Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching

Nicolaos C. Valanides (1996). Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching. School Science and Mathematics, 96(2), 99-107.

Presenters: Wei-Chih Hsu Presenters: Wei-Chih Hsu Professor: Ming-Puu ChenProfessor: Ming-Puu ChenDate: 11/24/2007Date: 11/24/2007

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Introduction

This Study is about performance of 195 seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students on the Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) .

The TOLT was used to identify differences related to five reasoning modes among the three classes and between male and female students.

This Study examined is whether chronological age (in months) and achievement in science, mathematics, and Greek language contribute significantly to the prediction of performance on problems related to the five reasoning abilities.

The underlying structure of student performance on problems related to these reasoning modes is also investigated.

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Literature review

Developmental psychologists propose a distinction between declarative/figurative knowledge and operative/procedural knowledge .

According to Anderson (1980) declarative knowledge comprises the facts that we

know; procedural knowledge comprises the skills we know

how to perform.Piaget‘s work intensified interest in operative

knowledge and the development of reasoning abilities is considered to be an important objective in education.

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Literature review

Cognitive development is also the main topic of theoretical debates (Demetriou, 1987, 1988) where suggestions for revisions and deviations(deviation偏差 ) from Piaget's theory are proposed.

Several research studies provide evidence which does not corroborate basic assumptions of the Piagetian theory.

As noted by Lawson (1982) "If one holds the assumption that some general structure for formal reasoning exists, why then does performance on individual formal tasks not correlate more highly?"

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Literature review

Five formal reasoning modes consisting of controlling variables, proportional, probabilistic, correlational, and combinatorial reasoning.

Five formal reasoning modes have been also identified as essential abilities for success in secondary school science and mathematics courses (Bitner, 1991; DeCarcer, Gabel, & Staver, 1978; Lawson, 1982, 1985; Linn, 1982).

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Method

Population and Sample of the Study Four 7th grade, three 8th grade, and four 9th gra

de classes. Total student population: 218 boys and 189 girls.

The Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) The Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) (Tobin & Ca

pie, 1981) is a 10-item paper and pencil test consisting of five modes of reasoning.

TOLT has two versions (A and B) and was developed to provide parallel group testing.

A Greek translation of version A of the test (Valanides, 1990) was used for the purpose of the study.

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Method

Procedure The translated test was administered to each of the se

lected classes during a science session. Explained the test consisted of problems involving str

ategies which are useful in solving problems in a variety of areas and the purpose of the test was to provide information about how familiar students were with these strategies.

A 45 minute period was allowed for students to complete or revise the 10 items.

Test scores from 0-1, 2-3, and 4-10 were used as a basis for classifying subjects as concrete, transitional, and formal reasoners respectively (Tobin & Capie, 1980).

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Result

The reliability of the translated test was .71 for the total group of 195 students.

Table 1 presents the frequencies and the percentages of students who had scores 0-10 on the test.

As indicated in Table 1, only a small percentage of the total number of students (13.9%) have reached the formal operational stage (test scores 4-10).

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Result- Statistical analyses

Class and gender effects Student performance : 3 x 2 (Grade Level x Gender) ANOVA

no significant differences among students of the three grade levels {F (2, 189) = 3.042, p = .053} or between male and female students {F = (1, 189) = 0.058, p = .810}.

The interaction between grade level and gender was also not significant {F(2,189) = 1.204, p = .302}.

A 2 x 3 (Gender x Grade Level) MANOVA was employed where student performance on each of the five reasoning modes were the five dependent variables. There were no significant differences between male and fe

male students' performance on any of the five reasoning modes.

The main effect of class was significant only for student performance on the problems related to proportional reasoning, F(2, 289) = 3.41, p<.035

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Result- Statistical analyses

Effects of school achievement and chronological age Multiple regression analysis. the dependent variable : student performance

on the translated test the independent variables : their achievement

in science, mathematics, and Greek language, chronological age in months

Achievement in Greek language did not contribute significantly to regression.

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Result- Statistical analyses

Structure of student performance on the translated test Two separate factor analyses

In the First, the data to be analyzed consisted of performance on each of the five reasoning modes of the test.

In the second analysis, student performance on each test problem was analyzed.

Table 3 displays the extracted factors and their loadings from the 10 problems of TOLT.

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Result- Statistical analyses

Differences among performances on the test problems Table 4 shows a matrix

indicating where there were significant differences between each pair of these correlated proportions.

The information presented in Table 4 indicates that the were significant differences not only between problems related to different modes of reasoning but also between problems related to the same reasoning mode.

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Discussion & Suggestions

A small gradual development of student formal reasoning abilities related to their grade.

This does not necessarily mean that cognitive abilities improve with age because the improved performance may have resulted from other factors, such as familiarity with task content, manipulation of task instructions, or individual difference variables.

The curricula of both school subjects contain subject matter which presupposes or supports these modes of reasoning (proportional, combinatorial, probabilistic, etc.) and these "were taught," in some cases, repeatedly from the elementary school.

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Discussion & Suggestions

Each of the formal reasoning strategies has considerable importance to doing science and to rational thought in general (Lawson, 1985; Linn, 1982).

Science teaching should concern itself primarily with the development of students' reasoning abilities which are of utmost importance for a basic scientific literacy.

The only valid way to assess reasoning is by questioning the response" (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 308).

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