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7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014
1/79
Tim Fo rs y th
Public concerns about transboundary haze:
a comparison of Indonesia, Singapore, andMalaysia
Article (Accepted ersion!("efereed!
#riginal citation:Forsyth, Tim (2014) Public concerns about transboundary haze: a comparison of Indonesia,Singapore, and Malaysia, G lobal E n v ir on m en t al C han g e , 25, pp.!"#!. $%%& 0'5'"#0*$+10. 101!- .g loenvha. 2014. 01. 01
/ 2014 Elsevier
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https://flexi.library.lse.ac.uk/MyOptions/General/pLogOn.aspx?Timeout=truehttps://flexi.library.lse.ac.uk/MyOptions/General/pLogOn.aspx?Timeout=truehttp://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-environmental-change/http://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-environmental-change/http://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-environmental-change/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.013http://www.journals.elsevier.com/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56043/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56043/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56043/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56043/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/http://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-environmental-change/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.013http://www.journals.elsevier.com/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56043/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/https://flexi.library.lse.ac.uk/MyOptions/General/pLogOn.aspx?Timeout=true7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014
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Public concerns about transboundary haze: a
1
Singapore, and Malaysia
Tim Forsyth
Department of International Development, London School ofEconomics and Political
Science, Lonfon WC2A 2AE !"
t # f o r s y t h $ l s e a c % &
Published in: Global Environmental Change '2()*+
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014
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Singapore, andMalaysia
Abstract
P%lic concerns ao%t environmental prolems create narrative
str%ct%res that infl%ence policy y allocatin- roles of lame,
responsiility, and appropriate ehavior This paper presents an
analysis of p%lic concerns ao%t transo%ndary ha.e res%ltin- from
forest fires in Indonesia, Sin-apore, and /alaysia for crises e0perienced
in )11, 2((3 and 2()4 The so%rce of the information is content
analysis of 2,24) articles from representative ne5spapers in each
co%ntry The st%dy sho5s that ne5spaper reportin- ao%t ha.e has
chan-ed from a disc%ssion of the potential health and economic impacts
of fires res%ltin- partly nat%rally from El 6i7o8ind%ced dro%-hts,
to5ards an increasin- vilification of Indonesia for not ratifyin- the
2((2 Association of So%th East Asian 6ations 'ASEA6+ A-reement on
Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion: pl%s criticism of Sin-aporean and
/alaysian companies investin- in palm oil plantations, and ASEA6
Attention to climate chan-e and potential iodiversity loss lin&ed to
ha.e, ho5ever, remains lo5 The paper ar-%es that ne5spaper
analysis of p%lic concerns, despite political infl%ences on the
press, offers insi-hts into ho5 p%lic criticism is voiced in these
co%ntries, and ho5 perceived responsiility for action is chan-in-
"E;W ha.e, forest fires, palm oil, p%lic %nderstandin-s of ris&,ASEA6, So%theast Asia
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Public concerns about transboundary haze: a comparison ofIndonesia, Singapore, and
Malaysia
1.Introduction
Transo%ndary ha.e ca%sed y forest fires in Indonesia has
affected air ?%ality in nei-horin- Sin-apore and /alaysia for a
n%mer of years While there are records of smo&e and ha.e
occ%rrin- efore the )11(s, ha.e 5as noted to e a ma#or prolem in
)11 5hen the cities of "%ala L%mp%r, Sin-apore, and to a lesser e0tent
@an-&o&, @r%nei anda&arta, 5ere affected y smo&e for some 5ee&s
5ith 5idespread concerns ao%t impacts on health and economies In
2((2, the Association of So%th East Asian 6ations'ASEA6+
a-reed to
the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion 'ASEA6, 2((2+,
5hich so%-ht to implement meas%res to prevent the forest fires
leadin- to ha.e Indonesia, ho5ever, is the only memer of ASEA6 not
to ratify this a-reement 9a.e contin%es to e a prolem, 5ith
si-nificant crises arisin- in 2((3 and in 2()4, 5here s%ccessively
hi-her records of air poll%tion 5ere meas%red in /alaysia and Sin-apore
This paper contri%tes to the political analysis of the ha.e prolem y
presentin- a st%dy of p%lic concerns ao%t ha.e in Indonesia,
Sin-apore and /alaysia ased %pon content analysis of &ey
ne5spapers in each co%ntry for the crises of )11, 2((3 and 2()4 @y
so doin-, the paper serves t5o p%rposes First, it presents a record of
ho5 p%lic concerns have een reported, or have chan-ed, at ei-ht8year
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4
intervals since the first ma#or ha.e crisis, as 5ell as since the ASEA6
A-reement Second, this analysis offers insi-hts into ho5 p%lic
concerns create environmental narratives or storylines, 5hich are
Bdevices thro%-h 5hich actors are positioned, and thro%-h 5hich
specific ideas of lame and responsiility and
%r-ency and responsile ehavior are attri%ted '9a#er, )113, pp *83+ 6arratives and
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storylines are considered an important 5ay to %nderstand ho5 diGerent
societies identify the ca%ses and li&ely sol%tions to environmental
prolems, 5ith implications for different political actors s%ch as
-overnments and citi.ens 'Forsyth and Wal&er, 2((H: =oe, )11*+
Conse?%ently, y analy.in- p%lic perceptions of lame and
responsiility, it is possile to identify ho5 the political a-ency
attri%ted to ASEA6, individ%al -overnments, as 5ell as non8state
actors chan-e over time, and ho5 far p%lic deate 'as
represented y ne5spapers+ openly tar-ets specific actors
To %nderta&e this st%dy, the paper adopts a methodolo-y of
comparative ne5spaper content analysis in order to indicate p%lic
concerns in each co%ntry in the diGerent years of the s%rvey This
methodolo-y offers oth stren-ths and 5ea&nesses
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p%lic concerns ao%t lame, ris&, and potential sol%tions, as 5ell as the
perceived connections et5een ha.e and parallel environmental deates
s%ch as climate chan-e, iodiversity and the c%ltivation of palm oil
Lessons are then dra5n for ho5 each co%ntry has perceived
responsiility for action ao%t
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transo%ndary ha.e, and the respective roles of ASEA6 a-reement,
national -overnments, and non8state actors The paper also dra5s
concl%sions concernin- the contri%tion of ne5spaper analysis for
%nderstandin- p%lic concerns
2. he Southeast Asiahaze problem
9a.e occ%rs 5hen smo&e from forest fires and open %rnin-
comines 5ith local air poll%tion over cities /ost %rnin- has occ%rred
on the Indonesian island of S%matra 'especially the provinces of =ia%
and ami+, and on the island of @orneo, 5hich comprises the
Indonesian province of "alimantan and the /alaysia provinces of Saah
and Sara5a& Smo&e is carried y monsoonal 5inds most fre?%ently to
"%ala L%mp%r in /alaysia and Sin-apore The first occasion 5hen
transo%ndary ha.e 5as identified as a ma#or prolem 5as et5een
%ly and
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et5een nei-horin- co%ntries 'lover et al, 2((4: 6arayanan,
2((2+ The Poll%tant Standards Inde0 'PSI+ of Sin-apore meas%res five
&ey air poll%tants> s%lph%r dio0ide, nitro-en dio0ide, o.one, caron
mono0ide and P/)(, 5hich is
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partic%late matter )( microns or smaller in si.e /alaysia %ses the Air
Poll%tion Inde0 'API+, 5hich meas%res the same five poll%tants %t 5ith
different scales for caliratin- poll%tants
Jario%s sol%tions have een proposed for ha.e In immediate terms,
ha.e can e miti-ated y 5earin- facemas&s, or y red%cin- the
e0pos%re faced y v%lnerale people Since 2((3, the -overnment of
Sin-apore has p%lished daily meas%rements of ha.e on 5esites
Lon-er8term sol%tions, ho5ever, re?%ire the avoidance of fires Jario%s
analysts have proposed re-%latin- and finin- individ%als startin- fires
'Chan- and =a#an, 2((): ones,
2((*+ @%t it is %s%ally diffic%lt to identify actors responsile for
fires /any fires, for e0ample, are lamed %pon companies that see& to
clear land cheaply in order to estalish palm oil or r%er plantations>
%t these companiesKperhaps predictalyKare &een to assert their
innocence and state that %rnin- land does not s%it their commercial
interests Traditional a-ric%lt%re practiced y smallholders is another
so%rce of lame, %t it is sometimes diffic%lt to identify the differences
et5een farmers actin- for their o5n commercial interests, or hired to
5or& on ehalf of lar-er companies /%ch pop%lar disc%ssion %ses the
5ords Bslash and %rn to refer to the type of land clearance that %ses
fire indiscriminately, 5hich sometimes conf%ses traditional land %se
ased on historic shiftin- c%ltivation 5ith %ncontrolled %rnin- to clear
land for plantations Indeed, research y Colfer '2(((: 2((3, p )2(+ has
indicated that companies can %se fire as a 5ay to compete for land
concessions, or even %se fire as a--ressive acts to destroy competin-
plantations or to present other companies in a ad li-ht
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The ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion 5as si-ned in
2((2 and commits parties to international cooperation and domestic
actions to prevent fires 'ASEA6, 2((2: 6-%itra-ool, 2())a, + /ost
memers of ASEA6 ratified this a-reement in 2((4 Indonesia,
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ho5ever, is the only party not to have ratified the a-reement 'Tay,
2((1+ /oreover, the a-reement has een characteri.ed as Bshallo5
eca%se it Bcorresponds to the e0istin- ASEA6 instit%tional c%lt%re
in terms of or-ani.ational minimalism '6-%itra-ool, 2()), p)*H+
ASEA6 as an international -ro%pin- also represents a variety of
compromises et5een co%ntries that have immense differences as 5ell
as little history in see&in- international a-reements 'Cotton, )111+
Implementation is also diffic%lt eca%se of close relationships et5een
investin- companies and local -overnments 'A--ar5al and Cho5,
2()(+ In 2()4, for e0ample, the Indonesian Corr%ption Eradication
Commission detained the -overnor of =ia% province in S%matra on
s%spicion of receivin- corr%pt payments from lo--in- companies 'oh,
2()4+ 6e5spapers disc%ssed alle-ations that Sin-aporean and
/alaysian companies 5ere most responsile for the deforestation
and fires in S%matra /oreover, one of these Sin-aporean companies,
Temase& 9oldin-s, 5as partic%larly controversial eca%se it is an
official overnment Lin&ed Corporation 'LC+, 5ith stron- investment
and advisory lin&s to the Sin-aporean -overnment 'see section 3+
'Jar&&ey,
2()2,2()4+
9a.e is therefore diffic%lt to control eca%se it res%lts from a comple0
set of climatic and monsoonal conditions: the rise of ne5 e0port
crops: and a set of challen-in- re-%latory fail%res involvin-
international, national, and s%national #%risdictions An international
a-reement to address ha.e has apparently failed This paper aims to
contri%te to ne5 approaches to -overnin- the ha.e prolem y
assessin- p%lic concerns ao%t ha.e over time and in different
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co%ntries This st%dy can help %nderstand ho5 different co%ntries see
ca%ses and potential sol%tions, incl%din- the potential roles for
-overnments, companies, and citi.ens
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!. he study andmethods
The st%dy so%-ht to identify ho5 p%lic concerns ao%t
transo%ndary ha.e had een e0pressed in ne5spapers in Indonesia,
Sin-apore and /alaysia since the start of the ha.e crisis in )11 This
information 5as then %sed to inform deates ao%t the emer-ence of
narratives ha.e 'or the str%ct%rin- of lame and responses in social
disco%rse+ It 5as hoped that these insi-hts 5o%ld then enhance
%nderstandin-s of p%lic policy deates ao%t diGerent policy
initiatives s%ch as the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e
Poll%tion, or the connections et5een ha.e and concerns ao%t climate
chan-e, iodiversity, forests, and palm oil 6e5spapers have een %sed
to st%dy ha.e efore '/assey, 2(((: /cLellan,
2(()+, altho%-h this papers %ses a more?%antified techni?%e
!.1 Selection ofne"spapers
First, it 5as necessary to choose representative ne5spapers for analysis
6e5spaper analysis in these co%ntries, ho5ever, is challen-in- eca%se
of concerns ao%t press censorship and the choice of printed
lan-%a-e
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In Indonesia, Sin-apore, and /alaysia, there are vario%s formal and
informal practices that restrict ne5spaper criticism of -overnments,
p%lic fi-%res 'At&ins, 2((): Woodier, 2((H+ The )1HH /alaysian
@roadcast Act allo5s ministers to determine s%#ects that can e
reported on y ne5spapers 'En-, )11, p **)+ In Sin-apore, the
6e5spaper and Printin-
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Presses Act of )1* states that mana-ement shareholders have to
e approved y the /inistry of Information, Comm%nications and the
Arts /any media o%tlets in Sin-apore are also o5ned y one company,
Sin-apore Press 9oldin-s In recent years, there has een an increase in
internet8ased ne5s and political disc%ssion sites s%ch as Sin-apores
The Online Citizen or The Real Singapore @%t in 2()4, the Sin-apore
-overnment proposed ne5 re-%lations and licenses for ne5s 5esites,
leadin- to a p%lic protest y some 2,3(( people '6-, 2()4+
Despite these mis-ivin-s, the st%dy ass%med that ne5spapers still
indicate p%lic concerns in vario%s 5ays As this paper disc%sses
'section 3+ #o%rnalists apparently %se lan-%a-e caref%lly to e0press
criticism, or descrie controversial s%#ects, 5itho%t acc%sin- anyone or
ecomin- critics themselves 6e5spapers also allo5 a form of criticism
y printin- readers letters and opinion pieces 9a.e has never een a
s%#ect for press censorship in itself @%t ne5s reports co%ld e seen to
e critical of the -overnment if they lin& ha.e to the activities of
-overnment8lin&ed corporations in investments in Indonesia This
criticism 5o%ld add 5ei-ht to e0istin- 5idespread dissatisfaction ao%t
alle-ed corr%ption and %siness connections 5ithin the Sin-apore and
/alaysian -overnments 'Jar&&ey, 2()4+
6e5spapers also offer advanta-es for lon-8term analysis over social
media 5esites eca%se their archives e0ist for years /oreover,
local advisers from /alaysia and Sin-apore s%--ested that, at
present, online ne5s sites are less a%thoritative than ne5spapers
eca%se online articles can e easily 5ithdra5n after p%lication, and
many articles are anonymo%s
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ne5> The Online Citizen in Sin-apore, for e0ample, e-an in 2((, and
therefore co%ld not e %sed for comparison 5ith )11
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The three ne5spapers chosen 5ere the Jakarta Post for Indonesia:
Straits Times for Sin-apore: and the New Straits Times for /alaysia
These ne5spapers 5ere selected 5ith the help of local advisers eca%se
they are 5idely considered to e a%thoritative roadsheet p%lications
that report on matters of p%lic concern, and 5hich have een
p%lished consistently thro%-ho%t the period of the st%dy These
are also En-lish lan-%a-e ne5spapers, 5hich allo5ed a relatively
strai-htfor5ard comparison 'Indeed, Sin-apore %ses En-lish as its official
media lan-%a-e+ While it is clear that local lan-%a-e ne5spapers mi-ht
present alternative visions of p%lic concerns, it 5as decided that
these leadin- national ne5spapers 5ere li&ely to p%lish more
a%thoritatively and 5idely on the s%#ect of ha.e It is also ac&no5led-ed
that En-lish8lan-%a-e ne5spapers in So%theast Asia are not tar-eted at
forei-ners alone, %t at sections of their o5n pop%lations 5ho 5ish to
read in En-lish 'Forsyth, 2((: /assey, 2(((+
The three ne5spapers are also independent of each other The Straits
Times 'Sin-apore+ and New Straits Times '/alaysia+ 5ere ori-inally
ased on a ne5spaper la%nched in )H*3, %t ecame separate 5hen
tensions rose et5een Sin-apore and /alaysia in the )13(s In )13 it
5as a-reed that neither ne5spaper 5o%ld e for sale in the other co%ntry
or %se the same articles In )13, 5hen /alaysia split from Sin-apore,
the /alaysian #o%rnal adopted the moni&er Bne5 The New Straits
Times 5as chosen aove the rival daily /alaysia ne5spaper, The
Star, on the advice of /alaysian advisers 5ho s%--ested that the
New Straits Times 5as a non8taloid style of ne5spaper that co%ld e
compared 5ith The Straits Times andJakarta Post.
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The Jakarta Post 5as estalished in )1H4, and has since -ained a
rep%tation for -ivin- p%licity to deates ao%t democrati.ation 'Tarrant,
2((H+
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!.2 Selection of ne"sarticles
The ne0t sta-e 5as to identify time periods of research These 5ere
identified y cond%ctin- online searches for periods 5hen ha.e 5as
5idely reported The online8dataase, Factiva, is a 5idely8%sed
dataase of international ne5spapers and 5as considered s%fficient
and reliale to access historic ne5spapers Jario%s 5ords 5ere %sed to
identify 5hen ha.e 5as reported most fre?%ently Words s%ch as
Bha.e, Bforest fires, and Bsmo- 5ere %sed initially to identify the
search term It 5as decided to %se the 5ord Bha.e alone, as research
sho5ed it offered the ma0im%m ran-e of articles It 5as, ho5ever,
important to re#ect articles that %sed the term Bha.e in irrelevant
5ays 'for e0ample, a pop%lar Sin-aporean film 5as called Haze+ The
search also e0cl%ded reports from international ne5s a-encies s%ch as
=e%ters or Associated Press in order to foc%s on local ne5s
so%rces 'Indeed, international ne5s a-encies tended to s%mmari.e
local ne5s for international a%diences+ The res%ltin- articles %sed
incl%ded a variety of ne5s reports, letters, and opinion pieces
The res%lts of this initial s%rvey are sho5n in Fi-%re ) It 5as decided to
ase the s%rvey on three periods> %ly8Decemer 2(( 'si0 months+,
A%-%st 2((3 'one month+, and %ne 2()4 'one month+ The initial
assessment for )11 5as lon-er than the s%se?%ent years eca%se the
earlier period 5as 5hen the Bstoryline ao%t ha.e 5as initially
estalished, and eca%se ne5s reportin- ao%t this episode of ha.e
contin%ed for a m%ch lon-er asis than in later years 5hen reportin-
tended to pea& 5ithin the period of #%st one month The research
therefore aimed to estalish the aseline of p%lic perceptions in )11
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5hen transo%ndary ha.e ecame a theme of si-nificant p%lic concern,
and then assess ho5 these perceptions had chan-ed in 2((3 and 2()4,
%sin- #%st one month each for these later years
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perceptions chan-ed over time These decisions meant that the st%dy
5as ased on ),31 articles in )11, )2 in 2((3, and *(( in 2()4 'or
2,24) in total+ Tale ) lists the n%mers of ne5s articles %sed
Figure 1 around here #re$uency of ne"s reports abouthaze, %uly 1&&' ( %une 2)1!*
Table 1 around here able 1: +umbers of ne"s articles analyzed*
!.! Analysis of ne"sarticles
The third sta-e 5as to analy.e selected articles This process adopted a
standardi.ed proced%re for each ne5spaper, %t there 5as also
fle0iility to ac&no5led-e different means of e0pressin- lame or
criticism in different c%lt%res The n%ances of p%lic criticism, especially
in co%ntries 5here there are media controls, are disc%ssed in section 3
6e5s stories 5ere analy.ed in order to indicate %nderlyin- frames,
or the %nderlyin- meanin- and ass%mptions 5ithin stories, 5hich
indicate the si-nificance attri%ted to ha.e at the time of reportin-
'@a%er, 2(((: Pan and "osic&i, )114+ The method adopted orro5ed
stron-ly from an earlier analysis of environmental ne5s in Thailand
'Forsyth,
2((+, and a st%dy of reportin- ao%t ha.e in So%theast Asia from )11
'/assey, 2(((+ The point of frame analysis is to loo& eyond the
immediate s%#ect matter of an article 'for e0ample, the iss%in- of a
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statement y a -overnment minister+ and instead foc%s on the implied
ca%se, lame, or responsiility 'e- that Indonesia is actin-
irresponsily+ Each article 5as a5arded a score for each frame it
contained, allo5in- c%m%lative frames to e
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compared et5een co%ntries, and et5een different time periods For
e0ample, a report ao%t an 6
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These frames incl%ded 5ider environmental prolems s%ch as climate
chan-e, iodiversity, and the -overnance of deforestation in -eneral, or
specific concerns s%ch as the rise of palm oil c%ltivation These themes
offered %sef%l information ao%t ho5 ha.e 5as connected to
related policy initiatives
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To ma&e the presentation of res%lts clearer, the fi-%res in this paper
present information as a percenta-e of each set of frames relatin- to
lame, ris&, and potential sol%tions The second set of frames is
presented in terms of avera-e fre?%ency per ne5s story eca%se these
5ere not al5ays connected to a str%ct%re of lame, ris&, or sol%tions As
this paper foc%ses on narratives of lame and responsiility for
transo%ndary ha.e, most attention is -iven to the first set of frames
The second set of frames 5as also less fre?%ent in ne5s reportin-, and
so 5arranted less analysis
.-esults
4.1 Conceptionsof blame
The res%lts for perceptions of lame and responsiility et5een the
nation states of Indonesia, Sin-apore and /alaysia are sho5n in Fi-%re
2 Fi-%re 4 sho5s the incidence of secondary lame cate-ories of
companies, smallholders and El 6i7o These fi-%res sho5 some
important chan-es in ho5 lame has een allocated
In an earlier st%dy of ne5s reportin- of ha.e in /alaysia '/cLellan,
2(()> 233+, res%lts s%--ested that the -overnment of /alaysia 5as &een
to maintain the co%ntrys -ood ima-e: avoid disco%ra-in- to%rism: and
maintain -ood relations 5ith Indonesia and ASEA6 as a 5hole There
5as also a tendency to portray ha.e as a specific prolem for East
/alaysia 'ie the provinces of Saah and Sara5a&+ rather than
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15
penins%lar /alaysia The res%lts of this c%rrent st%dy s%pported, and
added, to these initial findin-s
First, the proportion of all stories has sho5n a rapid increase in
Blame in all three co%ntries since )11 In )11, the
percenta-e of articles e0pressin- ma&in- critical
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15
statements or assertin- direct responsiility for ha.e for Indonesia,
Sin-apore and /alaysia respectively 5ere 2H percent, 231 percent, and
)H percent @y 2()4, these had risen to
*4 percent, 4)* percent, and 4(H percent These statistics sho5 that
the initial reportin- of ha.e in )11 more or less disc%ssed lame,
threats, and potential sol%tions in e?%al meas%re @y the 2(((s,
ho5ever, this distri%tion had shifted si-nificantly to5ards
identifyin- ha.e as an iss%e of failed responsiility In all cases, Indonesia
is clearly seen to e a s%#ect for lame Indeed, the Indonesian
presidents S%harto and S%silo @aman- ;%dhoyono iss%ed formal
apolo-ies for the ha.e to their nei-horin- co%ntries respectively in
)11 and 2()4
Figure 2 around here here is blameallocated for haze/*
Figure 3 around here 0ther attributed causes of haze*
@%t there are also other trends in the allocation of lame First, national
ne5spapers have, perhaps s%rprisin-ly, sho5n a 5illin-ness to lame
their o5n -overnments 9ence, theJakarta Post has overtly e0pressed
the fail%res of its o5n -overnment to address ha.e The Sin-apore
Straits Times, and /alaysian New Straits Times have also e0pressed
concern that their o5n -overnments have not re-%lated their o5n
companies that invest in Indonesian plantations In /alaysia, the ori-inal
reportin- ao%t ha.e in )11 and 2((3 even presented /alaysia as
e?%ally to lame 'if not more so+ than Indonesia 'see Fi-%re 2c+ This
trend 5as partly eca%se ha.e 5as ori-inally partly lamed on open
%rnin- of a-ric%lt%ral or m%nicipal 5aste in /alaysian cities, %t also
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16
eca%se of a n%mer of speeches y political leaders at this time
so%-ht to demonstrate diplomacy to5ards Indonesia y disc%ssin-
m%t%al responsiility In )11, for e0ample, the /alaysian Prime
/inister, /ahathir /ohamad, 5as ?%oted as sayin-> BIt is not
Indonesias fa%lt eca%se 5e never informed
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16
them that 5e need to 5or& 'to-ether+ on this partic%lar case 'NewStraits Times, )11a+ @y
2()4, ho5ever, most notions of lame in the /alaysian ne5spaper 5ere
e0pressed a-ainst Indonesia For e0ample, a 2()4 opinion piece in the
New Straits Times %r-ed, Bit is ca%sed y a nei-hor 5ho ref%ses to
accept responsiility for it is a test of a patience that is not infinite
'New Straits Times, 2()4a+ /alaysia is also notale for lamin- ASEA6
'see section
3+
@esides the -overnment of Indonesia, all ne5spapers identified
companies as a &ey so%rce of lame, and of failed re-%lation 'see
Fi-%re 4+ The proportion of lame allocated to companies, ho5ever,
has declined et5een )11 and 2()4 as the proportion allocated to
Indonesia, the co%ntry, has increased '5ith the e0ception of Sin-apore+
SmallholdersKor poorer a-ric%lt%ralists livin- on the ed-e of forest
mar-insK5ere also implicated in p%lic disc%ssions in ne5spapers, and
especially in /alaysia 'Fi-%re 4c+ Some #o%rnalists 5ere &een to
e0press that smallholders are not to lame 'Stefan%s, 2()4+ @%t more
commonly, smallholders and companies 5ere incl%ded in the same
disc%ssion of Bslash8and8%rn land8 clearance methods, 5hich can e
%sed to indicate traditional land clearance as 5ell as open %rnin- y
plantation 5or&ers
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Some lame for smallholders occ%rred 5hen companies 5ereintervie5ed in ne5spapers In
)11, for e0ample, the /alaysian company, Trade5inds Plantations
lamed %rnin- on its Indonesian #oint8vent%re partner or smallholders A
company representative said, BThe prolem of slash8and8%rn 5hich
has ca%sed the forest fires are mainly ca%sed y the smallholders as
they do not have the correct method to control the fire 'New Straits
Times,
)11+ In 2()4, the Straits Times 'Sin-apore+ reported, BtheAssociation of Plantation
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Investors of /alaysia in Indonesia said /alaysian firms are not
involved in clearin- Indonesian land %sin- fire Its e0ec%tive secretary
saidMN BPlantation o5ners have to set aside 2( per cent of land to
n%rt%re smallholders in oil palm plantin- It is a common practice for
the smallholders to clear the land y fire 'Foo, 2()4a+
=eferences to smallholders ein- to lame, therefore, seems to reflect
?%otations from other actors 5ho mi-ht 5ish to lame them
Smallholders 5ere not ?%oted lamin- themselves
In addition, fires and ha.e 5ere attri%ted to the eGects of El 6i7o in all
co%ntries in )11This trend 5as especially mar&ed in Indonesia, 5here
El 6i7o 5as cited as a ca%se in 2) percent of references to lame and
responsiility in )11 @y 2()4, ho5ever, there 5as only limited
disc%ssion of El 6i7o in /alaysia and Indonesia 'Fi-%re 4+, possily
eca%se 2((3 and
2()4 5ere not notale El6i7o years
It is also 5orth notin- that some articles overtly proclaimed that no
one co%ntry 5as to lame, or, most fre?%ently, that Indonesia 5as
lameless In 2()4, for e0ample, the Jakarta Post feat%red articles
ar-%in- that Indonesian President S%silo @aman- ;%dhoyono sho%ld
not have apolo-i.ed for the ha.e, on the -ro%nds that the ha.e 5as
ca%sed eca%se Sin-aporean and /alaysian companies 5ere not
re-%lated, and eca%se Indonesian ministers themselves 5ere critical
of this apolo-y 'Jakarta Post, 2()4+ At times, the Jakarta Post has
critici.ed /alaysia For e0ample, in 2((3, an anonymo%s opinion
piece stated> B/alaysian ha.e haters disappointment is
%nderstandale They vent their an-er
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18
Ndemandin- that Indonesians stop cho&in- them every sin-le year NThe
/alaysian -overnments offer to help to e0tin-%ish the forest fires is
also %nderstandale as their minister of forestry admitted that many
/alaysian estate and 5ood companies operatin- in Indonesia 5ere
amon- the perpetrators of the fires 'Jakarta Post, 2((3+
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18
In 2()4, the Indonesian minister coordinatin- the ha.e response stated
that the fires and ha.e 5ere nat%ral phenomena and not related to poor
land mana-ement or lac& of re-%lation, sayin-> BSin-apore sho%ld not
e ehavin- li&e a child and ma&in- all this noiseThis is not 5hat the
Indonesian nation 5ants, it is eca%se of nat%re 'Ch%a, 2()4+
4.2 Conceptionsof risk
Fi-%re * sho5s the top three ris&s arisin- from ha.e for each of thethree co%ntries in )11,
2((3 and 2()4 The most consistent ris&s 5ere, %ns%rprisin-ly,
health, economy, and lifestyle There 5as also concern that ha.e 5o%ld
rin- additional ris&s to nat%re 'or environment in -eneral+: diplomatic
relations et5een co%ntries: and the ris& that reportin- on ha.e 5o%ld
-ive a false impression to other co%ntries For e0ample, in )11, the
Straits Times 'Sin-apore+ reported that a @ritish ne5s team had as&ed a
to%rist to pose for photo-raphs 5earin- a -as mas& eside a
s5immin- pool The ne5spaper stated> BThis ima-e 5o%ld have
seemed comical if it 5ere not so dama-in- in its inacc%racy and
dishonesty 'Straits Times, )11a+ /cLellans st%dy '2(()> 22+ also
s%--ests that the /alaysian -overnment en-a-ed in a campai-n of
coordinated Bdenial partic%larly tar-eted the @ritish, !nited8States,
and A%stralian media for alle-ed misrepresentation of ha.e in
)11 and 2((( This c%rrent st%dy, ho5ever, sho5ed that ne5spapers
did not report any attac&s on forei-n media in 2((3 and 2()4
Some of the lar-est fears ao%t ha.e 5ere that it 5o%ld ca%se a
fall in to%rism, or in ind%strial investment and prod%ction In )11,
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19
-overnment statistics estimated that ha.e cost the Sin-aporean
economy of et5een !SO18)( illion, 5ith an additional !SO)3 million
for assistin- 5ith fire fi-htin- in S%matra 'Straits Times, )11+ In
/alaysia, ho5ever, the main threat after health 5as identified as
lifestyle, referrin- to the prolems of day8to8day
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19
life d%rin- ha.e These articles 5o%ld represent ha.e as a ha.ard to
5ee&end sportin- events, open8air concerts, or as opport%nities to
coo& special meals Indeed, there 5as evidence of some commercial
actors tryin- to ma&e li-ht of ha.e For e0ample, the food chain,
/cDonalds apolo-i.ed in %ne 2()4 for #o&in-ly iss%in- adverts
relaelin- Sin-apores Poll%tion Standards Inde0 as the BPea& Sa%ce
Inde0> 'Straits Times, 2()4a+
A relatively less important ris& 5as the threat to international relations
et5een co%ntries receivin- ha.e and Indonesia This 5as noted
especially in Sin-apore, 5here it received *4 percent of reports ao%t
potential threats from ha.e in 2((3
Figure 4 around here Perceied threatsposed by haze*
The impact on Benvironment 5as diffic%lt to assess In one sense, all
impacts reported 5ere environmental @%t only a relatively fe5
ne5spaper articles disc%ssed ha.e in terms of its impacts on
ecosystems or as a symptom of 5idespread environmental
de-radation In Indonesia and Sin-apore, ne5spapers referred to the
perceived ris& to Bnat%re prominently in 2((3 and 2()4 /any articles,
ho5ever, referred to the impacts on forests, or the areas of land aGected
y fires, 5itho%t disc%ssin- these impacts as a f%nction of ecolo-y or
environmentalism
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20
the si-nificance of civil society as a potential sol%tion 'section *4+ It
is also 5orth notin- that this apparent rel%ctance to intervie5
environmental 6
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20
@%t despite the relatively hi-her environmental foc%s in the Jakarta Post,
the attention -iven to roader environmental prolems 5as
-enerally slim Perhaps s%rprisin-ly, the relationship of ha.e to
climate chan-eKs%ch as thro%-h the release of -reenho%se -ases or
the lon-8term implications of peat firesK5as rarely mentioned In
Indonesia, the references to climate chan-e per story chan-ed from
((2 in )11, to ( in 2((3, and ((1 in 2()4 In Sin-apore, these fi-%res
5ere ((), ((* and ((2: in /alaysia, references remained at (() per
story in all years These fi-%res mi-ht e s%rprisin- -iven the pro0imity
of the initial ha.e crisis in )11 to the ne-otiations for the "yoto
Protocol, or eca%se of the campai-nin- of international environmental
6
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21
re-%lation of companies or smallholder ehavior y -overnments:
diplomacy 'incl%din- ilateral a-reements and aid+: ne-otiations
thro%-h ASEA6 '5hich 5ere identified separately to ilateral
a-reements+: tar-etin- of assistance to specific, v%lnerale
pop%lations s%ch as schoolchildren or the
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21
elderly: and -reater involvement of civil society and non8
-overnmental or-ani.ations '6
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22
-overnment+ The role of civil society as a potential sol%tion, ho5ever,
fell to #%st *2 percent in 2()4
In /alaysia, this trend 5as echoed less stron-ly, 5hich sa5 the
proportion of articles proposin- civil society as a sol%tion in )11 of *
percent: risin- to H3 percent in 2((3: %t
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22
fallin- ac& to *H percent in 2()4 In Sin-apore, references to civil
society -re5 steadily, %t %nspectac%larly from 44 percent ')11+ to )
percent '2((3+ and H* percent '2()4+ Some of the topics disc%ssed
%nder civil society incl%ded the 5or& of reenpeace in identifyin- fire hot
spots in S%matra: citi.en si-nin- petitions to see& action: or the
statement from some companies that sol%tions can only e achieved
y motivatin- all sta&eholders, incl%din- citi.ens and local -ro%ps
'New Straits Times, 2()4+
A f%rther trend 5as the increased reference to ASEA6 as a potential
sol%tion, rather than ilateral diplomacy In 2((3, oth Indonesia ')
percent+ and Sin-apore ')*4 percent+ referred to ASEA6, and in
/alaysia, this fi-%re has increased steadily from ) percent ')11+,
to )4 percent '2((3+, and 2) percent '2()4+ The role of ASEA6 is
disc%ssed more in section 3
. 3iscussion and implications formodels of goernance
The narrative that emer-es from ne5s reportin- ao%t ha.e in
Indonesia, Sin-apore and /alaysia is that the initial crisis in )11 5as
perceived to e a res%lt of poor forest mana-ement and El 6i7o
Disc%ssions et5een co%ntries led to the si-nin- of the 2((2
ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion @%t repeatedcrises, partic%larly in
2((3 and 2()4, have een interpreted in terms of a fail%re y
Indonesia to ratify and implement the A-reement, pl%s a ne5
challen-e y the -overnments of Sin-apore and /alaysia to re-%late
their o5n companies Indeed, independent academic commentators
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23
also note this trend, 5ith one 5ritin-> B/alaysian investors have een
ale to %rn 5ith imp%nityN eca%se of the close patrona-e
relationships and vested interests of the /alaysian -overnment elites
in these companies @eca%se of this, the home -overnment is inclined to
protect and defend the actions of these firms in Indonesia 'Jar&&ey,
2()4> 4H)+
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23
In the short term, -overnments are happy to represent pro-ress
thro%-h the allocation of facemas&s, or to offer f%nds or aircraft to
%nderta&e clo%d seedin- /ore -enerally, ho5ever, p%lic deate has
shifted from 5orry ao%t the e0istence of the prolem and its potential
impacts on health and economy, to5ards an appreciation that a more
comple0 sol%tion is needed These findin-s s%--est that ne5s reportin-
has ecome sli-htly more critical and confrontational since the analysis
of reportin- ao%t ha.e in )11 y /assey '2(((+ or /cLellan '2(((+
There are also some implications for models of environmental
-overnance
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24
specific ca%ses and political and economic challen-es
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24
any time Widespread corr%ption on the -ro%nd means no ne5 proes or
re-%lations y Indonesia 5ill have any effect, so all that is left is for
5eary cons%mers to oycott palm oil prod%cts '
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25
5as en-a-ed in prod%cin- a different &ind of Bha.e of positive ne5s
ao%t the company in ne5spapers, in star& diGerence to the ha.e in the
air 'Leon, 2()4+
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25
The Straits Times ne5spaper, ho5ever, p%lished articles that disc%ssed
the criticisms of Sin-aporean companies, rather than en-a-in- in
criticism itself /oreover, d%rin- the 2()4 ha.e crisis, the ne5spaper
p%lished an intervie5 5ith a representative of Temase& 9oldin-s
entitled, B6o fires on land co8o5ned y Temase& and 5ith a statement
that the company aided y r%les of -ood corporate -overnance and local
la5s 'Foo, 2()4+
Figure around here Perceied connections bet"een palm
oil cultiation and haze*
Figure ! around here AS4A+ as a perceied solution, "ithMalaysia5s gro"ing perception
of AS4A+ as part of the problem*
This style of reportin- co%ld e 5hat /assey '2(((> H+ descried efore
as Bne5spapers conver-ed on seemin-ly non8confrontational frames,
5hile do5nplayin- the potentially tro%lesome ones, as a res%lt of the
infl%ence of the ASEA6 core val%e of maintainin- cordial relations
et5een memer states /assey '2(((> H+ adds> Bein- sensitive
to nei-horin- nations is one occ%pational norm that distin-%ishes
Asian #o%rnalism from Western forms of ne5s reportin-, 5hich can e
noticealy lame8oriented and, ar-%aly, at times divisive @%t there is
also evidence that ne5spapers are increasin-ly critical of this
stereotypical ASEA6 form of ne-otiation This ne5 critical insi-ht is
sho5n in the p%lic criticism of ASEA6, and in the style of reportin-
despite media controls
Fi-%re sho5s the n%mer of frames in the selected ne5spapers that
5ere either critical or lamin- of ASEA6 This fi-%re sho5s that
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26
ne5spapers are increasin-ly referrin- to ASEA6 as a potential sol%tion to
transo%ndary ha.e
@%t Fi-%re also sho5s that Indonesia and Sin-apores optimism forASEA6 declined after
2((3, 5hich 5as shortly after the 2((2 ASEA6 A-reement onTranso%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion
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26
/alaysias New Straits Times, on the other hand, demonstrated a
-ro5in- deate ao%t the pros and cons of ASEA6 BASEA6s penchant of favorin- camaraderie
over formality and process over s%stance, is 5ell &no5n Nit #%st 5ont
5or& 'ani, 2((3+ This article ?%oted an academic from the 6ational
!niversity of Sin-apore, rather than e0pressin- this concern in its o5n
voice
The /alaysia New Straits Times has also echoed this trend In )11 it
stated, BThe ASEA6 5ay is characteri.ed y va-%eness and lon-5inded
indirectness
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27
of the /alaysian S!n"a# Times in )11 'in /cLellan, 2(()> 23+
that, Bthe
ASEA6 5ay of holdin- discreet ehind8the8scenes disc%ssions, 5hile
&eepin- the ASEA6 p%lic in the dar&, may 5or& in sortin- o%t political,
trade or diplomatic &in&s @%t it does not 5or& 5hen it comes to a
disaster li&e the ha.e 'S!n"a# Times, )11+
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27
@y 2((3, the /alaysia New Straits Times contin%ed this criticism> BThe
ASEA6 transo%ndary ha.e protocol remains %nratified y Indonesia, %t
in itself only calls for the sharin- of data: an instance, perhaps, of
fiddlin- 5hile =ome %rns 'New Straits Times, 2((3+. And in 2()4, BWe
have een %sin- all diplomatic channels to solve this prolem the ASEA6
5ay, %t have 5e een s%ccessf%l 'New Straits Times, 2()4d+
Evidence therefore s%--ests that p%lic opinion ao%t ha.e is ecomin-
more critical of oth national -overnments an" the international models
of disp%te resol%tion adopted y ASEA6 In addition, criticism has
ecome foc%sed on -overnment8lin&ed corporations and especially the
alle-ed role of Sin-aporean and /alaysian companies in open
%rnin- At the same time, ne5spapers are ale to voice these
criticisms 'despite controls on media+ y reportin- the 5ords of critics,
or simply descriin- deates ao%t controversial matters, even if the
ne5spapers themselves do not o5n this criticism themselves
/%ch reportin- ao%t ha.e still remains foc%sed on short8term concerns
s%ch as the disr%ption to life, or the availaility of facemas&s @%t there
is a -ro5in- trend to ?%estion the model of -overnance that ass%mes a
national -overnment 5ill implement sol%tions, and instead to loo& at the
lac& of re-%lation of companies 5ho invest in plantations, and the
aility of citi.ens to critici.e them
6.7onclusion
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28
P%lic concerns ao%t environmental prolems are important eca%se
they indicate ho5 environmental chan-es are e0perienced as
prolematic, and eca%se they offer insi-hts into
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28
the political processes that shape policy interventions Social scientists
have called these connections et5een p%lic concerns and policy
challen-es, Benvironmental narratives eca%se they str%ct%re concepts
of lame, ris&, and potential sol%tion
!nderstandin- p%lic concerns, ho5ever, is challen-in- eca%se
they can only ecome apparent thro%-h the %se of indicators
6e5spaper articles are a familiar so%rce of information, %t these mi-ht
e inappropriate indicators of p%lic perceptions eca%se of censorship
or political infl%ence The print media in Indonesia, Sin-apore, and
/alaysia are 5idely considered to e s%#ect to political control
6onetheless, this st%dy of p%lic concerns ao%t transo%ndary
ha.e has revealed information ao%t the p%lic deate ao%t ha.e,
and ao%t the #o%rnalistic representation of this controversy The
research presented in this paper demonstrates that ne5spaper
articlesKincl%din- ne5s reports, letters, and opinion piecesKhave
-rad%ally chan-ed from simply descriin- the feared health and
economic impacts of forest fires occ%rrin- d%rin- a prolon-ed El 6i7o
period, to5ards ein- represented in frames of policy fail%re y
Indonesia: the capacity of ASEA6 to act: and the %n5illin-ness or
inaility of Sin-apore and /alaysia to re-%late state8lin&ed companies
6e5s reportin- also indicates that most reportin- of the day8to8day
effects of ha.e in recipient co%ntries still foc%ses on the impacts on
lifestyle and short8term sol%tions s%ch as iss%in- facemas&s or
charterin- planes for clo%d seedin- @eneath this disc%ssion, ho5ever,
is a -ro5in- trend to state that the ASEA6 A-reement on Transo%ndary
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29
9a.e Poll%tion is not -ood eno%-h: that state8lin&ed companies mi-ht e
connected to the prolems of land clearance for palm oil prod%ction: and
an openly critical, not very8ASEA6 5ay, of critici.in- Indonesia for
failin- to ratify the ASEA6 a-reement Indeed, ne5spaper articles
are
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29
increasin-ly ?%estionin- the stereotypical ASEA6 non8confrontational
model of ne-otiation et5een nation states, and see&in- to emphasi.e
criticism of companies, and the potential role of citi.ens
These findin-s s%--est that ne5spaper analysis has an important
val%e alon-side other indicators of p%lic concerns Despite the
political infl%ences on ne5spapers in So%theast Asia, there is evidence
that the p%lic is increasin-ly critical of c%rrent policy approaches to
ha.e Citi.ens are also see&in- more comple0 forms of -overnance that
replace international commitments 5ith a more confrontational and
p%lic criticism of companies investin- in palm oil and %nre-%lated
plantations
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30
=EFE=E6CES
A--ar5al, J, Cho5, '2()(+ The perils of consens%s> ho5
ASEA6s meta8re-ime %ndermines economic and environmental
cooperation =evie5 of International Political Economy ), 22821(
Ahmad, Q ')11+ 6eed to re85or& re-ionalism to s%it todays needs6e5 Straits Times,
comm%nities,
%ncertainty, and adaptive collaorative mana-ement =eso%rces for
the F%t%re, Washin-ton DC
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31
Cotton, ')111+ The ha.e over So%theast Asia> challen-in- the
ASEA6 mode of re-ional en-a-ement Pacific AGairs 2, 44)843)
Eaton, P and =ado#evic, / 'eds+ '2(()+ Forest fires and re-ional ha.e
in So%theast Asia 6ova, 9%ntin-ton, 6;
En-, P ')11+ The media and democrati.ation in So%theast AsiaC%rrent 9istory 1, *48
**2
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31
Foo, A '2()4a+ Sime Dary, "L" %nits amon- firms lamed for firesStraits Times, 2%ne
2()4
Foo, A '2()4+ 6o fires on land co8o5ned y Temase& Straits Times, 22%ne 2()4
Forsyth, T '2((+ Are Environmental Social /ovements SociallyE0cl%sive An 9istorical
St%dy from Thailand World Development 43, 2))(82)4(
Forsyth, T, Wal&er, A '2((H+ Forest -%ardians, forest
destroyers> The politics of environmental &no5led-e in northern
Thailand !niversity of Washin-ton Press, Seattle hani, A '2((3+ ASEA6
nations -ropin- for a sol%tion Straits Times, 2A%-%st 2((3
lover, D, ess%p, T, @an&s, '2((4+ Indonesias fires and ha.e> thecost of catastrophe
=evie5 of Indonesian and /alaysian AGairs 4, )3(8)32
oh En- ;eo5 '2()4+ Plantation stoc&s shr%- off ha.e lame Straits
Times, 22%ne 2()4 9a#er, / ')113+ The politics of environmental
disco%rse> Ecolo-ical moderni.ation and the policy process Clarendon,
/ea c%lpa> Sorry seems to e the hardest5ord a&arta Post,
4( %ne 2()4
ones, DS '2((*+ ASEA6 initiatives to comat ha.e poll%tion> an
assessment of re-ional cooperation in p%lic policy8ma&in- Asian
o%rnal of Political Science )2, 318
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Leon S.e 9ian- '2()4+ Temase& 9oldin-s> )*pa-es of ads %t 5hats
missin- The 555 t h e o n lin e c i t i. e n c o m 2()4 ( t e m a s e & 8h o ld in - s 8 )* 8p a - e s 8
o f8 a d s 8 % t 8 5h a t s 8m iss in - Accessed 4an%ary 2()*
http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/07/temasek-holdings-14-pages-of-ads-but-whats-missing/7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014
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32
/assey, @L '2(((+ 9o5 three So%theast8Asian ne5spapers framed
the ha.e of )1181H Asian o%rnal of Comm%nication )(, 281*
/cLellan, '2(((+ From denial to deate and ac& a-ainU /alaysian
press covera-e of the air poll%tion and ha.e episodes, %ly )11
%ly )111, in> Eaton, P, =ado#evic, / 'Eds+, Forest fires and re-ional
ha.e in So%theast Asia 6ova Scotia, 9%ntin-don '6;+, pp
234824
6arayanan, S '2((2+ Assessin- the economic dama-e from Indonesian
fires and the ha.e> a concept%al note Sin-apore Economic =evie5 *,
22182*)
6e5 Straits Times ')11a+ Indonesian help vital to fi-ht the ha.e, says P/6e5 Straits
Times, 3 A%-%st )11
6e5 Straits Times ')11+ /alaysian firm o5ns %p to %sin- %rnin-method 6e5 Straits
Times, 2( Septemer )11
6e5 Straits Times '2((3+ /a&e hay 5hile the s%n shines 6e5 Straits
Times, 2A%-%st 2((3 6e5 Straits Times '2()4a+ Tr%e test of
nei-ho%rliness 6e5 Straits Times, 23%ne 2()4 6e5 Straits Times
'2()4+ Wor& to-ether to tac&le ha.e prolem 6e5 Straits Times, 21
%ne 2()4
6e5 Straits Times '2()4c+ ASEA6 m%st e firm on this 6e5 Straits
Times, 23 %ne 2()4 6e5 Straits Times '2()4d+ Action m%st e ta&en to
avoid ma#or conse?%ences 6e5 StraitsTimes, 23 %ne 2()4
6- ;i Sh% '2()4+ Free /y Internet protest y lo--ers dra5s a cro5d at9on- Lim Par&The
555 t h e o n l in e c i t i. e n c o m 2()4 ( f r ee 8 m y 8i n t e r n e t8 p r o t e s t 8 y 8
l o -- ers8dra58 a8cro5d8at8 hon-8l im8par& Accessed 4an%ary 2()*
http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/http://www.theonlinecitizen.com/2013/06/free-my-internet-protest-by-bloggers-draw-a-crowd-at-hong-lim-park/7/25/2019 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6-%itra-ool, P '2())a+ Environmental cooperation in So%theast Asia>
ASEA6s re-ime for transo%ndary ha.e poll%tion =o%tled-e
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33
6-%itra-ool, P '2())+ 6e-otiatin- the ha.e treaty> rationality and
instit%tions in the ne-otiations for the ASEA6 A-reement on
Transo%ndary 9a.e Poll%tion '2((2+ Asian S%rvey 3), 4384H
an approach to ne5sdisco%rse Political
Comm%nication )(,3383
Pye, e n rs f o r-p ress 8
f r ee d om 8 ind e0 8 2()4, )(3* h tml Accessed 4an%ary 2()*
=oe, E ')11*+ 6arrative policy analysis> theory and practice D%&e!niversity Press, Chapel
9ill
SchaeGer, A '2()4+ Is Temase& 9oldin-s indirectly responsile for the
ha.e in Sina-poreThe =eal Sin-apore ) %ne 2()4
h t t p > t h e r e a ls in - a p o r e c o m c o n t e n t t e m a s e & 8h o ld in - s 8
i nd i r e c t l y 8r e sp o n si l e 8h a . e 8 s in - a p o r e Accessed 4an%ary, 2()*
Stefan%s, A '2()4+ Fires lamed on land tillers %nfair 6e5 Straits
Times, H
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S%nday Times '/alaysia+ ')11+ Diary of a disaster> people &ept in thedar& for too lon-The
S%nday Times, )2
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Tay, SSC, '2((1+ @lo5in- smo&e> re-ional cooperation, Indonesian
democracy, and the ha.e, 9ard choices> sec%rity, democracy, and
re-ionalism in So%theast Asia Instit%te of So%theast Asian St%dies
Jar&&ey, 9 '2()2+ Patrona-e politics as a driver of economicre-ionalisation> the Indonesian
oil palm sector and transo%ndary ha.e Asia Pacific Jie5point 34, 4)*8421
Jar&&ey, 9 '2()4+ /alaysian investors in the Indonesia oil palm
plantation sector> home state facilitation and transo%ndary ha.e, Asia
Pacific @%siness =evie5, )1'4+> 4H)8*() Woodier, '2((H+ The media and
political chan-e in So%theast Asia El-ar, Cheltenham
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35
able 1: +umbers of ne"s articles analyzed
Total n%merof
stories ao%tha.e, %ly )118%ne 2()4
Sample
period )>%ly8
Decem
Sample
period2>A%-%st
Sample
period4> %ne2()4
Jakarta Post'Indonesia+ 1() 2) ) 4*
Straits Times'Sin-apore+ 2(H2 *1 23 2)New StraitsTimes'/alaysia+ 2*( 13 )4 13
So%rce> Factiva analysis
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400
50
00
250
200
150
100
50
0
F
h e r e i s b la m e a llo a te6 7or h a ? e@
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39
(sore+ perentage o7 all re7erenes to blame per ontry)
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39
FI%&"' 2A: I+#'SIA: S'0#+A"1-.AM' 0AT'%#"I'S
(Percent of all references to blame!
40
5
0
25E3 &$A*
20C*=&$E%
15%33B* 3E%
10
5
01'' 2005 201
FI%&"' 2-: SI%AP#"': S'0#+A"1-.AM' 0AT'%#"I'S
(Percent of all references to blame!
5
0
25
20 E3 &$A*
15 C*=&$E%
10%33B* 3E%
5
01'' 2005 201
FI%&"' 20: MA.A1SIA: S'0#+A"1-.AM' 0AT'%#"I'S
(Percent of all references to blame!
25
20
15 E3 &$A*
C*=&$E%10
%33B* 3E%
5
01'' 2005 201
F i g r e + *th er a ttr i b te6 a s es o7 h a ? e(perentage o7 all re7erenes to blame per ontry)
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FI%&"' 3A: I+#'SIA: )*AT +#'S *A4'
T*"'AT',/ (Percent of all references toris5s!
#0
0
BE3TB
BE3TB!0
EC*&*:50
BE3TB40
9EALT9EC
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41
F i g r e 4+ = e r e i v e6 th r ea ts p o s e6 by h a ? e(perentage o7 all re7erenes to riss, per ontry)
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FI%&"' 6A: I+#'SIA: )*AT A"' T*' S#.&TI#ST# *A4'/
(Percent of all references to solutions!
$=3*C:5 TECB&*3*G: C$$3 %*C$ET:
TECB&*3*G:
0 EG93T$*& EG93T$*&
25TECB&*3*G:
TEC96
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42
0.
F I % &"' 7 : I S P A . M # I . 0 # ' 0 T ' + T #*A 4 ' / ("eferences per ne8s story!
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
$&*&E%$
%$&G=*
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3:%$
0.05
01'' 2005 201
F i g r e !+ = e r e i v e 6 o nn e ti o n s be t8 een pa lm o i l lti v a ti o n a n 6 h a ? e
(average nmber o7 re7erenes per ne8s story in eah ontry)
7/25/2019 forsyth Public Concern About Transboundary Haze 2014
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FI%&"' 9: IS AS'A A S#.&TI# T#
*A4'/ (Percent of all references tosolutions!
25
$&*&E%$20
15%$&G=*E
10 3:%$
5
01'' 2005 201
%E& &*T %*39T$*&(3:%$)
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F i g r e + %E & as a pe r e i v e6 s o l ti o n , 8 i th a la y s i a ; s g r o 8 i n gp e r ep ti on o7 %E & as pa r t o7 th e p r ob lem
(perent o7 all re7erenes to soltions or blame)