Forests for Future (Prologue, Chapter 4)

8/14/2019 Forests for Future (Prologue, Chapter 4)

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Zed Titles on ForestryForests for the Future

As part of our wide-ranging Development and the Environment list, wehave published extensively on forestry issues - covering not only thethreats to and destruction ofthe world's forests,but also thetraditional andinnovative practices oriented towards their sustainable management anduse. Titlesinclude:

KojoAmanorThe New Frontier: Farmers' Responses

to Land Degradation

Tariq Banuri and

Frederique Atffel-Marglin (eds)W ho Wi ll Sa ve t he F or es ts ?Knowledge, Power and Environmental Destruction

Riccardo Carrere and !.any Lohmann

Pulping the SouthIndustrialTreePlantationsand theWorldPaperEconomy

M ar cu s C ol ch es te r a nd

!.any Lohmann (eds)

TheStruggleforLand and theFate ofthe Forests

Bertus Haverkort and Wim Hiemstra

Food for ThoughtAncient Visionsand NewExperimentsof RuralPeople

Kgathi, Hall, Hategeka and Sekhwela,

B io mas s En er gy Po li cy i n A fri ca

Local Strategies for Forest Protection,Economic Welfare and SocialJustice

John Overton and

Regina Scheyvens (eds)

Strategies for Sustainable Development:

Experiences from the Pacific

PeterRead

Responding to Global Warming: TheTechnology, Economics and Politicsof Sustainable Energy

editedby

Paul Wolvekamp

Peter Stone (ed.)

The State of the World's Mountains:

A Global Report

in collaboration with

Ann DanaiyaUsherVijayParanjpye

Madhu Ramnathill WeinbergWar on the Land: Ecology and Pol it icsin Central America

Paul Wolvekamp (ed.)in col labor a ti on with

Ann Danaiya Usher,Vijay ParanjpyeandMadhuRamnath:

Forests for the Future: Local Strategiesfor Forest Protection, Economic

Welfare and SocialJustice .ed BooksLONDON &: N EW YORK

~o r f ul l d et ai ls a bo ut t he se t it le s a nd Z ed 's g en er al a nd s ub je ct c at al og ue s, p le as e w ri te to:T he Ma rk et in g D ep ar tm en t, Z ed B oo ks ,

7 Cynthia Street, London N 1 9 JF, UK or

email [email protected]

Visit our website at: http://www.zedbooks.demon.co.uk

.. H ENDs


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Preface

It ises timated that th e wo rlds forests are vi t al for t he d ailys urvival of m orethan 300 milli on i ndigenous and peasa nt p eople w ho depend on fores tecosys tems (World Bank Fo rest Policy 1 990 ). Th ese co mmunities h avedevised so phisticated n orms for managing wa tersheds, ca tchment areas and

fragile forest ecosys tems, an d possess a wealth o f kn owledge about r ationalland u se a nd environmen tal pro tection. M any s uch rural communiti es a reimp ortant forest s takeholders . Ye t th e ex pertise and interests of these l ocalpeople a re r arely recognised by national fo rest policies and manag ementsystems. Th ey a re often acc used of being the main agents of forest destru ction , a nd th eir posi tion i s further ma rginalised. Instead, governmentinstitution s tend to be viewe d as th e prin cipal a ctors in forest conservationand restorati on .

In man y co untries central gove rnment claims control over forestresources, larg ely ignoring th e c ustomary ri ghts o f forest commun ities andthus eroding tr aditions, respo nsibilities and dec ision-making structures atthe local lev el. Wes tern 'scie ntific ' forestry, i ntroduced world-wide in the

course of th e twentieth ce ntury, h as been very influ ential in this respe ct.This brand of forestry usually neglects a nd ofte n u ndermines lo cal forestrysystems. Fo rced r esettlement , for exa mple , ispe rceived as a prerequisite forwater shed a nd p ark p rotection . Co ncessions f or co mmercial l ogging a reprovided wi thout pro per co nsultation . Tree plantations th at fulf il nat ionalreforestation goa ls replace fa rmland and some times eve n n atural forest,thr eatening local biological diversit y.

Mu ch o f th e international d iscussion o f forests- tropical forests , in p articular - h as focused o n the b iological diversity c risis . Ye t th e s pectre ofmassive g lobal d eforestation a lso r epr esents a g rave thr eat to hum an co mmuniti es . Many forest-dependent com munities - wh ether forest-dwellingethnic m inorities o r farmers w ho r ely o n a patch o f secondary f orest fo r

subsistence - lack both land sec urity and p olitical rep r esentation. Th esexvi

P REFACE xvii

Ie are,so to sp eak, at th e front line . They face pressure from outsiderspeop h h d . . id .wh o seek l and , timber or o t er r esources; t ey are expose to mnrru anon,violence a nd cu ltur e sh ock; a nd they confront internal probl ems abo utbalancing for est ex ploitation and conservation. They . are o ften to rnbetween mai nt aining a forest a rea as a watershed for their field s and m arketpressure to cut timb er for profit. C onsequently, forest communiti es a reblamed f or deforestation a nd eco logical degradation of forest areas, and areregul arly acc use d of b eing incapable o f m anaging their own f orest lands.

lo cal non -gov ernmental a nd grassroots organisation s ca n rarely devotetim e a nd r esourc es to a nalysing and d ocumenting the ir ex periences andpoint of view fo r larger a udiences . Existing studi es o n community forestmanag ement s eldom l ead to po licy co nclusions , or b enefit local s takehold ers a nd the ir ca uses . Co nscious of th ese realities, Both ENDS a ndGram Vardhini embarked on a co llaborative surv ey project in 199 2 . Theobje ctive was to e nable f orest co mmunities to brin g to pu blic a ttentiontheir own perceptions and experiences. Th ey wo uld d escribe i n th eir ownwords how the y a re striving t o bal ance c ultural and eco nomic survival wi thsustenance of th e ecosys tems on w hich th ey depend , und er p ressure from agrowing p op ulation, in creasing demands for c ash, and a range of o utsideforces.

Th e initi ator s of th e sur vey had been c oncerned about th e tendency tolocate th e p roblems of d eforestation and biologi cal di versity depletionexclusively in Southern countries, eve n though forest -dependent co mmuniti es in th e ind ustri alised world ar e also at risk. It was th erefore im portantth at org anisa tions from th e temperate and boreal regions join ed th e survey .Thi s book i s th us a co llection of case studies undertaken in man y co rners ofth e world , under a vari ety of ec ological and socio-economic circumstances .

Th e ca se studi es s how h ow c ommunity control and in volvement ca nallow for mor e detailed assess ments of forest resources an d managementneeds th an cent ralised forest m anagement. Local communitie s often have avery long hist ory o f u sing fo rest produce and regulatin g access to forestresourc es . Th ere s till ex ists at th e local level an en ormous va riety of stru ctured owners hi p arrangements , incentives and san ctions th atwo rk to ensure~ o m p l ia n ce . Given th e imp asse in international f orest negotiations a nd theinertia of m ost gove rnments, it is i mportant to consider th e a lternatives .Betterund ersta nding wi ll pr ovide g reater support f or local citize ns' initiauves to sustain f orest resources .

Th rough the co mpilation o f d ocu m ented evi dence, th e s tudies revea lt h a ~ at tim es local forest management has benefited from m oral, technical ,pohllc al and llnanctal support from outsiders - NGOs sc ientists , consul~ n ' . '

ts, Journ alists a nd gove rnment o r d onor age ncies . O ften , however, localgroups wo rk in is olation. T he case s tudiesd escribe co ncrete situations th at

emb ody wh at th e a uthors and th eir co nstituencies observe, be lieve and


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xviii FORE STS FOR T HE FU TURE

strive for. Th e essay s ch allenge th e notion th at forest co mmunities ar eprobl ems , while st ate bodi es deliv er so lutions . Un avoidably , so me t exts a reun p olished. Usin g t heir p olitical and s ocial ins tincts, th e a uthors go to th eheart o f the matter , avoidin g sc ientific or wordy sp eculations .

The se testimonies may h elp to un d erline the n eed for o utsiders to bemore se nsitive to local inter ests a nd p erspectives. We wi ll b e e ncouraged ifthis collection of essay s m otivates o ther l ocal orga nisations to put their ideason pap er i n th e ca use of sustained l ocal forest ma nagement. A nd we hope i tw ill h elp national g overnments and int ernational donor age ncies to appreciat e local peoples ' ca pacities and views o n f orest management, s timulatinggreater co llaboration with l ocal o rganisations and th eir s u pp o rt gro ups.

Paul \Volvehamp

Prologue

When the ruler's trust i s wan ting ,there will be no trust in him.Cautious ,he values his words.When his work is co mpleted and his affairs finished ,the common p eople s ay,We are like this b y ourselves .

La o Tzu '

The objective of thi s boo k is to enabl e local people to docum ent a ndpresent their own vi ews a nd experiences of loca l forest managem ent to awider world. The book is a r esult of a j oint p roject, a survey o f forestmanagement b y indi genous people and oth er local pop ulations in t ropical ,temper ate and bor eal ' co untries. It wa s pr eceded by a lon g pro cess ofcollaboratio n be tween a g reat m any indi vidualsa nd o rganisations . The sumof evidence from th ese diff erent ca se s tudies sho uld ge nerate m ore recognition of lo cal forest m anagement sys tems and th eir potential to sustainlocal econo mies and to pr eserve mu ch o f the world 's remainin g forests .

areover, the local o rganisations that parti cipated b elieve that th eir o wnwork on the gro und will b enefit from such action research.

All th s case studi es th erefore addres s the same key question : how ca nlocal/indigenous communities maintain the balanc e between their societies and

roe.5t enviro nments wh en faced w ith rising p opula tions, growing d emands forbasI c needs and cash , and increasingly stronger external p ressures?

Virtuall y all th e case s tudies wi tness d eforestation, eco nomic blund ersnd social in justi ce. Local forest manag ement p ractices in most part s o f th e

,wo r l~ are cl early und er in creasing ph ysical a nd ps ychological pr essure .Despitevery di fferen t eco logical, political and eco nomic circumstan ces , it i sl'asy to estab lish comm on ca uses of forest d estruction a nd the lo ss o f localtvclihoods and cultur e . Unequal access to forest resour ces is th e m ost

m pOnant o f th ese. F orest a reas wo rld-wide h ost m ajor reservoirs o f m inerals,


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I!

2 FORES TS FOR T HE F UTURE

metals , biomass , land for agricultural ex pansion and oth er resourc es . Mostcase studies rep ort co nflicts over thes e resources sin ce their national p olitiealand economic elites are unwilling to forgo th e opportunit y to t ap th esereservoirs, notwithst anding the often dramati c so cial and environm entalconsequences. Th e ca se studies also confirm that lack of security of l andrights and user rights is a major cause of declin e in local systems of f orestmanagement, result ing in so cial hardship and for est destruction. It is al soclear that few demo cratically elected governm ents in N orthern or S outherncountries are enthu siastic a bout sharing c ontrol a nd ri ghts over forests withlocal communiti es . In m any instanc es, th ere is ov ert collusion b etweengovernment agencies a nd dominant ec onomic int erest g roups. On e o bserves ,for example, th e gra nting of extensi ve privil eges - su ch as mining orlogging concessi ons , subs idies and tax ex emptions - to a small number ofindustrial conglom erates.

Yetthe real life experiences compiled in this b ook also help us to id entifya number of uniqu e responses, perceptions and pr actices by local pe opleand other concern ed parties . And it is als o possible to translate som e o fth ese special ins ights int o m ore general co nclusions and polic y recommendations. Thi s bo ok has th e purpo se of communi cating thes e findings tothos e parties who se polici es and acti ons ha ve a dir ect impact on local forestmanagement : decision m akers, donor agencies , corporations, r esear che rs,no n -governmental o rganisations (NGOs), the m edia and the public atlarge. It indicates h ow th ey co uld open mor e spa ce fo r the enhancem ent o fprudent and undisturb ed management of for ests by local people.

This chapter is organised in three secti ons . Th e first section deals withth e p otential of local f orest manageme nt systems , p robing their s ocial a ndinstitutional strengths and we aknesses . It also r esponds to pr evailingscepticism about t hese sy stems. The second sec tion id entifies th e maincau ses of their collap se . Th e third sect ion p resents the ke y lessons to belearn ed from th e case studies . It draws s ome general con clusion s an d hasspecific recomm endations for policy makers , donors , researchers and othergroups of player s

.Local Forest Managem ent under Scrutin y

Predictably and invariably , forest industri es and other co mmercial int erestShave o pposed th e legitimisation o f for est m anagement by local communities . But governm ent a uthorities, med ia and a cademic i nstitutions ha ve alsoqu estioned th e a bility o f local people to man age th eir resources pru dentl y.Criti cs express th eir scepticism by pointing out th at:

I Local for est us ers are not capable of coping with changing s ociodemographi c and eco nomic circumstanc es , o r with the new d emands

on forest man agement;

PR OL O GUE 3

2 Local forest managemen t does not saf eguard conservation int erests

adequately ;3 Local forest users are unable t o resist external sources o f degradation

and fail to restore degraded forest land ;4 Local com munities feature soci al and economic inequ alities and

institution al weaknesses which frustr ate sustainable forest manag ement (C arr ere and Lohmann 1996 ; Colch ester 1992; .]epm a 1995) .

It is imposs ible to generalise about th e co mmitment and c apacity o flocal people to pres erve forest and biodiv ersit y. Among the hundr eds o fmillions of villagers who live in clos e con n ection with their l ocal forests, itisoften the ind igenous peoples who m aintain a relatively non-agricultural,non-market re lat ionship with the for est. Hunt ers and gath erers s uch as theDurvain centra l Ind ia- whose custom it is to p ass their lands on , unharm ed,to the generati ons that follow them - m anage their resources cautiously inorder to ensure a sustained yield. Shifting cultivation- practices by indi genous commun ities, for instance, reveal not only th e extreme vari ability a ndcomplexity of th ese traditional techn ologies, but also the enorm ous reserveof vernacular k nowl edge of practices t o restore so il fertility and to pr eservebiodiversity (P erpongsacharoen and Lohm an n 1989 ; Colchester 1992 ; seealso Colfer an d Dudley 1993 ). The Durv a so ngs ab out pollinati on illu stratethis point well.'

Not all forest-d ependent people are m embers of ethnic minoriti es . In th emost frequent cas e a patch of secondary for est is part of the sub sistenceguarantee for t he poor er section of th e village. The forest provides f odder,cropland, prot ein . medicine , firewo od , mu shrooms, vegetables, buildin gmaterials or a ny number of other pr oducts . No t unlike th e indig enous

roups, many peasant peoples - even th ose who se main econ omic ac tivityIS permanent a griculture - hav e a v ery long his tory of using f orest produ ceand regulating access to forest resour ces . 'Th ere e xists an enorm ous vari ety

f st ructured owne rship arrangem ents within which manag ement rul es a redeveloped, gro u p size is known and enf orced, incentives are in pl ace for co

wners to follo w th e accepted instituti onal a rrangements, and s anctionsrk to ensure c ompliance' (Cernea 19 89 in Colchester 1992 : 120) . It

mus t be ackno wledg ed , however , that lo cal management in varying d egreesampulates the forest to satisf y local n eeds a nd h ence it affect s th e pri stine

11Ilje of the for est's ecology (Hildyard et al. 1997) .The casestu d ies give evidenc e that environmental declin e in forest a reas

1>

n h~ bi ted by o r a djacent to local co mmunities often oc curs w here lo calial instituti ons and the environm ent a re Simultaneously un d er heavy

ressure from the outside. Many of the se people share a lack of both l andu nty and p o litical inlluence. They liv e, so to speak, at the 'f ront lin e'.

o ~ n y and population growth _ and th e corresponding local d emand for

and other basic n eeds - cer ta in ly in creased pr essure on th e local forest


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5F O RE ST S FOR TH E FUT U RE

en vironment in m any regions. And yet , in man y areas , 'ove rpopulation' i s amisle ading c oncept if on e take s land distribution into a ccount . Are as whi chare d eemed 'ove rpo pulated ' ar e o ften the m arginal land s whi ch pe asantsha ve been f orced to occupy following their di splacement from l and takenover b y intensi ve, e xport-oriented a griculture, minin g o perations and soforth (Hildyard et aL 199 7 ).

As the case study from B astar illustrates , ta xation , th e n eed to 'satisfy '

government officials with bribes and f ee,s , scho oling, lab our-saving techn ology, new fashi ons and consumerism h ave g enerated a demand for cashwithout the corresponding growth of a m arket f or traditi onal produc e ( seealso Co lchester 1 992) . In other wo rds, in situations wher e governmentsleave local pe ople e mpty-handed - le gally, technically, financ ially andpoliti cally - o ne can ex pect th at soo ne r or lat er th ey will yie ld to outsideforces beyond their co ntrol. W it h n o o ther options b efore th em, so oner orlat er the y a re li kely to s uccumb t o th e pr essur es o f logging firm s a nd oth erco mmercial int erests, a nd to l ose th eir reso urces o r tr ade th em for verym eagre and short- term returns.

Pre cisely bec ause th eir own survi val and cultural values are at risk , localforest-dependent co mmunities ha ve the st rongest m otivation to c heck th e

influx of ille gal loggers, min ers , poachers and colonists . Th e ca se studiesals o contribute overwhelming evidence that o fficial efforts to r estore a ndmana ge forest environments are oft en non -existent or both co stly and ineffective. Local people - u nli k e th e st aff o f go vernment d epartments, int ernation al agencies o r co rporations - h ave a n immediat e and long-term s take indefending and evo lving pra ctices that co nserve s ome level o f biodiv ersityand self-r eliance ( Hildyard et a L 1997).

Th e m ajority o f th e case s tudies d escribe the wa tchd og role o f localco mmunities in resp onse to ex ternal pr essures o n th eir forests. Ye t in o nly afew instan ces d o th e stud ies menti on gove rnment acce ptance of th e importance o f l ocal commu nities i n co ntrolling e xternal use o f th e forest. (In anumber of other c ountries , however, gove rnments ha ve acknowledged this

role very e xplicitl y. Th e Co lombian gov ernment, f or ex ample, h as handedover 2 0 million h ectares of fo rest to i ndigenous co mmunities in th eAm azon.) Although 'th e argum ent o f local peoples' i nability is u sed to takeand m aintain co ntrol over fo rest lands ' (Colchester 199 2: 16 -17) , cauti on isne cessary a gainst a rom antic vie w of l ocal for est m anagement. I t is unwis eto portray local fo rest-dependent co mmunities as homo geneous, wh etherth ey a re indi genous co mmunities in Ind ia or w ood workers and theirfamilies in Ca nada . Local co m mo n - m anagement regimes are se ldom fr eefrom 'intern al in equalities ( particular gender ineq uities), b ack-biting, so cialinjustices o r environmentally d estructive pr actices ' (Hildyard et aL 1997 :13) . It must be re cognised , ho wever , th at, co mmunal grazing grounds .forests and irrig ation o r fishing terri tories a re an every day r eality for the

P ROL O G UE

t m ajority of rural people . More oft en th an not , lo cal forest us ers a rebou nd closely to e ac h other b y mutu al de penden ce and shar ed v alues

ut treatment and acce ss to th e forest and o ther co mmon r esou r ces,bJ,n::ke d by social co ntrol. As Su san George e mphasises, such commonprop erty r egimes are manag ed s ustainably 'so long as g roup m emb ers

rain the pow er to define th e group and to man age th eir own res ou r ces'Geo rge in Goldman 19 98: x ii) .

However, thes e communiti es re gularly e xperience 'hit and run' intruns by outside rs - such as t imb er mer chants , trad ers , p oachers a ndrru pt governm ent officials - wh o ro am th e forest in search of quick

profit. The y also w itnes s the conversion o f forest by forest d epartments,mp anies or mi gra nt c olonists to establish mono cultural pl antations of

teak , oil palm a nd oth er market able s pecies . The se and other cultur al,economic and p olitical interv entions undermin e local auth orit y, n o rmsa ndvalues, and exac erbate in equalities . At th e sa me tim e, indi genous a ndpeasa nt commun ities often perceive s uch outsiders wi th a g reat se nse o firony and hum our, condu cive to feelings o f th eir own se lf-worth anddign ity. The Durva p eople from B astar refer to th e pest Eupatorium as sahib'(l td (sahib in th is context = townsp eople a nd gov ernment o fficers; lata =

weed) , expl ainin g that 'i t spreads just as fast a nd is eq ually us eless' . And avillager from Kar nataka , on India 's west c oast, wh en conf ronted wi th c orru ption in the Fo rest D epartment , smilin gly laments: ' Whe n th e fenc e iseating the grass , what can one do? '

The studies emphasise th at

where comm unities ha ve a long a nd still vital t radition o f co mmunit y management, the ne ed for the ra pid re-e stablishment of com mun ity c ontr ol ov er forestland i s clear. Ho wever, where such tr aditions have long been lost d ue to accu lturalisau on and the de struction of tradit ional institutions," th e mere tran sitionback to com mu nal ten ure an d man agement mi ght a lso p rove to be d estabilisingmd disrupti ve. (Colchester 1992 : 21 )

ny communities thus fac e th e chall enge to reassert v alues and to devel opn ew methods to admini ster th eir forest lands.

rnrnon Problems

often the causes of def orestation lie outsid e the forest and be yond themain of the commu nity, th e distri ct o r even th e n ation- state. As J effrey

. . er notes : 'Th e globalisation o f ec onomies and th e e mergence of a s trongll'ii:I1Snational co rporate sec to r r esults in Significant shift s in th e geograph icd rion, type and int ensity o f forest us e ' (Sayer 1997). Most case studi es

( ' ~ n be how l ocal people and NG Os must co nfront interv entions by tran slie nal compani es that th eir own governments h ave d one n othin g to


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g i Q

6 FOR ESTS FOR TH E FUTUREP ROLOGU E 7

....----do ch 1988 ). Mo re and more forest-d ependent commumttes are

11l1lITrn

Ifrestrain . Thus a limit ed number of transn ational corp orations C ont rol an

i increasingl y lar ge share ofloggin g , proc essing and mark etingope rations. In1992 onl y 10 companies produced 27 per cent of the world 's paper andpaperboard (FOE-US 199 7). The World R esources Institute calculates thatco mmercial loggin g poses the sin gle largest threat to the world 's lastremaining larg e tra cts o f un d isturb ed ' frontier' for ests ( notably in CanadaBrazil and Russia ). The sa me r esearch ers not e that minin g and en erg):d evelopment are a greater threat to thes e forests than agricultural e xpansion (Bryant et al. 1997: 15).

For a numb er of r easons , transn ational c ompan ies pl ay a m ajor pa n inforest destruction and, c ons equentl y, in lo cal s ocio-economic imp overishment. In the first pla ce, th ey op erate on a mu ch lar ger scal e than localco mpanies , having th e techn ological c apacity and capital r esou r ces to openup remote and hith erto inaccessible tract s o f for est. This initi al pen etrationo ften s ets in train further for est destruction b y agri cultur al expansion (largemono cultural cash crop plantati ons, co lonist pione er farmin g or cattlerangin g). Second, th e transnation al impact is sharpen ed by globalisation,which enables w orld mark et demand for wood and pap er pr od u cts andother raw mat erials to out weigh local peoples' needs and for est cons ervation in determinin g the fat e o f forests . Third , foreign co mpanies t end totake profits from f orest ex ploitation out o f th e host co untry, inst ead ofletting such profits b enefit local p eople and th e host econo my th roughtaxation or r einvestment ( FOE-US 1997) . Finally, m any transnationalcompanies sh ow no interest in the future of the f orest and all ow the capitalequipment of th e indu st ry ( roads , mills , et c .) to deteriorate on ce th e timberor mi n eral resources are exhausted. Th e company moves on to otherregions , leavin g local popul ations to m ake w hat the y can of a devast atedenvironment.

Privati sation of biodivrrsitySome case studies, in part icular th e stud y from Brazil, also ref er to the on

I' go ing p rivatisation o f the w orld's food and medi cinal raw mat erials, notablyby th e agri-business and pharmaceutical indu stries. Th ese industrie s co nstitute a less visible but in creasingly str on g lobb y wh ich m onopolisesboth legally a nd technicall y - an ex panding share of th e planet 's c ulturaland natural d omain, mainly th rough intellectual pr operty prote ction,includin g pat ents'? Wher eas th ese prop erty sy stems r eward humaningenuit y, th ey ign ore nat ure's intrinsi c value s a nd th e kn owledge and(informal) contributi on of indigen ous peoples a nd farm ers to the maintenanc e a nd de vel opm ent o f genetic di versity throu gh generations of u se a ndobserv ation, cultivation and husb andry (Glo wka et al . 1994) . More vulnerable th an th e ec osystem itself, it n ow se ems cl ear, is th e ac cumulatedknowl edge of forest ec ology held by for est-dep endent peopl es (DensloW

systems o f knowledg e of , access to and control o ver fore stus

enol ~ c es . Governm ents should respond urg ently to the ne ed to acknow

protect and re ward the traditional kn owledge of forest-dep endentles , in the cause o f the latt er's econ omic a nd cultural sur vival a nd th e

st of forest con se rvation.

tingforestry sa cneeI recently, glob al concern about defor estation has focused on th e

[w pits and virtuall y ex cluded temperat e and boreal forest issues. Th e ca serudies from Canada and the United States c all into qu estion th e wi.dely

ted belief that forestry pra ctices in the industri alised countries ar e-


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9

:l'rft.be en to blam e envi ron ment alists o r lo cal-indi genous c omm unities f or

PR O LOG UE8 FORES TS FOR T HE F UTURE

tha t i s d eclining eve ry y ear. Fore sters and polit icians seem to share th e vie '"th at tr ees bri ng no elec toral gains (Wo lvekamp 1 989). Like th eir peer ng the indu stry access to m uch-needed woo d re sou r ces , and in th isorganisations in m ost oth er c ountr ies in the So uth and in th e North, th hold them resp onsible fo r jo b lossesi n thi s sec tor .'?Indian Fo rest Service is by a nd la rge too pr eoccupied wi th gene ratin grevenu e fo r public an d p rivate ga in t o fo rge an alli ance wi th the t ens ofmillio ns o fvill agers fo r w ho m th e forest is t heir basis o f survi val, or to m aketh e socia l n eed fo r forest pro tection a p olitical issue.

Th e ca se studies thus co n firm that nat ional governments play a maj orrol e in th e c reation o f th ese pro blems . In addition t o lega l shortcomin gs,go vernments are p oor per former s w hen it com es to auditing and co ntro ].lin g n atur al resource use . In m any cases co rruption p ermeates a ll l evels ofgov ernment inv olvement in forest m anagement and land -use planningTh e case s tudies qu estion t he view o f m an y gove rnments th at fo restry cange nerate r evenues a nd ra w ma terial to t rigger n ational eco nomic d evelop.m ent (taking mo n etary-economic pe rformance as th e mai n be nchmark) .These co ncerns we re summed u p long ago byJack Westo by, formerh ead ofth e for estry departm ent o f th e Fo od and A griculture Org anisation (FAO ):

Th e growing i nte rest in forestry p rojects had litt le to d o with the id ea thai

forestry a nd fo rest ind us t ries hav e a s ignifi ca nt and ma ny-sided co run bu uon tomake to ov erall ec onomic and social dev elopm ent .. .. Of th e new r even uesgenerated, woefully litt le ha s been pl oughed b ack into fore stry , an d th e muchmore im port ant role which forest ry cou ld play in supp orting ag riculture a ndraising rura l we lfare has been either badly negle cted or comp letely ignore d.(Westoby 1989)

Wes toby spoke th ese wo rds n early 20 years ago d uring the Eig hth Fores tryCo ngress. H ad he p repared his spee ch tod ay, h e mi ght ha ve d roppe d thed istinction h e m ade th en be tween d eveloping a nd in dustrialis ed co unt ries,since in mo st respects his spee ch ap plies equally well to th e s tate of af fairsin man y No rthern co untries .

Forests a re un d er-a ppr eciated, bo th for th eir i mmeasurable s ocial and

environmental services to soc iet y and for the ir int rinsic value . Case st udiesfro m No rth and So uth d emonstrate how govern ments l egitimise ce ntralised large-scale fo rest m anagem ent and int ensive co mmercial exp loitation, ci ting th e need to p rotect jobs and r evenu es in the forest indus trYVari ous case stu dies emphasise, on the c ontrary, that million s of peo ple losetheir jobs or so urces of livelihood w hen access to fo rest so urces is denied tothem or as a result of o ngoing m echanisation a nd th e depl etion of fo restresources. Between 199 0 an d 1992 , for exa mple , Can ada's forest i ndustryeli minated 62 ,600 jobs , shedding so me 28 p er cen t of th e direct wo rkforce(C arrere and L oh m ann 19 96). Notab ly in co unt ries lik e Mala ysia, s w ed e ~ , Ca nada and th e U nited Sta tes, a co nvenient way of drawi ng th e p ublicSattention away f rom th ese fac ts, and of r edirecting its co ncerns an d a nger,

..&.

Tude '.

nent

~ l

n t c mationalHver sity) as

u r

ts

m lC liberali sation.. ...rea t present nee d for n ational a nd int ernational regulation o f in vest

by tran snatio na l co mpanies IS m ade m ore g lanng by internationalme n ts evolved ove r th e last decade w hich are d esigned to facilitate

_ m ost man ifestly represented by th e eme rgence of th e Wo rldrganisati on and th e recent ne gotiation o f a ne w Multilateral

on In vestment (MAl) . Th ese ag reeme nts, w hich h ave bee nted most ardentl y by OEC D co untries , curtail th e free dom of n ationro regulate for eign in vestment a nd corpo rate conduct an d to p rotectsoc ial, cultur al and environmental interests . For examp le, if the

t draft of th e MAl is a p proved , it is likely t o overrule nat ional as wellen vi.ronmental l egislation (s uch as t he Conve ntion onwell as th e much weaker agr eements whi ch deal wi th

oman rights, min oriti es a nd indi genous peoples (s uch as t he I nternationalOrgani sati on 's Con vention N o. 169 a nd th e dr aft Universal

du r ation on th e Rights of Indi genous Peo ples ). Th e MA l wi ll pr eventna l governm ents imp osing sp ecific socio-e nvironmental co ndition s on

ign in vestors. National go vernments are also r estrained from res ervingst land or othe r na tional r es ou r ces for local econo mic u se, s ince f oreign

mpanies are gi ve n equal ri ghts to b id for co ncessions . Wh ilst sustainableman agement demands long-t erm p lanning , the MA l forces gove rn to acce pt t h e imm ediate a nd unh indered wi thdrawal of foreign

une nts and p ro fits . Transnational compan ies ca n s ue national go ve rnors and dema nd compensation fo r any r eduction i n va lue of their in vest

as a result of s ocial o r environment al restrictions imp osed b y theuntry s go vern ment . A s a publication by Friends o f th e Ea rt h-US

'Th e MAl will t hrow u p barri ers to the t ypes of po licies need ed tod eforestation ' (FO E- US 1 997).

T ~ e

master plan s

.v);ploitati on or d estruction of fo rest is e nhance d i n co untries, n otablySouth an el in Ce ntral and E astern Euro pe , which h ave to de al w i threign debts, eco nomic d epression or a process of eco nomic tr ansi

i r governm ents n egotiate wi th m ultilateral financial and t radellt'l ons avenues to ope n up and a djust th eir eco nomies . Th is p rocess

i rectly on dom estic land and f orest po licies. Ma ny governm ents ar ed to 'rati on alis e' th e fo restry secto r. AsJack Westob y has em phasised,

ver, such advice generally s erves foreign i ndus try and tr ade int ereststhan the h ealth of for ests a nd l ocal or na tion al economies .


9/23

P ROL O G U E 11

~ l plantation p rog ramm es a re probabl y th e most popular a nd bes tJAI environment al solutions, sin ce , it is claimed , the y 'co un t er the

:~ t \u se effect either by servi ng as carbon sink s, or by all eviatingn native fores ts , helping to preserve them as ca rbon depot s' (Shell~ r 1 on ! l 1 and World Wildlife Fund 1996: 10 ). Alth ough this claim h as

mnce, 'it h as en ough sup erficial plausibilit y to d istract unin formed

To m the mor e interesting top ic of how to find alternati ves to ah ose logic dict ates a n ever-ending s piral in whi ch e ver-greaterIssions necessi tate an e ver more d esperate sea rch for carb on s inksrd Lohmann 1996: 10 ) . As some of th e cas e studies emph asise ,, instead of re lieving pr essure on e xisting natural fore st , addIy to defores tat ion sinc e much forest is cl eared to make space f orral tree pla nt ations (such as teak , gm elina , eucalyptus and

rld-wide, l ogging and plant ation d evel opm ent go hand i nlOgging of na tu ral forest o ften pro vides th e n ecessary f undin g for

menr of industri al tree plantation s . The pl antation ind ustr yesto-, also fail to di sclose that tree planta tions offer only ahe carbon se qu estration potential of n atural f orests. M oreov er,

us case studies desc ribe h ow the c entralisation o f forest man age,ilIIlfl1twt altt ned - or eve n ab olished - local man agement in stituti ons . This

l tangible where land tenur e is concerned. 'Tenure system s a rend specify un der what cir cumstances and to what extent cert ain

.._ ~ " l t ' , e S are available to in dividu als and c ommunities to inh abit, to ha rvest ,.til, to hunt and gat her on, etc .' , write s Lynch . Most case s tudies r eport ,

Q i . ~ l er , tha t government s deny th e recognition o f co mmunity-based ri ghtsa ~ l Q r t St . Whereas in som e cases th e governm ent g rant s certain tenurial

'they are vulnerab le to arbitr ary cancellati on ' (Lynch, 1997 : 26) a nd.'S1lCb dIscourage loca l people from investing in c areful, long-term us e

r.mge ment .l ~ n i n a context of conflict , th e case studi es co n firm th at s ecurity of

Itma .,Pgh ts and user right s is the basi s o f fore st pr eservation and th e we lllocal forest-dependent p eople - espe cially so under condi tions o f~ l pressure . This r equire s awa reness of th eir legal rights in l ocal comin order to defen d th emselves in the co ntex t of national and~ g l y also intern ational law. Better underst anding o f legal rights and

lso offers incr eased o ppo rtunities f or i nte racting wi th p oli cyr example with regard to forest and l and-use planning . NGOs ,

m ed lawyers and pro fessional consultants often provi de crucial supridge the gap be twe en local aspirati ons a nd th e formal language

vern ments.

10 F OR ESTS F OR TH E F UTURE -he i nternati onal fin ancing agencies kne w what for eign in vestors wanted , and

the multilat eral and bilateral ag encies fell in line. Th ey helped the un der.developed countri es to bear the expense and drudg ery o f r esource data col.lec tion, the reby re lieving potential investo rs of these t asks a nd charges Be causenearl y all th e forest a nd forest ry i ndus try develo pment w hich has taken pla ce inth e und erdeveloped wo rld in th e last decades has been ex ternall y orientedaiming at sa tisfyi ng th e rocketing d emands o f th e ric h, ind ustrialised nations'the basic f orest pro ducts needs of t he pe oples of the u nd erdeveloped wo rld a r ~ further from b eing sat isfied than eve r. (Wes toby 1989 )

In the face of pr oblems of for est loss a nd other en vironmental threats .th e preferred re sponse o f man y head s o f industry, gov ernment a gencies a ndmult ilater al inst ituti on s lies in increasingly global f orm s o f manageme nt(see also G oldm an 1998). As Hild yard et al. not e, 'if one a ccepts c urrentpatterns of eco no mic de velopm ent a nd the ins tituti ons a nd premi ses o nwhich they r ely, th e logic of "global environm ent al management " isimpeccable' (Hild yard et al. 1997 : 5). Sustaining thi s process throug hdamage cont rol requires an equ ivalen t level of top -down s urveillance an dinterventi on . The ph ysical environment b ecomes a t errain to be reordere dzon ed , par celled up , while pe ople are removed o r c ajoled int o 'collabora

tion accordin g to so me prec onceived m aster plan (Hildyard et al. 1997 : 5)Through chan nels o f aid and t rade , funds are m ade ava ilable under th ebanners of dev elopment and environm ental restorati on (C0 2 sequestration ,for example ) . Yet such programm es often affect f orests and forestdependent peopl e advers ely. As a numb er o f case studies illustrate , oftensuch fund s a re u sed to in vade the co untryside wi th infrastructural worksindustrial zones o r m onocultural pl antations .

Legal biases against forest-dependent a nd l ocal peopleTh e case studie s emph asise that nation al laws deny million s of people accessto natural resour ces , while m ost o f th e land is claim ed by the state orengrossed b y a s mall p olitical and eco nomic elite . As hum an a nd environ'mental righ ts lawyer O wen Lyn ch writ es : 'National law s co ncerning th e u ~ and manag ement o f forest resour ces i n at least s ix Asian co untries (Indonesia,Thailand, the Philippines, India , Ne pal , and Sri Lank a), for exampl e, hal'"actually becom e more hostile toward lo cal people and co mmun ities than wth e case durin g the colonial era' (Lynch 1 997: 22 ). Nation al laws and the I\ al'they ar e implement ed o ften remain an o bstacle to sust ainable fo rest man agmen t. In m an y instances the y reflect a lack o f civil freed om to exp ress diss enling o pinions and th e st ates r epression o f o ther e ssential hu m an rights . L}l1 Ch

shares a conclu sion reached by th e case studies , na mely that 'communit ldbased forest man agem ent systems and us er rights deri ve th eir legitimacya nstrength from the co mmunity in which they operate , rather than from thnation-state i n whi ch th ey are located (Lync h 1997: 24 ).

"

II,I

III. 1II II


10/23

PR OL OG UE 132 F ORE STS F OR TH E F UT URE

I' since these plantations are grown in short rotation cycl es - and the WOod

mutu

-~I

.

le maps and,tic debate .

more

~ b ~9 .s "

a

peo ples

ientists an d the medi a. Th e c ase studies brin g out fourprocess ed in short -lived produ cts such as paper - they perform this n ~S for viewi ng the int erface between fore .sts and a griculture .onl y temp orarily ,u thorised conv er sion of f orest land to agncultural use Inde ed

Carrere and Lohmann give a cl ear definition o f what a commercial pl msibility for m uch def orestation, as the c ase stud y from theration is an d w ha t i t i s n o t: Republ ic of C ongo illustr ates . Ca se studi es from , for example,

nd India remin d us of the rol e of p oliticians who endeavour toPlantati ons , like fo rests , are fu ll o f tre es. But th e two are u sually radica!ec torate by en do r sing the encroachment on publi c forest land ,d ifferent. A fore s t i s a c om plex, se lf-generating sys tem, encompassing so il,wat

m icro-climate , energy , and a wi de va riety o f plants an d a nimals in in d the adage th at 'trees d on't vote for you' (Wolvekamp 1 98 9 ).

relati on. A c om mercial p lantati on, o n -the o ther hand , is a cultiv ated a rea wh , u dies question, how ever, th e co mmon pra ctice o f bl aming localspecies and structure ha ve be e n si mplified dramat ically to pro duce on ly a [ , IS. pe ople and p e asants in order to veil forest destructi on due togoods, whe t he r l umber, fuel , resin , oilor frui t. A p lantation's tr ees, unlike th ( -sanctioned l ogging and ca sh c rop plantations . AsJeffr ey Sayerof a forest , ten d to b e of a smal l r ange o f s pecies an d ages, and require imens i _ ffl d a l gove rnment-registered progr a mm es o f forest c onveran d c ontinu ing hu man i ntervention. (Carr e re and L ohmann 19 97: 3) an t agricultu re an d larg e-scale commercial c ash cro p plantati ons

ter cause of d eforestation ( Sayer 1 997). Hence th ere is a ne edCarrere and Lohmann co ntrast such indu strial pl antations with 'attempts Ida ta on a ctual land use a nd pl anning to betterplant trees i n w ays responsi ve to a wi de variety o f int erlocked 10cal forest us ers should b e e ncour aged and enabled to

x penen o s and pri oriti es in ord er to inform publi ca well-inf orm ed a nd enfranchised public will b esee the flaws in the pr esent system and demand

pter 13, p. 203).

ltet remains betwe en local co ntrol over forest resourc es. Local peop le, how ever, hav e m ost to lose from for estny instanc es the r esponsibility for the long-t erm proW th them . This is w hy th e ca se studies make th eir

f.Ilinuous in vestm ent in loc al p eople: t o con solidate o rbf lf

,ty to defen d and sustain the f orest for th eir o wncl for societ y a t lar ge .

Paul \Vol vekamp

111' 11

III1 I

I 1

, W i i J .111 1


16/23

24 FOR ESTS FOR T HE FUTURE

N O TE SI With thanks to Elin e Meye r.2 The boreal fores ts, k nown as the taiga in Russian, are one oft he wo rld's t hree gre t

ecosy stems Th e taiga covers a pproxi mately 920 million hectares a nd can be a.green b elt e ncircling the northern h emisphere, stretc hin g from A laska in th~ n north ern Russia in the east The borea l forests are cha racterised by coni ferous t reeS such as spru ce, pinea nd firand b roadle aved spe cies such as a lder, birch and pOPlar ('tha nks to Annj anssen .)

3 Different f orms of 'sh ifting cult ivation' are expl ained in the ne xt parag raph, u ndhea ding 'The i nterfa ce with agric ulture '. l"J'

4 Thanks to Kaki Buti from Palob village , Bas ar a nd Mad hu Rarnna th .5 For exa mp le, grazi ng lands, v illage forests , fishing grou nds are local co mmon s, Whit

co mmu nally own ed a nd/or u sed a nd look ed a fter.6 Suc h institu tions e ncompass, amo ngst others , the regu lations , norm s, values, san,

and rewards whic h determ ine l eadership, divis ion of tasks an d the rig hts and respotiesof all men , women and child ren concerning thema intenance, protection a nd dlnon of lan d, water, no ra and fa un a, cond uc t vis-a-vis the sp irits and de ities, a ndreligi ous and cu ltural aspects of their lives .

7 An int ern ational agreement - Trade-Rel ated Asp ects o f Intellec tual PropertyRigh s (T- wasSigned ine arly 1994 asa resul t of the Uru guay Round o f the GeneralAgreerneTari ffs a nd Trade (GATT) . Following extensive p ressu re from Orga nisatio n for ECOICoo peration and Development (O ECD) countries , TRIPs int roduced rnechanis

recognise , cla im and enforce int ellectual p roperty rights .8 Othe r not ewo rth y examples are to be foun d in countr ies such as Ca mbodia , "Liberia, Indonesia and Ni geria .

9 The mini stries o f irriga tion and power, by co ntras t, somet imes receive over 20 per cthe b udge t .

10 The forme r Republ ican U S vice -president, Dan Quay le, was a major c ham pionapproach i n his campaign agains t co nservation meas ures mea nt to save the remainigrowth forests of O regon - the region co nside red in th e case stud y of the Conle;Tribes of Wa rm Springs .

11 A form o f land use w he reby the growing o f trees is de libera tely in tegrated with CN :ani ma ls on the same l and manage ment unit , eithe r at t he same t ime o r in sequenteach othe r (Interna tional Centre for Research in Agrof orestry, annual re port. 1993).

12 Oth er crops which need t o be mentioned are to bacco (according to Goldsestimated forest are a of 12 ,000 square kilometres is felle d every year to fuel to baccoba rns (Goldsmith 1997 ), rubbe r, co ffee a nd soya . And prawn c ultivation fo r ex:major reason why abo ut ha lf of the w orld's mangrove fores ts have bee n cut dowcatastrop hic conse quence s for loca l fishi ng com mu nitie s . . .

13 Sometimes referred t o as 'swidd en agricu lture' or 'slash-and-burnag ricu lture'. Shlfutiva tor s co uld b e de fined as peop le who prac tise a form of rot atio nal a g r i c u l t u ~ fallow period longe r than th e period of cult ivation, whe reas forest pionee rs may sbum existin g vegetation but ha ve the primary intent ion of e stablis hing pem

ll

semi-permanent agri cult ur al p rodu ction. The pl ant ing of cas h cro ps is the pnma

of attenti on . (J.A .Weinstock a nd S. Sunito , 'Reviewof S hifting Cu ltivation in IndSunderli n 1 997: 4). I

14 'The term non -timb er forest produc ts enco mpasse s all b iological mate rials ottimber which are extract ed from forests fo r hum an use. These include foods, mesp ices , res ins, gum s, latexes ....' (Jen ne H . deBeer and Melani c J. McDermott , TheValue oj Non-Timber Forest Products in Southeast Asia second rev sed editio n, N~ 6 ) Corniuee of the Internationa l Union for the Conservation of Na ture (l UCN), 19

PROLOGUE 25

. Arbofilia, C osta Rica , for an elaborate ex plan ation of the Ana log

he particip ati ng or ganisa tions from Canada th emselve s experienced In Nonh Am erica offers co rporations wishing to break the oppo sition

ssro otS acti\;st s and endro nmentali sts the o ppo rtunit y to use~ ~ l l 1s t Publi c Participation' (o r SLA PP suits) 'to sue themforde larnaI - jnsC)' etc., in order to br ing vicums to the po int whe re they a re no lon ger

ltlncia l emotio nal and m enta l wh erewi thal t o su stain their defence '

uue formula ung a forest management p lan ; convincing the g overn\ 't a part icular fo res t a protected statu s and to rec ognise th e land

people; s tim ula ting deb ate o n legislat ive a mendments : laun ching an; developin g working rel ations wi th d onor o rgani sations and rel evant

loca l experie nces a nd views 10 international ins titu tion s and fora ; and ,xchanging expe riences wi th ot herl oca l organisation s.

IK!l. nous people a pp reciat e the idea o f ' living' in the fores t - w hich implie s,persp ective - more read ily than the con cept of 'mana ging ' the forest ,

d . exclusive pe rspective. A m ore profound unders tanding of local_ their pot entials, re quirements and con st rain ts - may facili tate an

conventional fores t managem ent and indigenous f orest-use practi ces .ntribut e to a cri tical examination of the co nventional approach es.

n affirms th at 'The rig ht s of ownership an d p ossession o f the people slands w hich they tradi tiona lly occ upy sha ll be recog nised ' (Article

right s of th e peoples concerne d to t he natura l resources penaining topec ially safeguarde d ' (Article 15.1).

Pream ble and article s 15 and 16 of the Con vention on Biod ive rsity.e ncouraged to make cons titu tional provisions or other legal me chani sms

rty rights w hich incorporat e relevan t princ iples of the Biodiversit y.1Cular articles 15 and 16).oflen pr efer the term 'terri to ry' when r eferring to an cestra l land .

rt by lnstuut o de l Bien Co rnun , Local Ean h Observa tion and CenterauveLan ds, Geoma tics a nd Ind igen ous Territories , HaciendaSan j ose ,

29 June 1 998 .resth e imp ortan ce o f tradi tionalk nowledge of th e com plexity of the

of NTFPs in particul ar as a gents o f seed dispersal and p ollination , andlood ch amsP Exchange P rogramme f or S out heas t Asia - a j oint endeav our by

t h ~ Dutch co nsultancy firm Pro Fou nd in collaborati on with theeration N ATR1PAL (United Tri bes of Palawan ) with the suppo n of

UlnJmJlte e o f IUCN - a ims at local capacity bu ildin g by facilitating. I un d regio nal meetings a nd the production of a mod est n ewsle tterracUC.:lJ mformauon on m atter s suc h as susta inabl e NTFP harve sting,

le llure .

ht for natur c s waps ', 'join t impl ementa tion ', Joint f ores t manag eth th e industry Global Env ronment Fa cility project s and 'green

a perf om lt he followm g ro les: (l ) act as a watchdog ; (2 ) giveimpa nia llence to relevarn laws a nd regu lations , nationa l or internationalnerally ac cept ed norm s of good co nduct ; (3) offer a p latform f or

Inform p Uhlic opm ion.

de, for example, the UN Declara tion of Human Ri ghts and the g utderest Stewardsillp Council.


17/23

PROLOGU E 2726 FORE STS FO R THE F UTURE

28 P oo r p erf on n ers treat s ocial and e nvironmental v alues as e xternalities which can be shifted

to th e poli tical and economic fring es , or to f ollowing generations.29 I am gra tefu l to Didie r Babin and colleagu es of C entre de Coop eration In tern ational en

Recherches A grono miques pour Ie Developpement (ClRAD) , Franc e, for this inform ation .30 When the contract run s o ut , th e securit y ca n be cla imed i f the company's operations ha ve

led to damag e to th e e nvironment, a ffected l ocal co mmuniti es adversely or injured then ational tr easury _ b y evading taxes , for e xampl e, or n ot p a> ~ n g royalti es. C ompanies arethu s subje cted to th e widely a ccepted c usto m th at tenants rentin g a furni shed ro om pay

ke y mone y as a guarante e . It is sugg est ed th at the adm inistration of s ecuriti es s hould bede alt with by indep endent in stitu tion s

B I B L l O G R A P HYBeer, J . H . d e and MacDerm ott , M. J . ( 19 97) The E conomi c Value o Non-Timber Fore st Producls

in Southeast Asia , Ne therlands Com mitt ee of the In ternationa l Union f or th e Cons ervati on

of Nature (l UC N) , Amst erdam .Brocklesby, M. A. and Amb rose-Oji , B. (19 97) ' Ne ither the F orest no r the F arm

Livelih oods in th e Forest Z on e the Rol e of Sh ifting Agric u lture on M ount Came roon' .

or Ne twork Paper 21D .Bryant , D., Nielsen , D. an d Tangley , L (1997) The Last Frontier : Forests, Ecosy stemsa nd Econom itl

on the Edge, World R esour c es In stitute.Carr ere, R. and Lohm ann , L (1996) Pulping the South : Indu stti al Tree Plan tations and th e World

Paper Economy , Zed B ooks , Lond on .Chambers, R. (198 3) Rural Development : Putt ing the Last First, Wiley, N ew York.Colchester , M. (1992 ) 'Sust ainin g the Fores ts Communit y-bas ed App roaches in Southca s

Asia', United Nations Research Institute f or S ocial De velopment ( UNRISD) r esearch p aperColchester , M. ( 19 97) 'National Sover eignty , Fre e Trade and F orest Pe oples ' Rights.

Interg overnmenta l Forum on For ests , positi on pape r.Colfer , C J. P and Dudl ey, R. G. (1 993 ) Shi[ting Cultiva tors of Indonesia' Maraud ers or Managm

o the Forest? Co mmunity F ores try Cas e S tudy Series 6 , FAa , Rome .Colfer, C J. P , in c ollaboration with Pr abhu , R. and W ollenberger , E. (1 995) Principl es, Critera

and Ind cator s:Applying Ochha m's Razor to the People - Fmf stry Linh, Centr e for Interna tio(1i\

For estry Research (C IFOR) Wo rking Pap er No .8 .Corpo rate Europe Observatory (1997) Europe Inc. Dangerous Liaison5 between EU Institu l

i,

and Indllstry , Amsterd am .Daly, H . E. and Cobb , J. B, Jr (1989 ) For the Comman G ood, Redir ecting the Economy wwa J

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Forests for Future (Prologue, Chapter 4)