausetheirbarkisdenseenoughtopreventthemfrombeingseriouslydamaged.

Firedoeshavesomebeneficialaspectsforforests.Theconesofsomepinesopenonlyaftertheyhavebeenexposedtotheheatofafire.Theconesgerminateintheashesandsendupsaplingsasanewforestbegins.Inaddition,animalscanmovemorefreelythroughlandopenedbyfireandcangrazeonthenewlysproutedvegetation.Evenwhenlargetreesarecompletelyburned,thelandisleftreadyfortheprocessofforestsuccessiontobeginoncemore.

Fire sometimes can creep into the roots of a tree, where it can smolder underground for long periods of time before resurfacing and blazing again. This is more common in species of trees with high levels of pitch (a flammable secretion) such as Douglas fir and ponderosa pine.

this prescribed forest fire helped clear the forest’s understory to provide room for new growth.

forestry        69

.Fire

Muchmodernconcernaboutfiresresultsfrompastmanagementpracticesthatsoughttoeliminateallfires.Thatapproachoftenalloweddeadwoodtobuilduponforestfloors.Whenafiredoesbreakoutandburnsintothatdeadwood,itmaybehotterandmoredestructivethanifthenaturalcyclesoffireandregenerationhadbeenallowedtoplaythemselvesout.

Prescribed fireTolessenthedangerofdev-astatingfires,forestersmightintentionallysetfiretoanarea.Thisprescribed burn-ingiscarefullyplanned,andthefireissetaccordingtoaprescriptionwrittenfortheconditionsthatexistandtheobjectivestobeachieved.Thefireexposesthesoil,releasesnutrientsintothesoil,eliminatessomeinsectsanddiseases,andremovesundesirabletreesorbrush.Theheatalsocanopenupfallencones.

Prescribedburnsmadeonaregularbasis—everythreetofiveyears,forexam-ple—canreducedriedleavesandbrushthat,ifallowedtoaccumulate,couldeventuallyfeedaverydamagingwildfire.Wildfiresareuncontrolledfires,andtheycanbeavoidedormadelessseverebyprescribedburning.

Preventing WildfiresTheeasiestfiretofightistheonethatdoesnotstart.Youcanhelpeducatethepublicaboutwildfirepreventionbytakingpartinfire-preventioncampaignsconductedbywood-productscompanies,professionalforesters,firewardens,andothers.TheLeaveNoTraceprinciplesforminimizingtheimpactofcampfiresalsoareimportantguidelinesforpreventingfiresthatwouldposeathreattoaforest.

70        forestry

Fire.

InadditiontofollowingtheLeaveNoTraceprinciples,usecareinburninganything.Knowyourstatelawsaboutburningbrushanddebris.Ifyourstaterequiresapermit,youcangetonefromyourlocalfirewardenorranger.Haveplentyofhelp,tools,andwaternearthefire,andneverburnanythingoutsideonhot,dry,orwindydays.

Ifyoudiscoverafire,donotputyourselfindanger.Notifythefiredepartment,thepolice,orarangerdistrict.Firefightersknowthattocontrolanyfire,itmustbestoppedfromspreadingandthenputoutcompletely.Sincefuel,air,andheatmustbepresentbeforeafirewillburn,trainedfirefighterswillattackafireinoneorallofthefollowingways.

• Removethefuelsupply.Usingrakes,shovels,orheavyequipment,firefighterscreateatrenchofbareeartharoundthefire.Ifbushesarenearby,theyclearthemawaysotheywillnotburnorfallacrossthetrench.

• Cutofftheairtosmotherthefire.Firefightersworkingonthegroundcanthrowdirtonthefire.Aircraftcanspreadchemicalfireretardantsorwaterontheflames.

• Lowertheheat.Firesnearroadscanbefoughtusingwatersprayedfromfiretrucks.Ahelicopterslinginga200-gallonbucketfromacableissometimesbroughtintodumpwaterontheflamesofmoreremotefires.Thepilotcanrefillthebucketfromtheairbyloweringitintoalake.Firefightersonthegroundcancoolburningfuelbyscatteringshovelfulsofdirtandmixingitwellwiththeembers.

Leave No Trace: Minimize Campfire Impacts•  Use a lightweight camp stove for cooking, and 

enjoy a candle lantern for light.

•  Where fires are permitted, use established fire rings.

•  Keep fires small. Only use sticks from the ground that can be broken by hand.

•  Burn all wood to ash, and make sure all campfires are cold out.

forestry        71

.Visiting a Managed Forestry operation

VisitingaManagedForestryOperationYourmeritbadgecounselorandparentscanhelpyouarrangeavisittoamanagedforest,aloggingoperation,oramanufac-turingplantthatuseswoodproducts.Youcanseeforyourselfhowtheworkofforestryiscarriedout.Youalsowillhaveopportunitiestovisitwithforestryprofessionalsandlearnmoreabouttheirbackgrounds,training,andresponsibilities.Planthetripwellinadvancesothattheforestryprofession-alswillhavetimetoprepareforyourvisit.Getpermissioninadvanceifyouwanttotakephotographsduringyourvisit.

Write down your

observations

about your visit

while they are

still fresh in your

mind. That way

you will have the

information you

need to write a

report about your

findings. Be sure

to write and send

a letter thanking

those you visited

for taking the

time to show

you around.

72        forestry

Visiting a Managed Forestry operation.

Dosomeresearchontheforest,loggingoperation,ormanufacturingplantyouplantovisit,andthinkaboutsomeofthequestionsyouwantanswered.Inamanagedforest,forexample,youcanfindoutaboutthemanagementobjectivesandtheforestrytechniquesusedtoachievethoseobjectives.Youmightalsoresearchoraskaboutthespeciesoftreesgrown,thesilviculturalsystemused,orwhetherreplantingisdonewithseedlingsorseeds.

Inamanufacturingplantyoucandiscoverwhatproductsarebeingmadethatincluderawmaterialsfromforests.Wheredidtherawmaterialsoriginate?Howarethematerialstrans-portedtotheplant?Whatistheprocessforturningthemintofinishedproducts?Whatisdonewiththeby-productsofthemanufacturingprocess?

At a logging operation, you can ask where the trees being harvested are going and how they will be used. explore the ways a harvest is being conducted and what the future holds for that portion of the forest.

74        forestry

Careers in Forestry.

CareersinForestryForestryisthescience,art,andpracticeofmanagingandusingforhumanbenefitthenaturalresourcesthatoccurinassocia-tionwithforests.Ensuringthatourforestsarenurturedandusedinsustainablewaysthatwillkeepthemhealthyrequiresknowledgeofmanydisciplines,includingeconomics,biology,chemistry,physics,engineering,andevenpsychology.

Forestersaretrainedinrecognizingtheinterrelationshipsofsoil,air,water,treesandotherplants,wildanddomesticanimals,andhumans.Theydirectlandsurveys,roadcon-struction,andtheplantingandharvestingoftrees.Theyhelppreventdamagefrominsects,wildlife,diseases,andfires.Theymightplanrecreationalusesofforestlandsorsupervisetimber-harvestingcrews,firefighters,andtreeplanters.Manyforestersareemployedbyprivatelandowners,governmentagencies,andforest-productscompanies.Othersareresearchersandeducators.

Thosewhomanagetimberlandsmustbeskilledinbalanc-ingtheneedsofhumanswiththoseofforestecosystems.Theyknowhowtoencouragethegrowthoftrees,andtheyunderstandhowharvesting,fire,urbandevelopment,andotherinfluencescanchangeaforest.Theyalsorealizetheimportanceofgoodcommunicationskills.

trainingMostforestershaveatleastabachelor’sdegreeinforestry.Manyhavemaster’sanddoctoratedegrees.Forestrystudentstakebiologyandphysicalandsocialscienceclasses.Thencomesintensivestudyofecology,foresteconomics,forestprotection,silviculture,resourcesmanagementanduse,dendrology(classificationoftrees),andforestmeasurement,policy,andadministration.

forestry        75

.Careers in Forestry

opportunitiesThousandsofprofessionalforestersworkintheUnitedStates,abouthalfofwhomworkforpublicagencies.Anotherthirdworkforindustrialconcerns.Mostoftheothersareeducators,researchers,andprivateconsultants.

federal Agencies.TheUSDAForestServiceemploysmoreforestersthantheotherfederalbranches.NaturalResourcesConservationServiceoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,BureauofLandManagement,NationalParkService,BureauofIndianAffairs,andtheFishandWildlifeServiceoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorallemployforesters.Thedepart-mentsofDefense,State,andCommerce,theInternalRevenueService,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,andothergovernmentagenciesalsorelyonforesters.

Beginningforestersareoftenassignedtorangerdistrictsinnationalforests.Theyenforcethelaw,conducttimberinventoriesandboundarysurveys;helpcontroldamagebyfire,insects,anddiseases;conductreforestation,timbermarking,logscaling,andrange-foragesurveys;andassistwithrecreationaldevelopment.Theymayeventuallysupervisecrews,administerprograms,andoverseerangerdistrictsandentireforests.ResearchforesterscanrisetothetopofthefederalscalethroughworkinregionalForestandRangeExperimentStations.

state, County, and City Governments.Beingaforesterforstategovernmentcanincludefireprotectiononpublicandprivateforests,managementofpubliclyownedforests,man-agementandmarketingassistancetoprivatelandowners,conservationeducation,publicrelations,andimplementa-tionofstateforestpracticeacts.Urbanforestersprotectandimprovethevegetationinandaroundpopulatedareas.

Private Industry.Industrialforestersworkforcorporations.Theyplananddirecttreeplanting,determinetimber-harvestingschedules,superviseoperations,andhelpprotectthetimberfromfire,insects,disease,andtheft.Theymustbalancethegrowingoftreesforharvestwhileprotectingotherimportantforestvalues.

The professional

foresters you

meet as you earn

the Forestry merit

badge will be

excellent sources

of information

about forestry

careers. They

can help you

learn about the

education that

is needed and

the experience

you must have.

76        forestry

Careers in Forestry.

education.Forestersalsoworkaseducatorsatthenation’scollegesanduniversities.Theyfrequentlyconductresearchinconjunctionwithteaching.ExtensionforestersworkwithU.S.land-grantuniversitiestoprovideinformationandguidancetoprivateforestownersandthegeneralpublic.

Consultants.Consultingforestersadvisepublicandprivateforestownersabouttimber-managementplansandpractices.Theyappraiseandmarkettimber,andadviseonforestlandinvestments,amongotherservices.

other opportunities.Otheropportunitiesforforestersincludeworkinwildlife,range,andwatershedmanagement;insometypesofengineering;inparkplanning,development,andadministration;ineconomics,landscapearchitecture,publicrelations,andrealestatedevelopment;inequipmentsales;andinlaw.

Foresters in

industry also fill

positions indirectly

related to

technical forestry.

They may be in

sales; they may

procure wood

from landowners

and farmers;

or they may be

involved in the

manufacturing of

wood products.

You and the Future of Our ForestsAs you complete the requirements for the Forestry merit badge, you will discover that the primary goal of forestry is to ensure the sustainability of forest eco-systems. You can think of forest resources as being on loan to those who are alive today. Citizens have the responsibility of using and caring for these mag-nificent resources in ways that will sustain their vital-ity. In the decisions you make today as a hiker and camper and, perhaps, in a future career as a forester, you can have a tremendous influence on protecting and using forests wisely.

78        forestry

Forestry resources.

scouting LiteratureBoy Scout Journal; Trees pocketguide;Environmental Science, Fire Safety, Fish and Wildlife Management, Gardening, Insect Study, Mammal Study, Nature, Plant Science,andSoil and Water Conservationmeritbadgepamphlets

Books

Arno,Jon.Trees.DiscoveryBooks,2000.

Baerg,HarryJ.How to Know the Western Trees(PicturedKeyNatureSeries).W.C.Brown,1973.

Bolgiano,Chris.Living in the Appalachian Forest: True Tales of Sustainable Forestry.StackpoleBooks,2002.

Burton,LawrenceD.Introduction to Forestry Science.DelmarLearning,1998.

Cassie,Brian,andMarjorieBurns.National Audubon Society First Field Guide: Trees.ScholasticInc.,1999.

Day,Trevor.Taiga.RaintreePublishers,2003.

Edlin,HerbertL.What Wood Is That: A Manual of Wood Identification.VikingBooks,1998.

Kricher,JohnC.Peterson First Guide to Forests.HoughtonMifflinCompany,1999.

Little,ElbertLuther.National Audubon Society Field Guide to Trees: Eastern Region.Knopf,1980.

———.National Audubon Society Field Guide to Trees: Western Region.Knopf,1980.

Miller,Char,andRebeccaStaebler.The Greatest Good: 100 Years of Forestry in America.SocietyofAmericanForesters,1999.

Miller,Howard,etal.How to Know the Trees(PicturedKeyNatureSeries).McGraw-HillScience/Engineering/Math,1978.

Petrides,GeorgeA.A Field Guide to Eastern Trees.HoughtonMifflin,1998.

———.A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs: Field Marks of All Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines that Grow Wild in the Northeastern and North-Central United States.HoughtonMifflin,1973.

Raphael,Ray.More Tree Talk: The People, Politics, and Economics of Timber.IslandPress,1994.

Staub,FrankJ.America’s Forests.LernerPublishingGroup,1998.

True,Alianor.Wildfire: A Reader.IslandPress.2001.

ForestryResources

Visit the Boy Scouts of America’s official retail Web site at http://www.scoutstuff.org for a complete listing of all merit badge pamphlets and other helpful Scouting materi-als and supplies.

forestry        79

.Forestry resources

organizations and Web sitesAmerican forest and Paper Association111119thSt.NW,Suite800Washington,DC20036Toll-freetelephone:800-878-8878Website:http://www.afandpa.org

American tree farm system111119thSt.NW,Suite780Washington,DC20036Telephone:202-463-2462Website:http://www.treefarmsystem.org

eNature.comWebsite:http://www.enature.com

environmental Protection AgencyArielRiosBuilding1200PennsylvaniaAve.NWWashington,DC20460Telephone:202-260-2090Website:http://www.epa.gov

forest Products LaboratoryTelephone:608-231-9200Website:http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us

Identification KeysWebsite:http://www.backyardnature.net/keys.htm

National Association of state forestersTelephone:202-624-5415Website:http://www.stateforesters.org

Natural resources Conservation serviceAttn:LegislativeandPublic

AffairsDivisionP.O.Box2890Washington,DC20013Website:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov

society of American foresters5400GrosvenorLaneBethesda,MD20814-2198Telephone:301-897-8720Website:http://www.safnet.org

treeLink68EastGirardAve.SaltLakeCity,UT84103Telephone:801-359-1933Website:http://www.treelink.org

U.s. Department of Agriculture forest service1400IndependenceAve.SWWashington,DC20250-0003Telephone:202-205-8333Website:http://www.fs.fed.us

AcknowledgmentsTheBoyScoutsofAmericathanksJimJames,directorofWeyerhaeuserCompany’sEnvironmentalAffairs,SustainableForestry,forhisassistancewiththisneweditionoftheForestrymeritbadgepamphlet.

WeappreciatetheQuicklistConsultingCommitteeoftheAssociationforLibraryServicetoChildren,adivisionoftheAmericanLibraryAssociation,foritsassistancewithupdatingtheresourcessectionofthismeritbadgepamphlet.

Photo and Illustration Credits

FredBaker,UtahStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page33(left)

ScottBauer,USDAAgriculturalResearchService,courtesy—page50

T.W.Bretz,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page34(left)

BillCook,MichiganStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—pages15(larch, tamarack, eastern hemlock),18(bottom),and22(bark)

CarlDennis,AuburnUniversity,courtesy—page19(bottom)

HAAPMediaLtd.,courtesy—cover(acorns)

PeggyGreb,USDAAgriculturalResourceService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page25(top)

KenHammond,USDA,courtesy—page13(top)

80        forestry

Forestry resources.

©Jupiterimages.com—cover(forest fire at top left, both at top right, pine cones);pages10,18(top),37(all),44(top),45,and59

StanislawKinelski,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page31 (left)

©LiquidLibrary—page7

RonLong,SimonFraserUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page31(right)

BrianLockhart,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page16

LouisianaStateUniversityArchive,LouisianaStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page22(acorn)

PhilipMcDonald,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page51

MinnesotaDepartmentofNaturalResourcesArchive,MinnesotaDepartmentofNaturalResources,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(caterpillar, bottom right)

NationalInteragencyFireCenterArchive,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page66(left)

JosephO’Brien,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page33(right)

©Photos.com—cover(no campfires sign, cross-section of tree);pages8–9(all), 17(top, inset),19(top two),20(bottom two),22 (leaf, tree),27,34 (right),38,47,49,65,66(inset),and67

DavePowell,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page15(bottom)

RealWorldImageryInc.,courtesy—cover(trees at bottom left) and page14(all)

R.J.ReynoldsTobaccoCompanySlideSet,R.J.ReynoldsTobaccoCompany,Bugwood.org,courtesy—cover(leaves at bottom center)

HowardRussell,MichiganStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(bottom left)

USDAAPHISPPQArchive,USDAAPHISPPQ,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(top left)

USDAForestService/OgdenArchive,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page69

USDAForestService—Region8Archive,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page32(gypsy moth)

USDANaturalResourcesConservationService,courtesy—pages20(top)and43

U.S.FishandWildlifeService,courtesy—pages48,53,54(right),and73–74(all)

DaleWade,RxFireDoctor,Bugwood.org,courtesy—page68

Wikipedia.org,courtesy—cover(plane at top left)

PaulWray,IowaStateUniversity,Bugwood.org,courtesy—pages15(top),20(center),and21(bottom two)

AllotherphotosandillustrationsnotmentionedabovearethepropertyoforareprotectedbytheBoyScoutsofAmerica.

DanielGiles—page13 (bottom)

JohnMcDearmon—allillustrationsonpages29,40–42,54–57,60–61,and63

JohnMcDearmonandJulieMoore—page12

BrianPayne—pages6,25(bottom),28(all),and30

RandyPiland—pages26,51(bottom),and71–72(all)

Merit badge libraryThough intended as an aid to Boy Scouts, Varsity Scouts, and qualified Venturers in meeting merit badge requirements, these pamphlets are of general interest and are made available by many schools and public libraries. The latest revision date of each pamphlet might not correspond with the copyright date shown below, because this list is corrected only once a year, in January. Any number of merit badge pamphlets may be revised throughout the year; others are simply reprinted until a revision becomes necessary.

If a Scout has already started working on a merit badge when a new edition for that pamphlet is introduced, he may continue to use the same merit badge pamphlet to earn the badge and fulfill the requirements therein. In other words, the Scout need not start all over again with the new pamphlet and possibly revised requirements.

American Business 2002American Cultures 2005American Heritage 2005American Labor 2006Animal Science 2006Archaeology 2006Archery 2004Architecture 2008Art 2006Astronomy 2004Athletics 2006Automotive Maintenance 2008Aviation 2006Backpacking 2007Basketry 2003Bird Study 2005Bugling (see Music)Camping 2005Canoeing 2004Chemistry 2004Cinematography 2008Citizenship in the

Community 2005Citizenship in the Nation 2005Citizenship in the World 2005Climbing 2006Coin Collecting 2008Collections 2008Communication 2009Composite Materials 2006Computers 2009Cooking 2007Crime Prevention 2005Cycling 2003Dentistry 2006Disabilities Awareness 2005Dog Care 2003Drafting 2008Electricity 2004Electronics 2004Emergency Preparedness 2008Energy 2005

Photography 2005Pioneering 2006Plant Science 2005Plumbing 2004Pottery 2008Public Health 2005Public Speaking 2002Pulp and Paper 2006Radio 2008Railroading 2003Reading 2003Reptile and

Amphibian Study 2005Rifle Shooting 2001Rowing 2006Safety 2006Salesmanship 2003Scholarship 2004Scuba Diving 2009Sculpture 2007Shotgun Shooting 2005Skating 2005Small-Boat Sailing 2004Snow Sports 2007Soil and Water

Conservation 2004Space Exploration 2004Sports 2006Stamp Collecting 2007Surveying 2004Swimming 2008Textile 2003Theater 2005Traffic Safety 2006Truck Transportation 2005Veterinary Medicine 2005Water Sports 2007Weather 2006Whitewater 2005Wilderness Survival 2007Wood Carving 2006Woodwork 2003

Engineering 2008Entrepreneurship 2006Environmental Science 2006Family Life 2005Farm Mechanics 2008Fingerprinting 2003Fire Safety 2004First Aid 2007Fish and Wildlife

Management 2004Fishing 2009Fly-Fishing 2009Forestry 2005Gardening 2002Genealogy 2005Geology 2005Golf 2002Graphic Arts 2006Hiking 2007Home Repairs 2009Horsemanship 2003Indian Lore 2008Insect Study 2008Journalism 2006Landscape Architecture 2008Law 2003Leatherwork 2002Lifesaving 2008Mammal Study 2003Medicine 2009Metalwork 2007Model Design and Building 2003Motorboating 2008Music and Bugling 2003Nature 2003Nuclear Science 2004Oceanography 2009Orienteering 2003Painting 2008Personal Fitness 2006Personal Management 2003Pets 2003

BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA • SUPPLY GROUP

NatiONal diStribUtiON CeNter direCt Mail CeNter 2109 Westinghouse Boulevard P.O. Box 909 P.O. Box 7143 Pineville, NC 28134-0909 Charlotte, NC 28241-7143 For fast credit card orders— VISA, MasterCard, American Express— www.scoutstuff.org call BSA operators toll-free 1-800-323-0732

Merit Badge Pamphlet Year Merit Badge Pamphlet Year Merit Badge Pamphlet Year

The Supply Group is

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35901 2010 Printing

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