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Foundations in Environmental Management

NEC1 ~ Element 1

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should be able to:

– Outline the scope and nature of environmental

management

– Explain the ethical, legal and financial reasons for

maintaining and promoting environmental

management

– Outline the importance of sustainability and its

relationship with Corporate Social Responsibility

– Explain the role of national governments and

international bodies in formulating a framework for the

regulation of environmental management.

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Scope and Nature of Environmental Management

NEC1 ~ Element 1.1

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Definitions - 1

Environment (ISO 14001):

– Surroundings in which an organisation operates, including air,

water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their

interrelation.

Direct Effects:

– Chimney emissions, effluent discharges

Indirect Effects:

– Purchasing from unsustainable sources

– Travelling by bus or train

Sustainability (UNCED Johannesburg 1992):

– Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Definitions - 2

Pollution:

– The direct or indirect introduction (as a result of

human activity) of substances, vibration, heat or noise

to the air, water or land which may be harmful to

human health or the quality of the environment, results

in damage to material property, or impairs or interferes

with amenities or other legitimate uses of the

environment.

RECEPTORe.g. Watercourse

PATHWAYe.g. Over land

SOURCEe.g. Spillage

Definitions - 3

Environmental aspect (ISO 14001):

– An element of an organisations

activities, products or services that

can interact with the environment.

Environmental impact:

– Any change to the environment,

whether adverse or beneficial, wholly

or partially resulting from an

organisation’s activities, products or

services.

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Definitions - 4

Hazard:

– A property or situation that in a particular circumstance

could lead to harm.

Risk:

– A combination of the probability or frequency of

occurrence of the defined hazard and the magnitude of

the consequences of the occurrence.

– Magnitude:

Geographical spread

How long it will remain

Numbers affected

Effects it will have

Definitions - 5

Harm:

– means:

the harm to the health of living organisms; or

other interference with the ecological systems of which they form a part

– that, in the case of man, includes:

an offence caused to any of his senses or his property;

Harmless has a corresponding meaning.

Multi-Disciplinary Nature of EM

What are the barriers to good standards of EM

within an organisation?

– Complexity

Resource use, processing impacts, transportation,

packaging, impacts due to its use and disposal

– Competing and conflicting demands

Cutting energy consumption may be achieved by

switching off lights, H&S requires well lit areas to

prevent slips and trips

– Behavioural issues (human factors)

Attitude, aptitude, perception, peer pressure,

knowledge etc.

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What are the key environmentalissues facing industry?

• Carbon emissions and climate change.

• Air pollution and ozone layer.

• Deforestation, soil erosion and land

quality.

• Material resources and spoiling of land.

• Energy supplies.

• Agricultural issues arising from trade

between developing and developed

economies (e.g. landfill in place of

agriculture).

• Water resources and pollution.

• Local effects of pollution (noise, waste,

lighting and odour).

In your syndicates, for the allocated topic from below, identify the particular environmental issues:

• Carbon emissions and climate change

• Fossil fuel depletion

• Energy supplies

• Agriculture

• Mineral extraction

• Waste

• Water pollution/conservation

• Air pollution

Delegate Exercise

Climate Change – Setting the Scene

Extraction of ice cores from the arctic have

enabled man to examine CO2 levels over the

last 800,000 years.

This has shown that although CO2 levels

have fluctuated they remained below 300

ppm.

100 years ago the level was at 280 ppm.

In 2012 it stands at 400 ppm.

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Climate ChangeThe Past 100 Years

CO2 levels have risen by 40% since the

1800’s mainly as a result of burning fossil

fuels.

Although some CO2 dissolves into the sea

the majority ends up in the atmosphere.

Increased levels of CO2 (and other gases)

means that the earth does not lose all the

heat that it absorbs and therefore the

temperature rises.

Effects of Rising Temperatures

Over the last 100 years records show that the

average temperatures have risen by 1oC.

As a result of this temperature rise the air is

able to hold more water vapour and is now

4% higher than 100 years ago.

Increased water vapour means an increase in

the energy stored in the atmosphere which

affects the worlds weather patterns.

The Gulf Stream

The Gulf Stream has a major impact on the UK’s

weather as it pushes warm waters to the UK’s

shores and gives us our relatively mild winters.

Climate change could alter the movement of the

Gulf Stream and result in a plunge in UK

temperatures during the winter months.

Although not guaranteed, it is a possibility UK’s

winter temperatures could fall by 5oC.

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Indications of Climate Change?

2009 – Major storm conditions result in severe

flooding of New Orleans.

2010 – Hottest average world temperatures on

record, followed by 2012, 2014 and 2015.

2011 – Severe flooding around the world (e.g.

Australia, India, UK) and the largest ever

occurrences of hurricanes in North America.

Climate Change – The Future?

Temperatures could rise by 4oC by 2100.

Severe weather events in the UK are expected to

increase by 30% by the end of the current century.

The worlds climate is a very complex system and

what might happen is by no means certain.

“Nothing is Certain”; but can we afford to just wait

and see or do we have to act now?

Trade with Other Economies

Trade between developing and developed

economies can have significant environmental

impacts on the environment:

– The creation of landfill sites in place of

agriculture;

– Local effects of pollution in addition to waste

could also include noise, lighting and odour.

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Effects of Different Industries on the Environment

Agriculture

Construction

Food production

Brick manufacture

Metal finishing

Timber

Offices

Direct Effects on the Health and Safety of People Outside the Workplace

Hazardous substances:

– Spills of chemicals to watercourses

– Chimney emissions

– Harmful substances on land

– Discharges of pollutants causing groundwater

contamination

– Short/long term

– Wide areas/whole of population

– Ecotoxic

R50 very toxic to aquatic organisms

R54 toxic to flora

– Persistence

Direct Effects on the Health and Safety of People Outside the Workplace

Fire and explosion:

– Widespread pollution

– New chemicals formed (pyrolysis, oxidation)

– Fire water disperses pollutants to water and groundwater

– Extinguishing media cause environmental damage

– Other substances released (e.g. asbestos)

– Local deposition at high concentrations

– Dust dispersion - Buncefield black smoke kept off the

ground due to prevailing weather conditions, otherwise

could have contaminated local area giving rise to major

health issues (e.g. asthma sufferers)

– Sensitive environments/watercourses

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Direct Effects on the Health and Safety of People Outside the Workplace

Radiation - Sources:

– Naturally occurring

Radon/thorium – Gamma Rays – Cosmic Rays

– Food and drink

– Medical services

– Fall out form weapons tests, nuclear industry, nuclear

accidents

– Occupational sources

– Miscellaneous – smoke detectors etc.

Radiation – Effects:

– Ionisation of molecules

– Change of physical structure in DNA

– Abnormal cell development

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Major Releases

Seveso 1976

About 2 Kg of TCDD (dioxin) released over a 20 minute period in Milan

Dioxin is extremely toxic; associated with still births, deformities, cancer, blindness and chloracne

Rain brought the dioxin down in Seveso, 24Km from the point of release

Contaminated 4Km2 of soil

Extremely persistent, not easily rendered harmless by the environment, insoluble in water

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Seveso 1976 – What Happened

Reactor had gone out of control

Overheating caused safety valve to open

High temperatures caused production of

undesired by-product ~ TCDD

Safety valve did not vent to an enclosed system

safely

Plant had to be dismantled and buried in

concrete to contain the contaminant

Basel Switzerland 1966

Half a million fish killed

Drinking and irrigation water for millions of

people contaminated and unusable

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Basel 1966 – What Happened

Catastrophic fire at the Sandoz chemicals factory

Fourteen people admitted to hospital after

inhaling the fumes

Water used by the fire fighters was washed into

the Rhine carrying 30 tonnes of pesticide,

including mercury compounds

Resulted in Rhine action programme, a 50%

reduction in nitrate and phosphorus discharge

into the river

Buncefield 2005

A leak of petrol from a tank at the oil depot near

Hemel Hempstead led to an explosion and fire

which devastated the site and surrounding buildings

Buncefield 2005 – What Happened

Gauges monitoring the level of fuel in the tank

did not work

Automatic shutdown did not operate when tank

was full

Fuel continued to be pumped in and overflowed

through roof vents which was then ignited

Containment of fire water run off water is still

stored around the country awaiting safe means

of treatment and disposal

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Flixborough 1974

Unconfined vapour cloud explosion killed 28

people and injured 36 others

53 off-site causalities recorded

Plant totally destroyed

Extensive property damage over a wide area

– 1,821 houses

– 167 shops/factories

Flixborough 1974 – What Happened

Reactor discovered leaking cyclohexane

Bridging pipe installed to bypass reactor

Pipe assembly subjected to temperature and

pressure more severe than had been

encountered before the bypass, but still within

plant design parameters

Bridging pipe ruptured which released large

quantities of cyclohexane which mixed with air to

form an uncontrolled vapour cloud that exploded

Bhopal 1984

Rapid vaporisation and release of MIC

(methyl-isocyanate)

Resultant release killed 2,500 people and

seriously injured thousands of others

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Bhopal 1984 – What Happened

MIC stored in high-pressure stainless steel tanks

designed to be at 0-15oC via a refrigeration system

Refrigerant system and flare line out of commission

Pressure and temperature increased with rapid

vaporisation of MIC

Temperature and pressure indicators not working

Vent scrubbers switched off

Emergency spare tank not used for emergency

transfer

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The Reasons for Maintaining and Promoting Environmental

Management

NEC1 ~ Element 1.2

Reasons for ManagingEnvironmental Risk

Human (Moral)

Economic (Financial)

Legal (Common and Statute)

Questions around reasons to manage

environmental risk would need to be answered

by covering these subject areas to be able to

gain full marks

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Human (Moral)

Common property

– We all breathe the same air

– The rights and expectations of local residences

Fragile environment

Ill health

Sustainability

Ethical investment

– Business driven reasons

– Expectations of supply chain, customers, employees

Economic (Financial)

Direct or Indirect Costs ~ Insured or Uninsured Costs

– Clean up costs

– Environmental taxation

e.g. climate change levy, landfill tax

– Costs of obtaining permits

checking, licensing, monitoring, reviewing

– Reputation

– Media

– Environmental pressure groups

– Banks and insurers - to obtain loans or insure against liabilities

– Supply chain

Possible Legal Actions(not everything covered by legislation)

Breaches of national or local

laws can result in fines for

organisations and

fines/imprisonment for

individuals.

Civil liabilities mean affected

persons can seek

recompense for losses in the

form of compensation.

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Importance of Sustainability

NEC1 ~ Element 1.3

Sustainability ~ Definition

The United Nations Conference on Environment

and Development (aka Rio Earth Summit):

– 172 governments represented

– An important achievement was an agreement on the

Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the

Kyoto Protocol

– Defined sustainability as:

“ The right to development must be fulfilled so as to

equitably meet the development and environmental

needs of present and future generations “

Importance of Sustainability

Effective protection of the environment

– e.g. loss of biodiversity with the over felling of trees or over-fishing

Prudent use of natural resources

– i.e. not living beyond our means

Maintenance of stable levels of growth

– Replace what has been used (replanting trees)

Social progress

– Realisation that the current model of development and resource consumption is unsustainable (e.g. a throw away society).

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Practice 8pt Question

a) Outline how sustainable development

can be achieved by an organisation.

4 pts

b) Outline FOUR examples of actions that

organisations could take in order to

demonstrate sustainability. 4 pts

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The Role of National Governments and International Bodies

NEC1 ~ Element 1.4

Framework for the Regulation of Environmental Management

International law has been developed governing

environmental protection; these include:

– OSPAR (Oslo/Paris) Convention (Marine)

– Montreal (Canada) Protocol; (Ozone)

– Basel (Geneva) Convention (Hazardous Waste);

– Ramsar (Iran) Convention (Wetlands)

The European Union works through the use of EC

Directives to harmonise environmental standards

throughout the member states of the EU.

It is important to know and understand local

legislation.

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Best Practicable EnvironmentalOption (BPEO)

Concept of BPEO first introduced in 1976 by the

Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution:

– “it is the outcome of a systematic and

consultative decision-making procedure, which

emphasises the protection and conservation of

the environment across land, air and water.

Establishes, for a given set of objectives, the

option that provides the most benefits or the

least damage to the environment as a whole,

at acceptable cost, in the long term as well as

the short term”.

BPEO in Simple Terms

Therefore BPEO in simple terms is:

– The option which provides the most

benefit or least damage to the

environment as a whole, at an

acceptable cost, in the long term as

well as the short term.

BPEO Assessment Framework

Identification and quantification of all releases

Determination of whether the release will comply with

statutory emissions limits

A screening exercise to identify environmentally significant

releases

Whether release will comply with statutory environmental

quality objectives in the foreseeable future

A determination of the acceptability of releases

Identification of the BPEO from a number of environmentally

acceptable options

Identification of the process control and monitoring

requirements

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Best Available Techniques (BAT)

Best

– Means, in relation to techniques, the most effective in

achieving a high general level of protection as a whole

Available

– Those developed on a scale which allows

implementation in the relevant industrial sector under

economically and technically viable conditions, taking

into account cost and advantages.

Techniques

– Includes both the technology use and the way in which

the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated

and decommissioned.

Roles of Enforcement Agencies:

– Authorising activities:

Authorisations;

Consents;

Licenses;

Permits

– Inspection of facilities;

– Monitoring discharges are within consent limits;

– Serving notices; and

– Initiating prosecution proceedings.

Roles of Enforcement Agencies

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Environmental Management Systems

NEC1 ~ Element 2

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Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should be able to:

– Identify the reasons for implementing an environmental

management systems (EMS)

– Describe the key features and appropriate content of an

effective EMS (i.e. ISO 14001:2015/BS 8555)

– Outline the benefits and limitations of introducing a formal

EMS such as SO 14001:2015/BS 8555/EMAS into the

workplace.

– Identify the key members of the ISO 14000 family of

standards and their purpose.

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Reasons for Implementing an Environmental Management System

NEC1 ~ Element 2.1

Environmental ManagementSystem (EMS)

Why have one?

– Lots of legislation in place to support environmental

protection.

– Sharing common management system principles with

quality and health and safety – enabling integration.

– Concern amongst stakeholders to ensure:

Environmental acceptance of the company

Operational practices and sustainable business

– Environmental pressure groups ensure the activities,

products and services are provided without causing

unacceptable environmental effects.

– Corporate Social Responsibility.

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EMS

Based on learning not only what happens in

the organisation, but also why things

happen

If you understand why things happen you

can put measures in place to correct bad

things and continue doing good things

Leads to better environmental performance

and in turn better business performance

Most important concept in ‘continual

improvement’

EMS – Continual Improvement

The way business enhances the EMS

to improve its overall environmental

performance in accordance with the

environmental policy

Concept recognises that mistakes and

problems will occur, but expects the

organisation to learn from those

mistakes to ensure they don’t happen

again whilst also recognising areas for

improvement and making changes to

improve

EMS

Provides an organised, orderly and consistent approach

enabling organisations to address environmental

concern through:

– Allocation of resources

– Assignment of responsibilities

– Provision and continuous monitoring and evaluation of

procedures, systems and processes

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EMS ~ Putting it Simply

It’s best to have a systematic approach

to the management of environmental

issues similar to the health and safety

Management systems:

Plan Do Check Act

Manage

EMS

Environmental controls must be integrated into the

organisation and form part of a balanced overall

management system

Sound environmental performance requires

organisations to commit to a systematic approach

and continual improvement of their EMS

EMS should be dynamic, flexible and simple,

making it:

– Easy to adapt and change; and

– Easy to understand

Developing an EMS

Long term project requiring planning and

awareness of long term implications

Needs genuine commitment from management

~ top to bottom, bottom to top

Needs to be a team effort ~ everyone in

organisation must be involved to some degree

Needs to be able to interact with other

management systems

– Can have separate SMS and EMS

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Benefits of an EMS?

Assuring customers of commitment to

environmental protection

Meeting supply chain and pre-tender

requirements

Improving cost control

– Waste minimisation

– Energy efficiency savings

Enhancing image and improving market position

Giving confidence to stakeholders

Benefits of an EMS - continued

Conserving water, raw materials and energy

Minimising potential accidents and incidents and

associated liability

Decreased insurance premiums or rates on loans

Increased profits

Maintaining good public and community relations

Improving relationships with regulatory bodies

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Key Features and Content of an Effective EMS based onISO 14001 and BS 8555

NEC1 ~ Element 2.2

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BS EN ISO 14001

Standard recognised worldwide

Applied to all types and sizes of organisation

Consistent with concept of sustainable

development

Compatible with diverse legal, cultural, social

and administrative frameworks

Not specific so can apply to all parts of a multi-

site organisation

ISO 14001 EMS

Requires organisations to establish, implement,

maintain and demonstrate continual improvement

in their EMS

To prepare and implement ISO 14001 EMS to

achieve certification a company must:

– Carry out a number of tasks; and

– Fulfil certain obligations

culminating in an audit of their EMS by a certifying

authority

ISO 14001 EMS

What do you need to have an effective EMS?

– Senior management commitment

– Adequate provision of financial and human

resources

– Integration of the EMS into the whole

organisation

– Ownership by the workforce

– Identification and correction of any issues to

facilitate continual improvement

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Initial

Environmental

Review

Continual

Improvement

Environmental

Policy

Planning

Implementation

and Operation

Checking and

Corrective

ActionsManagement

Review

ISO 14001 Model

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Initial Environmental Review

Initial Environmental Review - 1

“Where are we now?”

Information gathered to establish

environmental issues relevant to the

organisation and their position with respect to

environmental performance

– Impacts of activities

– Potential to pollute (land, air, water)

– Potential civil, statutory or financial liabilities

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Initial Environmental Review - 2

Also gather information relating to:

– Legal requirements

– Industry ‘best practices’

– Potential environmental aspects, impacts and

liabilities

– Existing environmental management practices and

procedures

– Investigations of previous incidents, non-compliances

and complaints

– Review of opportunities

Initial Environmental Review - 3

The review should look at all site activities:

– Main processes

– Vehicle movements / travel

– Materials storage, transfer, handling and use

– Waste storage, transfer and disposal

– Packaging and warehouse activities

– Procurement

– Maintenance

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Policy

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Policy

Establishes overall sense of direction

Reflects future commitments

Demonstrates commitment to regulatory

compliance

Prepared and endorsed by senior director or

manager who is responsible for implementation,

reviews and updates when required

Provides framework for action and setting of its

environmental objectives and targets.

Policy

Should be reviewed after the environmental review as this

will influence the direction of the organisation and therefore

contents of the policy

Must be appropriate to the organisation ~ nature of

operations, potential environmental impacts and include all

activities

Commitment to prevention of pollution and continual

improvement

Communicated to all employees and made available to the

general public

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Planning

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Planning - 1

Assesses Environmental Aspects and Impacts

Environmental Aspect:

– Any element of an organisations activities, products

or services that can interact with the environment

Environmental Impact:

– Any change to the environment, whether adverse or

beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an

organisations environmental aspects

Planning - 2

Develop and maintain procedures for keeping

up-to-date with information regarding the

environmental aspects and impacts of its

activities, products and services on each site

Requires organisation to establish and maintain

evaluation procedures to determine the

significant actual or potential environmental

impacts

Planning - 3

Identify individuals who have environmental

responsibilities

Identify frequency of review

Procedures to ensure the organisation is capable of:

– Reducing liabilities

– Demonstrating continual improvement in

environmental performance

Objectives and targets used to achieve this

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Objectives and Targets - 1

Objectives are:

– The overall aims for the organisation

– Long term goals

– Based on the aspirations of company policy

– Associated with each significant aspect/impact

Targets are:

– The detail of how you are going to achieve the

objectives

Each significant commitment in the environmental

policy should be supported by one objective and

one target

Established after significant aspects and impacts

have been identified and evaluated

An organisation has to prepare a list of targets

and objectives to help meet the goals identified in

the environmental policy

Develop written procedures for establishing and

reviewing objectives and targets

Objectives and Targets - 2

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Implementation and Operation

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Successful implementation requires involvement

from all employees and ownership of individual

roles

Organisation must define and communicate the

key environmental management responsibilities to

relevant personnel

Availability of sufficient resources to ensure that it

is implemented and maintained.

Implementation and OperationResources, Roles, Responsibility and Authority

Applies to any person performing a task for, or

on behalf of, the organisation

Including contractors and anyone else who may

cause environmental harm

Organisation needs to identify the skills and

knowledge needed to implement the EMS and

improve environmental performance

Undertake an initial training needs analysis

Implementation and Operation Competence, Training and Awareness - 1

All employees should be trained to sufficient

standard for their role

Employees trained to be aware of the

environmental impacts of their activities

Some training is a legal requirement imposed on

some industries by the Scottish Environmental

Protection Agency and Environmental Agency

such as organisations with waste management

permits and process authorisations.

Implementation and Operation Competence, Training and Awareness - 2

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Develop procedures for:

– receiving, documenting and responding to relevant

information and requests from environmental

stakeholders and interested parties (residential

neighbours, regulatory authorities, insurance

companies)

– passing information, advice and instructions through

the management structure such as information

relating to complaints, incidents, non-conformances,

audit data and corrective actions.

Implementation and Operation Communication

EMS Documentation and Control of Documents:

– All documents should have clear purpose,

scope and direction and be able to be

transferred between other areas of the

management system, people and activities

– All operational procedures and processes of the

EMS should be defined, documented, reviewed

and updated as required.

Implementation and Operation Documentation

Documents should be prepared and implemented

where:

– A process or activity has a significant impact on

the environment

– Or failure to follow a particular control measure

may lead to significant direct or indirect impact

on the environment

They are essential for effective implementation of

an EMS

Operational Control Procedures(OCP’s)

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Pollution prevention and resource conservation

measures, new projects, process changes,

purchasing new property, using new products or

packaging materials

Routine maintenance control activities to provide

assurance of compliance with existing internal and

external standards

Strategic management activities to prepare and

respond to changes in the environmental

requirements on the organisation

Activities Requiring OCP’s

ISO 14001 requires organisations to consider

aspects and impacts that may occur from abnormal

and emergency situations

Organisations should therefore:

– Identify potential hazards and risks

– Establish emergency procedures and plans

– Develop preventative control measures

– Test plans, procedures and control measures

– Review and revise as necessary

Emergency Plans

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Checking and Corrective Action

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Monitoring and Measurement:

– Effectiveness of EMS and an organisations

environmental performance measured against:

Established internal standards

Legal requirements (e.g. compliance with

permits, consents and licenses)

Industrial ‘best practice’

– Results evaluated to identify areas for

improvement and instances of non-conformance

– Report submitted to senior managers.

EMS Monitoring and Measuring

Reactive Monitoring:

– Measures data on non-compliances, near

misses and complaints by the workforce and

neighbours and enforcement action.

Active Monitoring:

– Measures performance standards of all

relevant parties and the systematic inspection

of plant and premises, monitoring of emissions,

waste, water and energy data using

inspections, tours and sampling techniques.

Reactive and Active Monitoring

Evaluation of Compliance:

– Periodically an organisation must evaluate its

compliance against relevant environmental

legislation and regulations

– Also evaluate compliance against standards,

industry best practice and anything else thought

relevant to environmental performance

– A record of the periodic evaluations must be

kept

Evaluation of Compliance of EMS

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Check that procedures have been developed for the

identification, collection, storage, maintenance, retrieval,

retention and disposal of documents are working

Documented records can include:

– Legislative and regulatory requirements

– Environmental aspects and significant impacts

– Non-conformance and investigation records

– Audit and management review reports

– Achievement of objectives and targets

– Training records

Checking Documentation

Internal Audits (are they being undertaken):

– Purpose ~ to identify any areas of non-conformance

within the EMS

– Are procedures for auditing processes, activities, sites,

procedures and systems established, implemented

and maintained

– Are audits undertaken regularly to a written

programme

External Audits will also be undertaken by

independent auditors for accredited systems

Audits

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Environmental Management Review

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Selected members of the senior management

(including the managing director) must carry out

a periodic (usually annual) review of the EMS

Review the suitability of the environmental policy

with respect to:

– Changes in legislation

– Changes in process, plant, products and activities

– Changes in stakeholder expectations

– Changes in technology

– Environmental improvements undertaken

Environmental Management Review

Review EMS

– Environmental objectives and targets

– The extent to which they have been met

– Results of all audits undertaken

– Organisation position ~ motivation in workforce, position in

market, competitiveness of company

– Details of non-conformances / complaints

– Views of stakeholders

– Improvement plans/corrective & preventive actions

– Evaluation of legal compliance

– Proposed changes to any aspects of the EMS

Usually reviewed on an annual basis with meeting

minutes communicated to all relevant personnel

Environmental Management Review

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Continual Improvement

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Should not be content to just maintain current

level of achievement.

Need to:

– Achieve year-on-year improvement

– Implement new technologies, processes and

procedures to reduce the environmental

impact of the organisation

– Ensure any new legislative requirements are

implemented and the requirements met

Continual Improvement

Practice 8pt Question

Outline the essential requirements of the

environmental policy for an organisation

seeking to gain certification under BS EN

ISO14001.

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Environmental Auditing

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Inspections v. Audits

Both inspections and audits are part of active

monitoring.

Inspections (and checking) are carried out to

ensure that workplace precautions are in place

and are working, if not then something is done

about it before an incident occurs.

Audits are:

– As systematic check of the EMS;

– It covers all aspects; and

– Is carried out by an independent party.

Why Audit?

Powerful management tool

To obtain information for business planning

To avoid liabilities/prosecutions

An opportunity to identify potential problems

To obtain information for publicity purposes

To ensure compliance with legislation,

standards and policy

Build better relationships with regulatory bodies

Reassurance in supply chain

Environmental Audits

ISO 19011:2002 gives guidance for auditing

quality and environmental management

systems

Audit is a skill ~ ability to be objective, to

listen, to observe, to record accurately and

identify facts

A team or single person can be used as long

as they are competent ~ have the correct

skills, knowledge, training and experience

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EMS Auditing – ExternalAdvantages & Disadvantages?

Advantages:

– Independent.

– Likely to have greater experience and expertise.

– Likely to have knowledge/experience of other organisations.

– Likely to be flexible in the arrangements to conduct the

audit.

Disadvantages:

– Not be familiar with particular nature of the work activities.

– Audit scheme they use may not be tailored to your needs.

– Will be more expensive than ‘in-house’ auditing.

– There is the potential to lose control of the process.

– There is the potential for a lack of continuity over time.

EMS Auditing – InternalAdvantages & Disadvantages?

Advantages:

– They will be familiar with the particular nature of the work

activities.

– The audit scheme will be tailored to the own needs.

– They will be cheaper than an external consultant.

– Control of the audit process will be retained ‘in-house’.

– There will be continuity of the process.

Disadvantages:

– There is the potential for subjective judgements and bias to

colour both the information-gathering process and

assessment.

– The relative lack of broader expertise may be a handicap in

recognising the scope for improvement.

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Benefits and Limitations of Introducing an EMS

37

Increase compliance with legislative requirements

Competitive edge over non-certified businesses

Improved management of environmental risk

Increased credibility from independent assessment

Savings from reduced non-compliance with regulations

Higher employee/shareholder/supply chain satisfaction and

morale

Meeting modern environmental ethics

Streamlining and reducing environmental assessments and

audits

Increase resource productivity

Benefits of IntroducingISO14001/BS 8555

Prescriptive environmental performance levels are not

included within the standard

Improvements in environmental performance can be

negligible

Lack of public reporting unlike other internationally

recognised systems (e.g. EMAS ~ Eco-Management and

Audit System)

Inconsistency of external auditors (e.g. differing levels of

knowledge and experience of the particular industry)

Implementing an EMS may have costs that are too high

for small and medium sized enterprises.

Limitations of IntroducingISO 14001/BS 8555

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Key members of the ISO 14000 family of standards and their

purpose

Element 2.4

38

ISO 14004:2016:

– General Guidelines on ISO 14001

covering:

Principles;

Systems; and

Support techniques

Key Members of 14001 Series

Environmental management system (EMS) ISO

14005 gives:

– Guidance on the phased implementation of

an EMS; and

– Includes the use of environmental

performance evaluation.

ISO 14020 – Sets general principles on

environmental labelling and declarations

ISO 14005 Guide & 14020

An internal management process and tool to provide

management with reliable and verifiable information to

determine if an organisation’s environmental performance is

meeting the criteria set by the organisations management.

This can be divided into three types of useful information:

– Management Performance Indicators (MPI) provide

information about the management efforts to influence an

organization’s environmental performance.

– Operational Performance Indicators (OPI); information

about the performance of an organization’s operations

– Environmental Condition Indicators (ECI); information

about the local, regional, national or global condition of

the environment.

ISO 140031 EvaluatingEnvironmental Performance

39

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Environmental Impact Assessments

EC1 ~ Element 3

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should

be able to:

– Explain the reasons for carrying out

environmental impact assessments

– Describe the types of environmental impact

– Identify the nature and key sources of

environmental information

– Explain the principles and practices of impact

assessments

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Reasons for Carrying Out Environmental Impact

Assessments (EIA)

NEC1 ~ Element 3.1

40

Definition: Aspect & Impact(ISO 14001)

Environmental aspect:

– An element of an organisations

activities, products or services

that can interact with the

environment.

Environmental impact:

– Any change to the environment,

whether adverse or beneficial,

wholly or partially resulting from

an organisation’s activities,

products or services.

Aims and Objectives of EIA

Environmental protection

Reduction or minimisation of pollution at source

Proposal with the least damaging effect is arrived at

Influence design at an early stage

Provision of public information where required

Provide a management tool that contributes to

environmental risk assessment

Show environmental management commitment:

– Could be conditioned by regulators

– Could be incorporated into contract documents.

The Cradle to Grave Approach

All the affects associated with the process or product

‘A holistic approach’:

– Extraction of raw materials

– Transport of raw materials

– Construction effects of the process plant

– The production process

– Use of the product

– Disposal of the product

– Demolition of the process plant

Known as Life Cycle Analysis

41

Life Cycle System Stages for a Product

Evaluates environmental impacts associated with the provision of

a product or service throughout its life cycle

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Aims to quantify the significant impacts and

where they are in the life cycle

Application of LCA

Ensures improvement at one stage, does not create a

worse impact at a later stage

Comparison between different service or product

systems

Can be conducted over part of the life cycle

(upstream or downstream)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Aims to quantify the significant impacts and where they are in the

life cycle (transport stage not included in diagram below)

42

Nappies – The Results

No significant difference between any of the environmental

impacts of disposable and reusable

For both ~ major impact areas are resource depletion,

acidification and global warming

Impacts occur at different life cycle stages:

– Disposable ~ raw material and production (manufacture)

– Reusable ~ electricity in washing/drying nappies (user)

Wearing nappies by children in UK in one year results in a

global warming and non-renewable resource depletion

equivalent to the consumption and emissions of 98,600

cars each driven an average of 12,000 miles

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Types of Environmental Impact

EC1 ~ Element 3.2

Types of Environmental Impact

Direct and indirect impacts

Contamination of the atmosphere

Contamination of the land

Contamination of aquatic environment

Positive and negative effects on the community

including visual impact and loss of amenity

Positive and negative effects on the ecosystem

43

Direct Effects on the Health and Safety ofPeople Outside the Workplace

Bioaccumulation:

– Substance accumulates in a particular organ of a

species over time such that potential dose is very large

Biomagnification:

– Little fish consume substance, bigger fish eat lots of little

fish, humans eat lots of bigger fish

Biotransformation:

– Metabolism of a species changes the form of a relatively

harmless substance into a substance (chemical) that is

harmful

Indirect Effects on the Health and Safety of People Outside the Workplace

Earths Natural Cycles:

– Transfer and exchange of mass and energy

– Changes between or within systems

– Can have significant impact:

e.g. burning of fossil fuels

Earths Natural Cycles

There are a number of cycles …

– Water

– Carbon

– Sulphur

– Nitrogen

… that operate and maintain equilibrium

in the environment.

44

Hydrological (Water) Cycle

Water Pollution

Surface water run off

Plant root uptake of pollutants

– Cadmium and cabbages

Pollutants carried to the groundwater supply

Concentration of pollutants in water catchments

– Lots of river contaminates deposited in estuary's

Contaminated land leachate

Point and diffuse sources

– Point; know exactly where it is coming from

– Diffuse; land run off into a lake - potentially many sources

45

Carbon

Sulphur Cycle

80% + of airborne sulphur is man-made

Sulphur burns to SO2 and SO3 (SOX)

– Sulphur Dioxide / Sulphur Trioxide

SOx dissolves in water to give H2SOx

– Sulphur / Sulphuric Acid (e.g. acid rain)

46

Nitrogen Cycle (A Nutrient Cycle)

Man-Made Sources of Nitrogen

Stacks and vehicle exhausts (HNO3) created at high

temperatures

Nitrate/phosphate fertilisers used in agriculture

(promote algal growth in water – depletes oxygen know

as eutrophication), physically clogs, affects drinking

water quality.

– Eutrophication is the accelerated depletion of

oxygen due to the promoted growth of algae that

consumes it

Estimated that 50% nitrogen applied to crops is lost to

water

Sewage outfalls, detergents and animal waste

Acid Deposition

47

Types of Emission

Gas:– substances which remain in the gaseous phase at the process

temperatures and pressures

Solid Particles:– Smoke ~ usually particles 0.1-20 microns

– Dust ~ any size or shaped particle (inhalable and respirable)

– Grit ~ exceeding 76 microns

(Clean Air (Emissions of Grit and Dust from Furnaces) Regs

1971

Liquids suspended in air:– Vapours ~ gaseous state of material which is liquid at normal

temp/pressure

– Mists ~ vapours condensed; very small droplets 0.0 to10 microns

– Droplets ~ further condensation and coalescence of mist

Air Pollution

Waste

What is the problem regarding waste?

Old way was to fill up holes in the ground

UK generates enough waste to fill Lake Windermere each

year

Once filled, land fill sites have limited use:

– Land gives off gases (Carbon Dioxide and Methane)

– Leachate (water filtering through waste) becomes

contaminated and can run off the land or filter into

aquifers and artesian wells.

48

Positive/Negative Effectson the Community

Positive:

– Creation of jobs

– Attracts inward investment to an area

– Creation of new services and facilities

Negative:

– Visual impact, loss of enjoyment of the land

– Creation of potential statutory nuisances

– Increase in traffic flow

– Influx of people to take up new jobs

– Additional strain on education and health care and other resources

Positive/Negative Effectson Ecosystems

Positive:

– Results in the formation of new wildlife habitats

– Planting of trees and shrubs to enhance visual

aspect of the development

Negative:

– Loss of wildlife habitat (trees, bushes, flowers etc.)

– Leads to the migration of wildlife from the area due

to noise, vibration, light etc.

– Increases temperature of natural water sources so

ecosystem can no longer be sustained

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Nature and Key Sources of Environmental Information

EC1 ~ Element 3.3

49

Internal Sources of Information

Audit and investigation reports

Maintenance records

Inspection results

Job/task analysis

Incident data

Use of environmental monitoring data to

evaluate risk

Raw material usage and supply

External Sources of Information

Manufacturers’ data

Legislation

Environmental Agency / Scottish Environmental

Protection Agency publications

Envirowise

Trade associations

International, European and British Standards

IT Sources (internet/intranet etc.)

Encyclopedias

Activities of the Supplier

Can the design be influenced?

With regard to the design of the product:

– Does it have a long life cycle

– Is it energy efficient

– Does if give of emissions (air / land / water)

– Can it be recycled at the end of its useful life

– Is the product produced from sustainable resources

– Is packaging kept to a minimum and what is used

can it be re-used (returned to supplier) or recycled

50

Supplier Selection

Whether they have an EMS

Their location with regard to the organisation

– Transport issues

– Distribution

– Staff movements

What is the lead in time for deliveries

Will they deliver small quantities so stocks can be

kept to a minimum

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Principles and Practice of Impact Assessments

EC1 ~ Element 3.4

Impact AssessmentsLinked to the initial environmental review (E2.2)

Consider:

– Normal and abnormal conditions

– Incidents, accidents and potential emergency

situations

– Past, current and planned activities

RECEPTORe.g. Watercourse

PATHWAYe.g. Over land

SOURCEe.g. Spillage

51

Identify Receptor at Risk

From the identified aspects and impacts identify

the receptor at risk:

– Flora

– Fauna

– Water courses

– Local populace

– Wildlife

– Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s)

– Archaeological sites

– etc.

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Environmental Risk Assessment Method

Evaluating

When evaluating the impact and adequacy of

current controls you need to consider:

– scale and severity of impact

– probability of occurrence

– duration of impact (business concerns)

– sensitivity of receiving environment

– legal or contractual requirements

– the concern of interested parties

– effect on public image

52

Likelihood of EnvironmentalIncident Occurring

Likelihood Description Score

LikelyOccurs repeatedly / event ‘only to be

expected’5

Probable ‘No surprise’ / will occur several times 4

Possible Could occur sometimes 3

Remote Unlikely, though conceivable 2

Improbable So unlikely that probability is close to zero 1

Environmental Consequences of anIncident Occurring

Consequence Description of Environmental Impact Score

CatastrophicMajor damage on and off site, national reputation

damaged and/or prosecution possible5

PermanentConsiderable environmental damage and/or

national reputation damage likely4

ModerateModerate impact, recoverable contamination or

damage and/or local reputation damage3

Minor

Slight impact, small scale event contained on

site, possible local media interest, prosecution

unlikely

2

Slight

No measurable environmental consequence, no

reputation damage, zero likelihood of

prosecution

1

Risk Rating Categories

Risk Rating Action to be taken

10 - 25Work can only continue if control measures reduce the

risk rating to an acceptable level, i.e. 1-9

5 - 9Introduce control measures to reduce risk as low as

reasonably practicable

1 - 4Risk broadly acceptable, but situation needs to be

monitored for changes

As low as reasonably practical:

Implies that a calculation of cost versus risk may be made

If the risk of an incident is very small, but the cost of prevention in

terms of money, time and/or trouble is very high then it may not be

reasonably practicable to take that precaution

53

Recording and Reviewing

Make a written record of the significant aspects

e.g. from significant impacts identified

When to review:

– After an incident

– Changes of process/equipment or key staff

– Legislative changes

– An elapse of time

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Practice Questions

Practice 20 pt Question

a) An assessment of the environmental impacts

should be carried out when implementing an

environmental management system.

Outline the steps involved when carrying out

such an assessment. 12 pts

b) Identify factors that should be considered

when determining whether an environmental

aspect is significant. 8 pts

54

Practice 8 pt Question

A new cement works is being planned for

construction on a greenfield site.

a) Outline the main aspects associated with

this proposal. 4 pts

b) Outline the main potential impacts

associated with this proposal. 4 pts

Practice Discussion Question

Explain how organisations may

obtain competitive advantage from

the implementation of an

environmental management system.

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Control of Emissions to Air

EC1 ~ Element 4

55

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates

should be able to:

– Outline the principles of air quality

standards

– Outline the main types of emissions to the

atmosphere and the associated hazards

– Outline the control measures that are

available to reduce emissions

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Air Quality Standards

EC1 ~ Element 4.1

Air Quality

● Main aim: to protect human health and the environment by

avoiding, reducing or preventing harmful concentrations of

air pollutants through:

Fixing of objectives for air quality & setting of limit

values, alert thresholds and/or target values for ozone

Assessing air quality in a uniform manner

Making information available to the public

Maintaining or improving ambient air quality

● Implemented in UK through:

Air Quality Standards Regulations; and

For local control ~ Air Quality Regulations

56

Air Quality Strategy - Objectives

Air Quality Strategy - Objectives

Air Quality Strategy - Objectives

57

Definitions ~ 1

Parts per million (ppm):

– Way of expressing very dilute concentrations of

substances.

– Usually describes the concentration of something in

water or soil, but can be use to indicate presence of a

gas in the air.

– One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per

litre of water (mg/l) or 1 molecule of something per

million molecules of air.

Definitions ~ 2

Milligrams per cubic metre (mgm3):

– Used to indicate the quantity present of a dry

material or substance.

– Indicates the weight in milligrams of

particulates suspended in a cubic metre of air

– Typically used to indicate the amount of

particulate matter present in the air

Air Quality Standard

Details target levels of pollutants not to be

exceeded to prevent ill-health.

They are usually divided into 3 groups:

– Least hazardous;

– Most hazardous; and

– Ozone

58

Least Hazardous Examples

Sulphur dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen

Particulate Matter

– PM10 -10 microns (inhalable dust)

– PM2.5 – 2.5 microns (respirable dust)

Lead

Benzene

Carbon Monoxide

More Dangerous Examples

– Arsenic

– Cadmium

– Nickel

– Mercury

– Benzo(a)pyrene; and

– Other Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

(PAH)

Benzene

Is a type of chemical known as

“Volatile Aromatic Hydrocarbon”

Used as a solvent itself and is a

common component of solvents,

mineral spirits and degreasers

Know human carcinogenic

Linked to development of blood

cancers and other blood disorders

(first cases date back to turn of 20th

Century).

Can produce forms of leukaemia

59

Carbon Monoxide

Odourless, colourless and tasteless gas

Most widespread gas hazard in industry produce by

incomplete burning of any substance that contains carbon

After being inhaled, CO combines 200 times faster with

haemoglobin than oxygen

Rapidly produces headaches, dizziness followed by

ringing in ears, nausea and muscle weakness

Will quickly result in unconsciousness and death

3% in atmosphere can cause death in 3 minutes

Lead

Can cause severe health effects including damage to the

liver, kidneys, brain, nerves, bones and blood.

Children are especially at high risk.

Toxic levels of lead can cause permanent learning

disabilities, retardation and even brain damage in young

children.

In adults, lead poisoning can cause high blood pressure

and reproductive problems.

In pregnant women, the foetus is particularly vulnerable

to lead’s toxic effects.

The symptoms of lead toxicity are vague.

Oxides of Nitrogen

Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are non-

flammable liquids or gases; however, they will

accelerate the burning of combustible materials.

Nitric oxide (NO) is odourless and nitrous oxide

(N2O) has only a very faint odour.

Nitrogen oxides are irritating to the eyes, skin,

mucous membranes and respiratory tract.

On contact with moisture, nitrogen dioxide forms

a mixture of nitric and nitrous acids.

60

Sulphur Dioxide

Is a moderate to strong irritant.

Most inhaled SO2 only penetrates as far as the nose

and throat with minimal amounts reaching the lungs

unless the person is breathing heavily etc.

Can produce a reversible decrease in lung function, to

constriction of the bronchiole tubes and reddening of

the throat and mild nose and throat irritation.

In severe cases severe airways obstruction, hypoxemia

(insufficient oxygenation of the blood), pulmonary

oedema (a life threatening accumulation of fluid in the

lungs), and death in minutes.

PM2.5

PM2.5's are readily inhalable and because of their small

size and can cause damage to the cardiovascular.

Mainly because of their physical properties, they have a

strong association with most types of respiratory illness

and even mortality.

They have a strong association with circulatory (heart

disease and strokes) disease and mortality.

Particles allow many chemicals harmful to human health

to be carried to many of our internal organs causing a

wide range of illness and mortality including cancer,

especially lung cancer, brain damage and damage to the

unborn child.

Arsenic

Can cause:

– sore throat,

– skin rash,

– irritation and warts,

– numbness in hands and feet,

– lung cancer and other cancers.

61

Cadmium

Acute:

– flu-like symptoms of weakness, fever, headache,

chills, sweating and muscular pain

– pulmonary oedema (fluid accumulation in the lungs)

Chronic:

– cancer (lung and prostate)

– kidney damage

– pulmonary emphysema (disease causing shortness

of breath) and bone disease

– may also cause anaemia, teeth discoloration and

loss of smell.

Benzo(a)pyrene

One of a group known as PAH (Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons)

Toxic by inhalation, ingestion or dermal

absorption

Carcinogen, mutagen and reproductive toxic

Inhalation may cause respiratory tract irritation

and damage the reproductive system

Ingestion may cause gastrointestinal irritation

Dermal exposure may cause skin irritation.

Nickel

Allergy of the skin to nickel

- resulting in eczema

(dermatitis).

Allergy of the lung to

nickel - resulting in asthma

In certain circumstances

there may be a risk of

cancer of the sinuses and

cancer of the lung.

62

Ozone (O3) Depletion

Ozone layer – stratosphere (15 – 25km)

Naturally shields the earth from ultraviolet light

Ozone layer is depleting (3% per year in

Antarctica)

Most ozone depleters contain chlorine or

bromine (e.g. chlorofluorobons):

– Refrigeration

– Aerosol propellants

– Some manufacturing processes (polystyrene)

Reactions in the Stratosphere

O3 + UV = O2 + O

e.g. Ozone + Ultra Violet = Oxygen + Oxygen Molecule

O + O2 = O3

CFCs drift upwards and Ultra Violet light causes

Chlorine to be released

CI + O3 + UV = Cl + O2 + O = ClO + O2

e.g. CFC + Ozone = CFC & oxygen molecule + Oxygen

Used oxygen molecule means ozone cannot be

reformed from Oxygen + Oxygen Molecule

Air Pollution ~ Health Effects

63

Health Effects of Air Pollution

1998 ~ The Committee on the Medical Effects of

Air Pollutants (Quantification of the Effects of Air

Pollution on Health) concluded that:

– Short term impact of air pollution on health results in

the premature death of between 12,000 – 24,000

vulnerable people in GB every year

– Between 14,000 and 24,000 hospital admissions

and re-admission each year may be associated with

short term air pollution.

Air Quality in the UK - 2003

● Sunniest on record

● Warmest ever in Scotland

● Second driest year in England and Wales since 1766

● Resulting in poor air quality and notably two episodes in April

and August

● 4th to 13th August ~ 2045 additional deaths

● 21 to 38% of which were attributable to the pollution

Canary Wharf London

Poor Air Quality Health Effects

Can produce disease in the exposed population;

acute and/or chronic

Pollutant mixtures may be additive or worse than

the individual pollutants themselves (i.e. synergetic

~ 4 + 2 = 28)

Those people with pre-existing respiratory

conditions will be particularly at risk

Elderly and the young will be more susceptible

Can cause a strain on other major organs such as

the heart

64

Controls on Quality and Impurities

Prevention:

– Regulation by the authorities to stop industry from

causing the pollution in the first place

Limit:

– If not possible to totally prevent emission of pollutants,

place limits on the organisation on the amount of

pollutant that can be released

Monitoring:

– Regulatory monitoring of potential sources of pollutant

emissions to ensure and preventative or limiting

measures are working effectively

Controlling Pollutant Emissions

Removing any pollutants from the air by the use

of suitable devices such as:

– Filtration e.g. bag filters;

– Separation technology e.g. gravity separators

such as cyclones and electrostatic or magnetic

precipitators;

– Wet scrubbers (acidified and basified);

– Absorption; and

– Water wall.

We will look at these later

SuccessfulPractical

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The Main Types of Emissions to Atmosphere

EC1 ~ Element 4.2

65

Types of Emissions and Hazards

● Gaseous:

– Substances that remain in their pure gas state at

the process temperatures and pressures (e.g.

carbon dioxide)

● Vapour:

– gas formed by boiling/evaporating a liquid (0.01

to 10.0 microns)

● Odours:

– Any smell whether fragrant of offensive

Types of Emissions and Hazards

● Mist:

– a mass of fine droplets in the atmosphere as formed

by boiling or evaporating a liquid

● Fume:

– consists of solids very fine size produced from

condensation from a liquid or vapour (0.01 to 1

micron)

● Smoke:

– Visible vapour/substance that escapes from a

burning body

● Dust:

– Fine, dry particles that may be raised and wafted by

the air

Types of Emissions and Hazards

● Grit:

– Rough, hard particles of sand, stone, etc (> 76

microns)

● Fibre:

– A slender and greatly elongated substance

capable of being spun into yarn; have the ability to

be suspended in air

● Fugitive emissions:

– emissions of gases or vapours from pressurized

equipment due to leaks and various other

unintended or irregular releases of gases

66

Common Pollutants

● Sulphur compounds

● Nitrogen compounds

● Carbon monoxide

● Halogens and their compounds (e.g. fluorine,

chlorine and bromine)

● Metals and their compounds

● Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s)

Coal Fired Power Station Pollutants

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Oxides of Sulphur (mainly sulphur dioxide)

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Dioxide

PM10 & PM2.5 ~ dust and fly ash

Heavy metals

Transport Pollutants

carbon (soot);

nitrogen;

carbon monoxide;

aldehydes (organic compound containing carbon,

oxygen, hydrogen and a saturated hydrocarbon);

nitrogen dioxide;

sulphur dioxide;

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

67

Paint Spraying

• Dust:

• respirable particulates

• inhalable particulates

• Paint overspray

• VOC (solvents) fumes and odour e.g.

– Acetone

– Xylene

– Butane

– Isobutene etc.

Examples of Measuringand Analysing for Common Pollutants

Not Examinable In Environmental Certificate

● Infra-Red Analysers (light scattering)

● Ultra-Violet Analysers (light scattering)

● Diffusion Tubes

● Chemiluminescence

● Active Samplers (bubblers)

● Gas Chromatography (GC)

● Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)

● Isokinetic sampling (grabbing sample from stack) then analysis of sample

● Collected on filter then analysis of collected contaminants

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Control Measures to Reduce Emissions

EC1 ~ Element 4.3

68

Control Hierarchy

Eliminate e.g.

– Stop the release of a hazardous substance by

changing the process e.g. use hydrogen as a fuel

instead of hydrocarbons.

Minimise e.g.

– Use a bag filter to remove the majority of particulates

from the air prior to discharge

Render harmless e.g.

– Use a chemical to neutralise a hazardous substance in

the emission prior to discharge ~ e.g. a catalytic

converter on a car exhaust system

Abatement Plant

Particles

● Cyclones and other

inertial separators

● Fabric filters

● Wet scrubbers

● Electrostatic or

magnetic precipitators

Gas and Vapour

● Absorption

● Incinerators

● Coolers and chillers

● Peat beds

Particles – Cyclones Most efficient for larger

particles

Low running/maintenance

costs

Not as efficient as other options

Can’t usually achieve current

emission standards

May be first stage air cleaning

Product recovery e.g. wood

dusts

May have a number of

cyclones to increase efficiency:

– To prevent rapid

contamination of the next

stage such as when using

fabric filters

69

Particles – Fabric Filters

● Contaminated air

passed through a

filter

● More efficient than

cyclones

● Usually a number

of filters in a bag

house

● Filters cleaned by

– Mechanical

methods

– Reverse air

– Pulse jet

Particles – Fabric Filters

Fabric Material:

● Cotton, wool

● acetates, polyester ~

chemical/temp

resistance

● Teflon, carbon fibre,

glass for high temp

applications

● Must be capable of

resisting abrasion,

flexing etc.

Consideration:

● Temperature

● Corrosivity

● Hydrolysis (humidity)

● Strength

● Release characteristics

● Efficiency

● Gas to cloth ratio

● Particle size

Wet Scrubbers - Introduction

Wet Scrubber' systems are a diverse group of air

pollution control devices used in exhaust streams that

can be used to remove:

– Some particulates (basified) and/or

– Gases (acidified).from industrial exhaust streams.

Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred to

pollution control dirty exhaust stream to "wash out"

acid gases.

Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control

gaseous emissions, especially acid gases.

70

Particles and Gases ~ Wet Scrubbers

Controls:

● Sticky emissions

● Waste streams containing

both gas and particulate

● Removal of explosive

substances (metallic dusts)

● Soluble or wettable

particulates

● Contaminants that cannot

be removed by dry

methods

● Efficient down to 7 microns

Operation:

● Water droplets are

generated

● Particles are captured

within the droplets

● Droplets collected as

contaminated water

● Different scrubber designs

use different techniques to

give high conc. of droplets

and good mixing with air

stream

Particles and Gases ~ Electrostatic Precipitators

● Efficient down to <1 micron

● Uses electrical forces to

attract and remove particles

● Area of ionised air molecules

(corona) on a wire

● As dust flows past they collect

ions and become charged

● A plate is kept at opposite

charge and the charged

particles migrate to the plate

● Removal of dust from plates ~

usually in emissions - plate-

wire precipitator

Gas and Vapour ~ Absorption

Principle:

● Brings gas into contact with a

solvent, often water

● Pollutant is dissolved in the

solvent and removed from the

air stream

Efficiency depends on:

● Pollutant solubility in the

solvent

● Rate at which it is dissolved

● Contact time

● Degree of mixing

Packed Columns:

● Vertical steel columns

● Containing elements which are coated with thin layer of running water

● As air moves up, water moves down dissolving pollutants

Plate Columns

● Bubble air up through water held on plates

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Gas and Vapour ~ Absorption(Hydrogen Peroxide used in Bubblers for Removal of Gases)

Gas and Vapour Activated Carbon AdsorptionAbsorption of Hydrocarbons ~ Particulate Matter to be Remove Prior to this Stage

Not suitable for some chemicals as they can react with the carbon rather than be absorbed

● Retention of gas or vapour on the

surface of a particle or droplet

● Adsorbents must not be

chemically reactive with the

gases

● Activated carbon – heated in the

absence of air

● Activated to remove volatile

contaminants (high temp steam,

or chemical activating agents)

● Adsorbent is regenerated to

recover the pollutants and re-use

the adsorbent (steam and

condensation)

● Pollutants are re-used or

disposed of

● Commonly used for VOC’s

● Pre-bag filter often used

Gas and Vapour ~ Incinerators

Flare stacks

● e.g. petroleum industry / landfill sites

● efficient combustion – blue flame (at its stoichiometric value)

Thermal incinerators

● Oxidising organic compounds

● 3 T’s (Time / Temperature / Turbulence)

● May produce pollutants that require wet scrubbing

Catalytic incineration

● Catalysts enable oxidation to occur at lower temperatures e.g

platinum

● Catalysts must be kept clean – particulate control

● Catalyst may be poisons – halogens, zinc, mercury

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Waste Incinerators

Global Warming Potential (GWP):

● Carbon Dioxide has a GWP of 1

● Methane has a GWP of 25

● Other gases can have even higher GWP’s

To reduce GWP of waste incinerator gases:

● Secondary burning chamber introduced

● Chamber initiates short 2 second burns at 850oC to

reduce potentially harmful emissions from the

primary burn in the incinerator

Gas and Vapour - Coolers and ChillersThe warmer the product containing VOC’s the more vapour emissions e.g. paint

● VOC’s condense if temperature reduced or pressure

increased:

● Contact coolers (water walls)

● Chamber fitted with water sprays

● Vapour condenses out

● Cooling medium becomes contaminated

● Surface coolers

● Cooling water is circulated within pipes

● Vapour condenses on the pipes

● Coolant doesn’t come contaminated

Neither device is particularly efficient therefore not used

on their own, but as part of an overall process

Gas and Vapour ~ Peat Filter Beds

● Can have odour problems

● Suitable for simple organic compounds

● Gas or vapours passed through containers

containing natural peat

● Microbial breakdown of gas or vapour occurs

before it is emitted to the atmosphere

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Local Exhaust Ventilation

Removes air containing contaminants

Contaminant to be suitably disposed of

Needs good design e.g. sufficient power

Consider requirements for maintenance

Funding and Maintenance

● In some countries it can be difficult in obtaining

funding for control measures to reduce emissions.

● Emphasis is often on cost and if there is no

legislation requiring abatement plant then there will

be little or no incentive to fund it as it will drive up

the cost of the product.

● Equally maintenance standards can be lower and if

parts are difficult to obtain abatement plant may be

inoperative for long periods of time, but plant will

almost certainly continue to operate and therefore

discharge harmful emissions to the air.

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Practice Question

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Practice Question

Identify how manufacturing

activities may contribute to

causing the phenomenon known

as the 'Greenhouse Effect'.

Answer to Practice Question

Direct effects:

Release of GGs to the atmosphere; including carbon

dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, water vapour etc.

Emission from on-site energy generation from fossil

fuels;

Emission from transportation systems, including both

haulage and employee work related transport;

Process emissions of GGs;

Services emissions of GGs including leakages from

refrigeration/cooling systems;

Changes to GG sinks.

Answer to Practice Question

Indirect effects

Use of electrical energy generated from fossil fuels at

powers stations;

Methane emissions from degradation of biodegradable

wastes;

Emissions caused by others in making products used in

manufacturing;

Emissions from cement manufacture for buildings etc;

Removal of environmental sinks; forests, peat, soil.

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Control of Contaminated Water Sources

EC1 ~ Element 5

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates

should be able to:

– Outline the importance of the quality of water

for life

– Outline the main sources of water pollution

– Outline the main control measures that are

available to reduce contamination of water

sources

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Importance of Water Quality

EC1 ~ Element 5.1

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Sources of Water

Sources of water can be grouped as follows:

– Surface Water (rivers, streams, lakes etc.)

– Groundwater (wells and aquifers)

– Desalination (the removal of salt from sea

water);

Malta has no natural sources of fresh water

and therefore it has 4 large desalination plants

that produces its water needs.

London also has a back-up desalination plant

in case of drought.

What is Meant bySafe Drinking Water

Water quality is the physical, chemical and

biological characteristics of water.

It is most frequently used by reference to

a set of standards against which

compliance can be assessed.

The most common standards used to

assess water quality relate to drinking

water.

Treating and Distributing Water

Few water sources are suitable for drinking without

any treatment

Problems with natural sources:

– Colour: peat, iron

– Suspended matter: mineral / vegetable debris

– Turbidity: fine mineral or organic matter in

suspension

– Pathogenic bacteria

– Excessive hardness

– Taste and smell

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Water Treatment Process

Objective:

To supply adequate and continuous

supply of wholesome water that is:

– Clear

– Palatable

– Safe

– Reasonably soft

What is Checked forWater to be Safe

Alkalinity (i.e. pH)

Colour of water

Taste and odour

Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride,

potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)

Microorganisms such as faecal coliform bacteria

(Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia

Lamblia

Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury,

arsenic, etc.)

Dissolved organics: coloured dissolved organic

matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon

(DOC)

Radon

Heavy metals

Pharmaceuticals

Hormone analogs

What is Checked forWater to be Safe

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Quality Standard ~ Groundwater

Groundwater ~ 35% of the potable water in UK

80% of the public water supply in SE is from

groundwater

Ground water is often a ‘pathway’

Delegate Exercise

In your allocated syndicates, make a list

of possible reasons ground water could

become a pollution pathway

Quality StandardGroundwater Vulnerability ~ 1

Often occurs slowly from leaking underground

storage tanks (not visible and already below

ground

Run off of contaminated surface water during

rain

Pollution often difficult to detect – moves slowly

through porous rocks but quickly through

fissures

Porous rocks can hold large volumes

Quality StandardGroundwater Vulnerability ~ 2

Often pollution only noticed when abstracted for

use by the abstractor

Main contaminants: nitrates and pesticides from

agriculture, chlorinated solvents, hydrocarbons

1 litre of trichloroethylene sufficient to

contaminate 100 million litres of groundwater to a

level where its’ not acceptable for drinking

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Water Pollution

Surface water run off

Plant root uptake of pollutants

– Cadmium and cabbages

Pollutants carried to the groundwater supply

Concentration of pollutants in water catchments

– Lots of river contaminates deposited in estuary's

Contaminated land leachate

Point and diffuse sources

– Point; know exactly where it is coming from

– Diffuse; land run off into a lake - potentially many

sources

Water for Agriculture and Industry

Water for industry will mostly come from the

water undertaker.

In some circumstances, industry may apply for a

permit to abstract water from a local water

source where large quantities may be required

and possibly a permit to discharge as well ~ e.g.

for cooling purposes

Agriculture will use local water resources for

irrigation purposes ~ this would also require a

permit.

Water Conservation

Water for human consumptions will, in almost all

circumstances, need some form of pre-treatment.

This pre-treatment will use up valuable resources

including chemicals and energy for processing and

pumping.

Some parts of the country supply of water is limited

e.g. South East of England

It is therefore essential to conserve water to reduce

energy consumption and chemical usage

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Effects of Pollution ~ 1

● De-oxygenation

– by chemicals or eutrophication

● Suspended solids

– aesthetics, smothering plants and animals

● Turbidity/colour

● Toxicity:

– Ammonia ~ toxic to fish

– Persistent toxins ~ pesticides, heavy metals

● Eutrophication

– excessive levels of nutrient

– algal blooms (may be toxic)

– algal dies off due to lack of oxygen

– anaerobic conditions (water has no oxygen)

Effects of Pollution ~ 2

● Nitrates

– eutrophication, health concern in drinking water

e.g. methoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome)

● Ill health effects from pathogens

– Micro-organisms that have ill-health effects

– Sewage is not treated to remove hormones

– Abstraction of water for drinking water could

therefore contain estrogens

– If consumed and passed to infants can cause

blue-baby syndrome (methoglobinemia)

Impact of Water Pollutionon Wildlife

● Toxicity:

– ammonia ~ toxic to fish

– heavy metals can affect internal organs

● Eutrophication (previous slides) resulting in anaerobic

conditions

Contaminated water can be drunken by animals causing

them direct harm.

Contaminated water can to be taken up by root systems

into plants causing direct harm, the plants can then be

eaten by animals causing indirect harm.

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Main Sources of Water Pollution

EC1 ~ Element 5.2

Main Sources of Water Pollution

Surface water drainage and risks of

contamination from spills etc.

Process water, sewage and cooling water,

leakage from disused process facilities, tanks

etc.

Groundwater: spillage onto unmade ground

allowing build up and seepage through the

ground to controlled waters

Solids such as grit from sites, plastics etc.

Water Pollution

The contamination of water by:

● Micro-organisms (e.g. Ecoli, Leptospirosis etc.)

● Chemicals

● Industrial and agricultural wastes

● Sewage

Storm / flood

● Heat

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Water Pollution ~ Point Sources

Point sources:

– Outfalls from sewage systems

– Storm water sewage outflows from sewage systems/combined sewers

– Factory wastes (oil, rubber, chemicals) deposited on drained surfaces

– Wrong connection ~ foul or surface water

– Spillages or deliberate disposal

Water Pollution ~ Diffuse Sources etc.

Diffuse Sources

– Agricultural use of fertilisers/pesticides

– Acid precipitation

– Landfill sites/contaminated land

Accidental

– Road traffic accidents

– Spillage from industrial sources

Ground water pollution from mining

Flow reduction due to over abstraction

Solids such as grit from sites and plastics etc.

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Organic Water Pollutants

Detergents

Disinfectant by-products

Food processing waste

Insecticides and herbicides

Petroleum hydrocarbons

Tree and bush debris

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) ~ e.g.

solvents

Various chemical compounds from personal

hygiene and cosmetic products

Inorganic Water Pollutants

Acidity caused by industrial discharges

Ammonia from food processing wastes

Chemical wastes as industrial by-products

Fertilisers containing nutrients – nitrates and

phosphates

Heavy metals from motor vehicles and acid mine

drainage

Silt (sediment) from a variety of sources including

construction activities

Sea Bound Water Pollutants

Most water pollutants carried by rivers to oceans

It can then find its way into planktonic tissue

It can cause algae bloom leading to oxygen

depletion leading to death of fish and shellfish

Big fish eat small fish and so on up the food

chain resulting in biomagnification.

Floating waste can accumulate in ocean

vortexes e.g. the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”

now estimated to be 2 times the size of Texas

across an area 100 times that.

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The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a collection of marine debris in the North

Pacific Ocean. Also known as the Pacific trash vortex, the garbage patch is

actually two distinct collections of debris bounded by the massive North Pacific

Subtropical Gyre.

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

• Most debris in the Great Pacific

Garbage Patch is plastic. Plastic

is not biodegradable, meaning it

does not disintegrate—it simply

breaks into tinier and tinier

pieces, known as microplastics.

• Microplastics of the Great

Pacific Garbage Patch can

simply make the water look like

a cloudy soup.

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Groundwater & Chemical Reactions

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or

chemically change especially over long periods

of time in ground water reservoirs.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons ~ trichloroethylene

(metal degreasing/electronics manufacturing)

and tetrachloroethylene (dry cleaning).

Both these are carcinogens.

Can undergo partial decomposition reactions,

leading to new hazardous chemicals (including

dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater & Chemical Reactions

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate

than surface pollution because groundwater can

move great distances through unseen aquifers.

Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify

water of bacteria by simple filtration (absorption),

dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and

biological activity

In some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil

contaminants.

Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns

is not filtered and can be transported as easily as

surface water.

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Measurement of Water Pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through

several broad categories of methods:

– Physical

– Chemical; and

– Biological.

Most involve collection of samples, followed by

specialized analytical tests.

Some methods may be conducted in-situ e.g.

temperature.

Testing of Water

Physical testing

– Common physical tests of water include

temperature, solids concentration and turbidity

Chemical testing

– Water samples may be examined using the

principles of analytical chemistry

Biological testing

– Biological testing involves the use of plant,

animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor

the health of an aquatic ecosystem.

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Main Control Measures that are Available to Reduce

Contamination of Water

EC1 ~ Element 5.3

87

Water Sources ~ Control Measures

Control hierarchy:

– Eliminate

E.g. do not keep the hazardous substance that could

cause the pollution to the water source

– Minimise e.g.

Keep quantities to a minimum so that should an

accidental release occur, the effects will be minimised

Keep hazardous substances in a bunded area, so that if

an accidental release occurs it will be contained.

– Render harmless:

E.g. have a neutralising chemical as part of the

emergency response equipment to treat the spillage

Control Measures ~ Introduction

Almost all natural water sources contain dissolved oxygen.

This oxygen is essential to sustain the aquatic ecosystem

including aquatic fauna and flora and indirectly other

receptors such as birds.

A pollutant entering the water ecosystem needs an oxidant to

break down thus using up some of the dissolved oxygen.

If too much oxygen is taken out of the water it can potentially

damage of destroy the aquatic ecosystem it has entered.

So, before effluent is discharged into a natural water source it

needs to be tested to ensure any potential pollutant is within

consented limits so that the aquatic ecosystem is not

damaged or destroyed.

Water Sources ~ Control Measures

Monitoring water quality for:

– Chemical oxygen demand (COD):

– Biological oxygen demand (BOD):

– Total oxygen demand (TOD):

– Temperature e.g.

If temperature is too warm it can

encourage unnatural growth of algae etc

causing an imbalance in the ecosystem.

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Chemical Oxygen Demand

Meaning

– Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used to

measure the oxygen requirement of a sample of

contaminated water necessary to consume the

inorganic materials present.

Uses

– To determine the level of treatment necessary,

chemical oxidation demand to achieve consent

discharge quality.

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Methodology Used

– COD is the amount of oxygen consumed from

an oxidising agent (potassium or sodium

dichromate) when a sample is heated under

defined conditions (typically boiling for 2 hours

at acid pH).

– Sodium dichromate dissolved in water turns it a

yellow colour. If during boiling it turns green

there is too much of the pollutant present so it

cannot be safely discharged.

Biological/Biochemical Oxygen Demand

A measure of dissolved pollutants in a water

course, BOD is the potential for organic matter to

deoxygenate water, therefore is the level of

organic pollution in water courses.

Pollutants which increase the BOD of water will

be those containing a high concentration of

biodegradable matter e.g.

– sewage, wastes from food production, farms,

paper mills, timber mills, some chemical plants

and accidental spillages of such matter as milk,

beer or any of the above.

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Biological Oxygen Demand

The pollutants nitrate and phosphate which

cause eutrophication do not directly cause an

increase in BOD.

It is not a precise quantitative test, although it is

widely used as an indication of the quality of

water.

To provide the level of treatment required to

achieve a consent discharge quality.

Hence, BOD can be used as a gauge of the

effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants.

BOD - Methodology

BOD is measured by incubating a sample in the

presence of oxygen and microorganisms for

five days at 20°C.

An oxygen probe is used to measure the

amount of oxygen in the sample at the start and

end of the test to calculate how much oxygen is

consumed by biodegradable organic matter.

This more closely reflects what happens in

nature but the test takes a lot longer to produce

a result.

COD and BOD

The COD and BOD tests measure different

things so the results would not normally be the

same.

The relationship between the two can be

relatively constant for many polluting

discharges.

As a result of this, COD is often used as a

convenient surrogate for BOD.

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Total Oxygen Demand (TOD)

The total oxygen demand (TOD) method is

getting more and more popular because it

normally correlates excellently with the COD or

BOD methods

However, the TOD method responds much

faster because it utilises electronic catalysis to

analyse the waste water and uses no chemicals

like the COD or BOD analytical techniques.

Total Oxygen Demand

The test determines of total

oxygen demand in the range

from 100 to 100,000 mg/L, in

water samples.

In simple terms, analysis is

based on the change in

oxygen levels in a carrier gas

after it has been passed

through the water sample.

Control MeasuresPhysical Pre-Treatment

● Screening

● Sedimentation

● Filtration

● Centrifuging

removal of water from sludge

● Flotation

very low density solids and liquids (bubbling air)

● Evaporation

● Very fine filtration

pressure used to push fluid through a semi-permeable

barrier

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Control MeasuresChemical Pre-Treatment

● Neutralisation pH:

● acids and alkalis react with one another

● Oxidation

● chemical oxidants to remove organics and some inorganics – can oxidise organics to CO2 and water

● Sedimentation:

● chemically enhanced through adsorption (lime or aluminium salts)

● Metal Precipitation

● Alkaline conditions (metals precipitated as hydroxides or carbonates – removed by settlement and filtration)

Permit Applicationfor Discharge to a River

Need to provided evidence/information about:

– Site name and address;

– National grid reference of planned discharge point;

– The type of discharge including quantity and flow rate;

– The treatment process to be utilized;

– Date you wish to commence the discharge.

– Your Environmental Management System;

– Your financial status to implement and operate the

system;

– Evidence of the technical ability and skills in company to

run and operate the system.

Permit Applicationfor Discharge to a Sewer

Need to provided evidence/information about:

– Name and address of occupier and owner of premises;

– Name and address of the premises;

– Trade conducted on the premises;

– Location of sewer(s) into which the discharge is proposed

and number of outlets;

– Process producing the trade effluent;

– Maximum volume of effluent to be discharge in a day in

cubic metres along with the hours of the day the

discharge is to occur; and

– Signature, designation of the applicant along with their

signature.

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Controls for Storage & Spillage

– Preventing any spillage occurring (through

operating procedures, maintenance etc.)

– Keeping systems separate

– Appropriate storage of incompatible materials

– Bunding of chemical and oil stores

– Use of interceptors

– Separation and marking of drain systems

– Dealing with spillage

Control Strategies/MeasuresPractical Options

● Environmental management systems, training,

emergency plans

● Identifying drainage plans

● Marking drains (surface water blue / foul red ~

recommended)

● Bunding

● Pipework above ground, protected and within bunds

● Bunded drum storage areas

● Deliveries – away from surface waters, cut off valves

to prevent overfilling, traffic routes

● Interceptors

● Spill kits

Funding and MaintainingWater Treatment Systems

Many parts of the world have a severe lack of

readily accessible safe water to drink.

Often the governments of these countries lack

the resources to invest into provisioning water

treatment plants and rely on international aid for

the technology and funding of these facilities.

However, once installed, these treatment

systems do need ongoing maintenance and

repair which will need funding by local

governments (which could also be a problem).

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Practice 8pt Question

A drain valve serving an above-ground oil storage tank

at a commercial garage has been opened by vandals

allowing the escape of several thousand litres of oil,

some of which has entered the site drainage system

that leads directly to a nearby stream. The tank was

not protected by a suitable bund wall and was situated

across the forecourt of the garage, close to a public

thoroughfare.

Outline the steps that should be taken to minimise any

environmental pollution that may arise from the

incident.

Answer to Practice Question

Isolating the leak, if possible, to prevent further escape;

containing any spillage using bunds or absorbent

materials; sealing any drains using suitable means to

prevent further entry of oil; tracing drains and attempting

to contain any oil within them; placement of booms across

any receiving water courses to absorb surface oil;

notifying the sewerage undertaker if oil has entered

sewers; notifying the Environment Agency or SEPA if oil

has or is likely to enter a controlled water; and removing

all contaminated materials, such as absorbents or oil

soaked ground for safe disposal and attempts to

decontaminate all other contaminated surfaces.

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Control of Waste and Land Use

EC1 ~ Element 6

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Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should be

able to:

– Outline the significance of waste categories and the

relationship between category and route of disposal

– Explain the importance of minimising waste

– Outline how to manage waste

– Describe outlets available for waste

– Outline the risks associated with contaminated

land.

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Categories of Waste

EC1 ~ Element 6.1

Definition of Waste?

‘Any substance or object that you discard,

intend to discard, or are required to

discard’ e.g.

Rubbish, junk, garbage, trash, residues,

by-products, rubble, litter, ash,

sediment, dusts etc.

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Categories of Waste

Controlled (UK term)

– Household, industrial and commercial wastes

Inert

– Waste which is neither chemically or biologically

reactive and will not decompose e.g. sand, bricks and

concrete.

Non-hazardous

– Waste that is not covered by the definition of

hazardous waste, including household waste, paper,

wood and other degradable waste.

Categories of Waste

Hazardous in most countries (special in Scotland):

– Waste defined by the Hazardous Waste in relevant

national legislation.

Clinical:

– Any waste that contains, drugs or other

pharmaceutical products, human or animal tissue,

blood or other bodily fluids, excretions, drugs etc.

Radioactive:

– Any substance which contains one or more

radionuclide's whose activity cannot be

disregarded for the purpose of radiation protection.

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Minimising Waste

EC1 ~ Element 6.2

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International Waste Strategy ~ 1

An integrated approach to waste management

– Cradle to grave philosophy

– Involves all parties

– Deals with all types of waste

A reduction in the quantity and hazard of waste

rising's

Higher levels of re-use

– e.g. milk bottles, pallets, plastic crates etc.

International Waste Strategy ~ 2

Increased recycling and composting

– Recycling ~ processed to change a form or type

of product to another product

– Composting ~ breakdown with or without

presence of air (aerobic or anaerobic)

Increased energy recovery

– Methane burning, waste incineration, heat

transfer from decomposing waste etc.

Further development of alternative technologies

Hierarchy of Waste Management

The waste hierarchy:

– Prevent - only purchase what you need, buy items

with no packaging

– Reduce - consideration of all waste left after an

activity, or manufacture of a product or article

– Re-use - direct utilisation of an article or substance

without the need for treatment beyond perhaps

collection and cleaning.

– Recover (re-cycle/compost/recovery energy) -

involves some form of treatment e.g. aluminium cans

– Disposal - landfilling of waste is least desirable option

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Benefits of Recycling

Recycling helps to limit the amount of glass, paper and

plastic that must be produced.

Less waste to landfills because it's being reused.

Adds jobs to the economy;

Slows the consumption of natural resources;

Makes people environmentally aware;

Promotes scientific advancements in recyclable and

biodegradable materials;

Makes governments and businesses choose programs

and apply policies in consideration of preserving and

respecting the environment

Limitations of Recycling

Facilities needed for the recycling of materials may cause more

pollution and energy use for transport, sorting, cleaning and

storage;

More vehicles ~ collecting waste others recycled goods;

Pollutants produced by the recycling process itself, including

chemical stews when breaking down different products;

Recycling is not cost-efficient; annually results in a net energy loss

Only the recycling of metals really makes any money. Reclaiming

plastics and paper are expensive, wasteful and overly difficult;

Creation of low-quality jobs e.g. sifting through waste to separate.

A considerable percentage of items marked as recyclable end up

in landfill or burned anyway due to poor quality, contaminants, lack

of resources able to handle that item in a specific region or

recycling installation, etc

Barriers to Reuse and Recycling?

Situational barriers:

– not having adequate containers, a lack of space for

storage, unreliable collections, unable to get to sites;

Behaviour:

– not having the space or systems in place in the home to

recycle, being too busy, difficulty in establishing routines

for sorting waste and remembering to put it out;

Lack of knowledge:

– what materials to put in which container, and

understanding the basics of how the scheme works;

Attitudes and perceptions:

– not accepting there is an environmental or other benefit,

being resistant to sorting or not getting a motivational

reward from recycling.

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Overcoming Barriers toReuse/Recycling

Provide:

– Information such as a basic ‘how to use’ users guide

– An explanation of what is deemed to be recycling and the

benefits of carrying it out

– Education and information to dispel myths

– An explanation of how it works ~ what actually happens to

the material sent for recycling

– Feedback on achievements and thank participants

– Information on the cost effectiveness of recycling

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Managing Waste

NEC1 ~ Element 6.3

Managing Waste

Key steps:

– On site separation

– Storage

– Transportation

– Disposal

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Waste Duty of Care

Waste producers

– Identify what is waste

Containment of waste

– Prevent unauthorised escape of waste

Recognised Waste Carriers (licensed)

Recognised Waste Broker (registered)

– Coordinate the collection and disposal of waste for

organisations

Disposal of animal by-products

– Controlled and policed in UK by DEFRA

Segregation, Identification& Labelling Waste

Waste is to segregated into particular types in

accordance with the licensed carriers

requirements

The types of waste are to be identified either by

placement into correctly identified skips or

containers or appropriately marked

Care should be taken not to contaminate

segregated waste with incorrect waste types as

this will then need to be sorted and will incur

additional costs

Packaging Waste

Where waste is not placed into a suitable skip or

container, the duty on the creator of the waste is

to contain it to prevent its unauthorised escape

Most common method of package industrial or

commercial waste not placed into containers is

to use a baler to compress and bind the waste

to reduce its volume and its escape in windy

conditions

Other waste can be fixed to pallets to make it

easier to handle and prevent its escape

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Electrical and Electronic Waste

Electrical and electronic waste products can contain

substances which can be extremely harmful to the

environment (e.g. mercury and cadmium) and

valuable metals (e.g. gold).

Recovery of these harmful and valuable elements is

expensive and time consuming and not cost effective

(costs more than using a natural resource supply).

To overcome this most countries have schemes

where manufacturers of the products contribute to a

funding scheme the recyclers later draw on to offset

their costs.

Construction Site Waste

Construction projects have a significant impact on the

environment as they indirectly draw on mineral

resources extracted from the ground having a

significant environmental impact.

It is therefore essential that construction activities

minimise the waste that they produce and maximise

opportunities of reusing and recycling their waste.

Demolition projects will produce a high volume of

material that can be reused and/or recycled and

therefore need to separate out their waste streams as

the structure is deconstructed.

Waste Carriers Documentationto be Carried

A copy of the completed hazardous waste consignment note

or transfer note (non-hazardous);

A copy of their waste carriers license;

A copy of the license for the premises where they are making

their delivery;

A copy of their training certificate showing that they are

competent to handling and transport for the waste;

A copy of their insurance certificate for the vehicle;

A copy of the list of waste codes;

Information of site identification codes for premises from

where they are collecting; and

Blank consignment/transfer notes for future use.

101

Countries Differing Approaches to Waste Management in

Many countries, especially in developing countries

have different requirements for waste management.

Often it is just dumped into landfill without any

consideration of the potential contamination

through leachate from the waste seeping into

surrounding land and into natural water sources.

Some countries see the importing of other countries

waste as a source of income, perhaps not realising

the potential future problems from such activities.

Other countries have high standards of recovery

and reuse that should be emanated around the

world.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Outlets Available for Waste

EC1 ~ Element 6.4

Historically was a low cost option

Wide variety of wastes are suitable

Many other waste treatments options

generate a final waste for landfilling

(albeit smaller quantities)

Extraction of rock has and continues

to produce large holes in the ground

Collection and utilisation of landfill

gas as a fuel for energy (not as

efficient as incineration)

Landfill ~ Advantages

102

Old sites – sources of pollution

with uncontrolled leakages

May have substantial impacts on

the environment

e.g. Methane in Stirling city

shopping centre and cinema

complex built on old landfill site

Doesn’t use waste as a resource

Landfill ~ Disadvantages

European Commission identifies the following as

substantial negative impacts on the environment:

Emissions of hazardous substances to soil and

groundwater

Emissions of methane in to the atmosphere

Dust

Noise

Explosion risks

Deterioration of land

Landfill ~ EC Disadvantages

Incineration - Advantages

Reduction in volume

Destruction of hazardous components

Creation of an easily disposed, biologically sterile, ash

Small size of plant

Immediate and measurable effects

Can be used to raise energy, but cannot be varied to

meet demands

Usually near to point of waste arising

No methane

BPEO for flammable, volatile, toxic, infectious waste

103

Incineration - Disadvantages

High capital cost and monitoring requirements

High fuel costs on start up

Need to carefully control inputs

Not suitable for aqueous wastes, heavy metals,

chlorinated materials (generally) and non-combustible

solids

Removal of certain wastes – reduce calorific value of

waste

Air emissions

Still produces a solid residue

Other Waste Outlets ~ 1

Civic amenity sites:

– Provided by local

authorities to

encourage

households to

participate in

recycle/recovery

schemes

Other Waste Outlets ~ 2

Waste transfer stations

– Licensed to receive and sort waste into its various

types for reuse, recycling or final disposal

104

Other Waste Outlets ~ 3

Waste treatment facilities:

– Process waste to recover materials for reuse (e.g.

heavy metals), recycle (e.g. paper, plastics etc.) or

convert waste to energy

Some Interesting FactsSource DEFRA December 2015

National household recycling in 2014 was 44.9%

of waste as compare to 40.4% in 2010.

Recycling of packaging was 72.7% in 2013 as

compared to 69.1% in 2010 and a target of 60%.

Recovery of non-hazardous construction waste

was 86.5% in 2012 as compared to the EU target

for the UK of 70% by 2020.

Biodegradable Municipal waste to landfill in 2013

was 9.2 million tonnes 26% of the baseline figure

(set in 1995); the EU target is 35% by 2020.

Some Interesting FactsSource DEFRA December 2015

The UK generated 200.0 million tonnes of total

waste in 2012.

– Half of this was generated by Construction.

– Commercial & Industrial activities generated

almost a quarter (24%), with households

responsible for a further 14%.

– Almost half of the 186.2 million tonnes of total

waste that entered final treatment in the UK in

2012 was recovered.

– The proportion that went to landfill was 26.1%.

105

Landfill and Aggregate Taxes

Landfill taxes are imposed by the EU and hence in

the UK as a deterrent to putting a potential valuable

source of resources into the ground.

The highest level of taxes are on hazardous waste

(e.g. asbestos waste).

Aggregate taxes are levied on sand, gravel and

rock dug from the ground, dredged from the sea in

UK waters and imported to encourage the reuse

and recycling opportunities from demolition waste.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Risks Associated with Contaminated Land

NEC1 ~ Element 6.5

Contaminated Land ~ Definition

Definition:

– “any land which appears to the local authority in

whose area it is situated to be in such a

condition, by reason of substances in, on or

under the land, that:

(a) significant harm is being caused or there is a

significant possibility of such harm being

caused; or

(b) pollution of controlled waters is being, or is

likely to be caused.”

106

Contaminated Land ~ Affects

What are the possible receptors that can be

affected by contamination of land?

– Humans

– Ecological systems

– Crops and timber

– Property; structural and material

How the Affects Can Occur

Direct contact with contaminated soils

Inhalation of contaminated dusts

Inhalation of gases

Ingestion of contaminated food

Ingestion of contaminated crops

Drinking contaminated water

Explosion risks from flammable gases

Exposure to radiation

How the Affects Can Occur

Odour from escaping gas and vapour contaminants

causing a nuisance

Abstraction of contaminated groundwater

Structural damage to buildings causing them to be

unsafe and collapse

Surface water run-off causing river pollution

Land instability – landslip and subsidence.

107

Liabilities of an Organisation

In general international environmental laws

regarding contamination of land is that the polluter

pays for the clean up.

If the polluter cannot be found then this cost will be

the person or persons who own the land.

Clean up costs can far outweigh any potential fines

for criminal offences and there is always the

potential for civil claims for compensation from

affected individuals or organisations.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Sources and Use of Energy and Energy Efficiency

EC1 ~ Element 7

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should be

able to:

– Outline the benefits and limitations of fossil

fuels

– Outline alternative sources of energy and their

benefits and limitations

– Explain why energy efficiency is important to

the business

– Outline the control measures available to

enable energy efficiency

108

SuccessfulPractical

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Benefits and Limitations of Fossil Fuels

EC1 ~ Element 7.1

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Non-Renewable energy sources are often

available in large quantities

Very concentrated so a small amount

produces a large amount of energy

But there is only a limited or finite amount of

the source so it will only last a certain length

of time and eventually it will run out.

Fossil Fuels

Coal, oil and natural gas

Used for electricity and heat generation and as

transport fuel

Contain carbon and hydrogen aka hydrocarbons

Coal is produced when decaying trees and

organic matter are compressed (squashed) by

the weight of more earth and decaying plants

and vegetation

Become very concentrated layers of coal within

the earths crust

109

Fossil Fuels

Natural gas and oil is formed when marine life dies

and the organic matter decays and becomes

compressed and due to the great pressure applied

to the decaying matter it turns into liquids and gases

Leads to carbon dioxide being released into the

environment

Natural gas produces less carbon dioxide that coal

burning or oil burning

Non-renewable as reserves of oil will only last for

approx another 40 years.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Other Sources of Energy

NEC1 ~ Element 7.2

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are replaced by

natural processes

The use of them result in significantly less or no

greenhouse gas emissions

They do not contribute to global warming and

climate change

Although nuclear has been included in this

section, strictly speaking it is not a renewable

energy source.

110

Renewable Energy Sources

Bio-mass

Hydro-power

Solar

Wave

Tidal

Wind

Geothermal

Biodigesters

Methane recovery

Nuclear

Combined Heat and Power (CHP)

Biomass

Biomass

Aka the use of bio-fuels

If forests are replanted at the same rate at

which they are felled then bio-fuels are

sustainable

Bio-energy power plants burn straw, wood

chips and forestry waste to produce power

directly or indirectly for other applications

111

Biomass

Advantages

– Sustainable and renewable resource

Disadvantages

– Initial capital cost;

– Emissions;

– The source of fuel is expensive;

– More bulky so more transport use to deliver;

– Land not available for human consumption

crops.

Hydropower

Hydropower

Provides 2.3% of the worlds energy

The natural flow of a river can be used to power

turbines and create electricity

Small scale plants do not significantly affect the

environment

Larger plants will have large dams built to

provide the water source. These flooded areas

and can have impacts upon the wildlife, the flora

and the ecosystems in the area.

112

Hydropower

Advantages

– Can create an area for recreational use and

create jobs;

– Creation of water reservoir for utility companies;

– No greenhouse gas emission during operation.

Disadvantages

– Capital cost required to build;

– Environmental impact during dam construction;

– Damage to ecosystems e.g. salmon ladders;

– Loss of land for homes, farming etc.;

– Visual impact of the landscape.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy

Capturing the suns energy

Used for heating & hot water (heat transfer system);

Used for electricity from solar photovoltaic cells

when the sun shines on them;

Usually placed on existing space - roofs and walls

Not widely used at the moment due to the cost of

the installation of photovoltaic's (although cost is

falling);

Anticipated to be incorporated into more and more

future developments.

113

Solar Energy

Advantages

– Can be easily installed and incorporated into tiles

– Low on-going maintenance

– No GHG emissions and excess fed onto the grid.

Disadvantages

– Can have a high initial cost;

– Need to have consistent sunlight to work

effectively;

– Can have variable output;

– In winter months not very effective;

– Still needs mains input to synchronise to.

Wave

Wave

The technology used to capture the energy in

waves is developing all the time;

The idea is to use the rise and fall of the waves

to create air flow which will in turn power a

turbine and produce electricity;

Anticipated to be more widely used as the

technology develops.

114

Wave

Advantages

– Lots of coastline in the UK.

– Will provide power all year round

– No GHG emissions during operation

Disadvantages

– Initial capital cost is very high;

– Can have environmental and ecological impact;

– Will need potentially high level of ongoing maintenance

(corrosion issues from sea water);

– Need a suitable water supply;

– Could affect shipping and fishing activities.

Tidal

The technology uses the rise and fall of tides to

capture the kinetic energy of the water

movement.

Still very much in the development stage.

The idea is to use the rise and fall of tides to turn

turbines and produce electricity.

Anticipated to be more widely used as the

technology develops.

Tidal

115

Tidal

Advantages

– Lots of coastal bays and estuaries around the UK.

– Will provide power all year round

– No GHG emissions during operation

Disadvantages

– Initial capital cost is very high;

– Can have environmental and ecological impact;

– Will need potentially high level of ongoing maintenance

(corrosion issues from sea water);

– Could affect shipping and fishing activities.

Wind

Wind

Wind turbines used to produce electricity;

Anticipated that the development of more

wind farms in the UK will be capable of

generating 33GW or electricity by 2020 –

enough to power 25 million homes or a third

of UK demand.

As of Dec 18, total had reached 20.5 GW,

most on-shore, with off-shore catching up

quickly

116

Wind

Advantages

– Wind is free;

– No green house gases are generated during

the generation of electricity;

– The land around them can still be used and

farmed;

– Wind farms can be tourist attractions;

– Good way of supplying energy to remote

areas.

Wind

Disadvantages

– Wind is not predictable;

– Adverse public reaction to wind farms;

– Visual impact;

– Cause disruption to birds and wildlife (although

they do require an EIA so that should be

assessed);

– Can affect TV reception;

– Potential to be cause a noise nuisance.

Geothermal

117

Geothermal

Harnessing the internal heat of the Earth;

Most useful where the heat causes water to

become hot or steam to be generated;

The heat or steam can be captured and used to

generate electricity;

It is renewable as long as the heat taken away from

the Earth is not at a faster rate than the Earth takes

from the sun to replenish it.

Geothermal

Advantages

– Can provide large amounts of energy all year

round;

– Low ongoing costs.

Disadvantages

– High initial costs;

– Need to have suitable rock formations or large

area of land for radiator style.

Biodigesters

118

Biodigesters

Biodigesters convert organic wastes into a nutrient

rich liquid fertilizer and biogas, a renewable source

of electrical and heat energy.

Their use is widespread in developing countries,

particularly India, Nepal, China and Vietnam.

Biodigesters help families by providing a cheap

source of fuel, preventing environmental pollution

from runoff from animal pens, and reducing

diseases caused by the use of untreated manure as

fertilizer

Biodigesters ~ Advantages

Provide clean and renewable energy.

Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and

contamination of surface water, groundwater and

other resources.

Reduce odours and pathogens.

– Biodigesting sewage can reduce the parasitic

and pathogenic bacterial counts by over 90%.

Convert waste into high quality organic fertilizer.

Can use a wide variety of organic wastes:

– e.g. animal manure, crop stalks, slaughterhouse

wastes, biodegradable garbage and wastewater.

Biodigesters ~ Disadvantages

Biodigesters function poorly in colder climates.

In order to keep the anaerobic digestion process

going continually, biodigesters require a daily

amount of work and a consistent source of organic

materials:

Biogas provides 20% more energy than if

dung/wastes were burned directly, but much less

compared to fuels such as propane and natural

gas.

119

Methane (CH4) Recovery

Methane (CH4) Recovery

Methane can be recovered from:

– Landfill sites

– Sewage treatment works

– Animal manures

– Anaerobic digestion e.g. biodigestors

Advantages

– Reduction in emission of greenhouse gases

– Is generated naturally from a sustainable

resource

– Does not compete with composting and recycling

programmes

Methane (CH4) Recovery

Disadvantages:

– Potential for increased odours

– Limited potential for power generation

– There will be a need for transportation of the

material from source to the methane recovery

plant

– Piped gas from landfill sites usually only enough

to run site facilities and not for the local

community

120

Methane Recovery from Green Waste

New waste processing plants are now being

constructed to convert green waste from

supermarkets into methane;

Once recovered it is used to generate

electricity for feeding into the national grid.

Methane Recoveryfrom Green Waste

The plant receives source segregated food waste

from supermarkets, food and drink manufacturers,

hotels, restaurants, caterers and homes delivered to

the site via Biffa’s collection network.

Vehicles enter the facility through rapid open/shut

doors and unload in a waste reception area. Solid

and liquid waste is emptied into a bunker then

crushed before packaging is removed.

The organic material then enters a suspension tank

before it is pasteurised.

121

Methane Recoveryfrom Green Waste

The pasteurisation heats the material to 70oC for 1

hour to meet Animal By-Products Regulations.

Waste is piped into digester tanks to produce

biogas which is combusted in a CHP engine to

create heat and power;

10-20% used to run the plant, residual electricity is

sold to the national grid.

The wet residues are transferred into centrifuges to

reduce the water content with the solids used by

local farms as fertilisers.

122

Methane Recoveryfrom Sewage Waste

Trials are going on to recover methane from

sewage waste;

This methane is then pumped into the gas mains

supply for normal household and commercial

usage;

implementation of this technology can successfully

generate methane (natural gas);

Would need lots of sewage farms utilising this

technology to produce significant quantities

Nuclear Energy

123

Nuclear Energy

The splitting atoms (a process called fission)

releases large quantities of energy

Normally uranium-235 and plutonium-239

One kilogram of uranium-235 produces the

same amount of energy as burning 3000 tonnes

of coal

The energy in the form of heat is used to

produce high-pressure steam which powers

turbines to run electrical generators

Nuclear Energy

Advantage is that carbon dioxide is not

generated

Disadvantages are that:

– Land is required to construct large nuclear

reactors

– Potential accumulation of radioactivity in the

environment – air, water and land

– Problems with the disposal of the radioactive

waste that is generated by the fission process

Nuclear Energy

The government is looking towards nuclear

power being the way forward for producing

electricity and mitigating global climate

change.

124

Combined Heat and Power

Combined Heat and Power

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is the

simultaneous generation of usable heat and

power (usually electricity) in a single process.

Advantages:

– CHP is a highly efficient way to use both fossil

and renewable fuels and can therefore make

a significant contribution to the UK’s

sustainable energy goals, bringing

environmental, economic, social and energy

security benefits

CHP ~ Advantages (continued)

• CHP systems make extensive use of the heat

produced during the electricity generation

process, they can achieve overall efficiencies in

excess of 70% at the point of use.

• In contrast, the efficiency of conventional coal-

fired and gas-fired power stations, which discard

this heat, is typically around 38% and 48%

respectively, at the power station.

• Efficiency at the point of use is lower still because

of the losses that occur during transmission and

distribution

125

CHP ~ Disadvantages

Disadvantages:

– Small-scale thermal electricity generation has low

efficiency rates compared to large-scale

generation.

– New generation technologies for small-scale

thermal electricity generation are being

developed but conversion efficiencies remain low

compared to heat only applications.

– May not be a use for the heat produced; what will

it be used for during summer months?

– Financial payback times for the cost of the

installation can be quite long.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

The Importance of Energy Efficiency

EC1 ~ Element 7.3

Energy Savings

Being more energy efficient can be financially

beneficial to an organisation

Inexpensive changes can lead to savings such as a

minor change to a process or equipment

Financial incentive for organisations as they can get

up to an 80% discount from the Climate Change

Levy if they can demonstrate that they have

improved their energy efficiency

Need to choose energy supplier carefully

Saving energy will reduce carbon dioxide emissions

126

Benefits of Saving Energy

Reduced carbon dioxide emissions leading to

improved environmental performance

Improved market position due environmentally

friendly products and services

Enhanced public image (stakeholders & customers)

Reduced energy costs therefore increasing profits

Reduction in Climate Change Levy

For distribution companies, users energy savings

easies peak load management issues of brining on

line additional generators to cope with demand.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Control Measures Available to Enable Energy Efficiency

EC1 ~ Element 7.4

Control Measures for Energy Efficiency

Insulation

Choice of equipment

Maintenance and control systems in minimising

energy use

Supervision

Energy efficient vehicles (choice of fuel)

Optimisation of vehicle use

Teleconferencing

127

Some More Suggestions...

Undertake an energy efficiency survey to measure

energy use/consumption

Introduce an energy management policy

Set targets and objectives for energy use

Look at replacing equipment for more energy

efficient equipment

Encourage recycling by introducing bins

Treat waste on site

Set up a suggestion scheme with attached

incentives…

Even More Suggestions...

Motion sensors for lights – work when they detect

people moving in an area and automatically switch

the lights off when there is no-one there

Use of hippos in cisterns of toilets to reduce the

amount of water being used when flushing

Use taps with pressure valves so they flow for a

certain length of time and then stop the flow of

water

Introduce air hand dryers and remove the paper

towels in bathrooms…

And More Suggestions...

Encourage all personnel to switch of lights when not

in use

Introduce cycle to work schemes or car share

incentives

Power down all computers when you leave the

office or as a minimum turn off monitors

Install solar panels or wind turbines

Install water re-use systems that collect rain water

and use it in the toilet flushing systems…

128

Some Final Suggestions...

Ensure personnel turn off heaters at night

Ensure windows are closed if heaters are on

Install timers for heaters so that they come on and

go off without the staff having to remember

Increase awareness of staff, contractors and visitors

through poster campaigns and/or briefing and

training

Provide employees with jumpers and jackets

Any other ideas?

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Control of Environmental Noise

EC1 ~ Element 8

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates should be

able to:

– Describe the potential sources of

environmental noise and their consequences

– Outline the methods available for the control of

environmental noise

129

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Sources of Environmental Noise and their Consequences

NEC1 ~ Element 8.1

Noise

Noise is defined as ‘unwanted sound’

Unwanted as it causes damage to the body, a

distraction or an annoyance

Sound is the ear detecting pressure variations in the

air like a pattern of waves

How loud the sound is depends on the pressure

and the frequency

The sine curve describes the pressure fluctuation of

sound

Noise

Different sounds are heard different ways

The pitch is how we hear the sound

– High pitched sound has high frequencies and

sounds shrill and piercing

– Low pitched sound has low frequencies and

sounds like a low rumble

130

Noise

The intensity of the sound is determined by the

amount of energy of the sound wave

The sound power level is the total energy of the

wave that is measured in decibels

Important when measuring noise in the working

environment

Noise

Sound intensity is measured in Bels (B) however

the Bel is very large so it is quoted to the power of

ten to give a decibels (dB) which can be more easily

used and measured

The scale is logarithmic:

– An increase of 3dB doubles the sound intensity

– A decrease of 3dB halves the sound intensity

Noise

Typical sound pressure levels

– Quiet countryside at night 20dB

– Speech at one metre 60dB

– Busy street 80dB

– Pneumatic drill 120dB

– Jet engine 140dB

If you have to shout to be heard one metre away

the background sound level is approx 90dB(A)

131

Noise

The human ear cannot hear the entire frequency

range (dog whistles)

Sound meters are designed to mimic the response

of the human ear and as such the measurement is

corrected or ‘weighted’

The weighted scale most commonly used to

measure noise to be heard by the human ear is the

A weighted scale

When the a weighted scale is used the

measurements are shown as dB(A)

Characteristics of Noise

Low frequency noise from certain industrial or

commercial activities

– Can carry long distances

Speech from such things as tannoys

– Tend to try to listen and make out what is said

Intermittent such as sirens

– Can often me more annoying than a constant

level of background noise

The Effects of Noise

Nuisance

– Noise nuisance is quite subjective

– Caused by commercial, industrial, leisure,

entertainment, domestic, transportation and

emergency activities

– Where noise is sufficiently intrusive and annoying it is

often referred to as a noise nuisance.

Can result in:

– Loss of sleep, stress, irritation, annoyance etc.

– Disruption of wildlife

132

Industrial Noise Emissions

Typical sources of industrial noise are:

– Vehicle movements – lorries, fork lift trucks

– Production/machinery/equipment noise

– Plant noise – ventilation systems, extractor fans,

compressors

– Alarms – such as reversing alarms, intruder

alarms and car alarms

– Radios and tannoy systems

– Staff noise – shouting, congregational areas

– Agricultural such as bird-scarers

– Construction activities

Other Noise Emissions

Pubs

Clubs

Neighbours

– Loud music

– Late parties

– Animals

Alarms:

– Intruder

– Car

Common Areas of Noise Complaints

Industrial and commercial activities

Noise from domestic premises

Construction activities

Road traffic

Aircraft

133

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Methods for the Control of Environmental Noise

EC1 ~ Element 8.2

Control Measures

Statutory nuisances are controlled using the

pollutant linkage methodology through the

identification of the:

RECEPTORPATHWAYSOURCE

(Noise)

Control Measures

Priority to reduction or minimisation at the source by

design rather than isolation and containment e.g.

– Purchasing quieter equipment

– Fitting noise abatement equipment during

manufacture rather than retrofitting once bought

134

Control Measures

Consider the way in which the noise travels – the

pathway and what is between the noise and the

receptor

Buildings, the type of material, the ground and the

weather (wind direction and speed)

The distance from the source to the receptor also

influences the noise received – the larger the

distance the quieter the noise

Different barriers between the source and the

receptor can influence the level of noise

Control Measures

Environmental noise reduction principles can be

applied in the same way as workplace noise

controls

The use of acoustic barriers and enclosures and

the help from a competent sound engineer

Barrier materials can affect the level of noise

reduction

BS 8233 Sound Insulation and Noise Reduction

for Buildings

Control Measures

A sandwich of materials using an absorbent

material in the middle will help deaden the sound

Some materials will reduce the sound more than

others

– Plasterboard reduces sound by 15 to 20 dB

– Double-glazed windows reduces sound by 40dB

– Brick reduces sound by 45dB

– 200mm concrete reduces sound by 50dB

135

Control Measures

Screening will also reduce the spread of noise

Include buildings, high walls, fences and trees

The effect of an acoustic screen will depend on

– the pitch of the noise it is trying to stop (high-

pitched noises can be screened more effectively)

– the design of the screen/barrier

– the height of the screen/barrier

Try to make the acoustic screen or barrier as high

as possible

Control Measures

The most noisy equipment is often located at the

edge of a building and close to the boundary

Extractor fans, ventilation openings etc..

Changes in the layout might reduce the noise

nuisance

Could consider

– Relocation of public address systems

– Reposition of compressor house

– Relocate warehouse/stock yard areas

– Resurfacing roads to reduce noise.

Management Controls

Restrictions on working hours

Preventing the use of radios and public address

systems, especially outside of normal work hours

(e.g. 8 am to 5 pm)

Controlling vehicle routes and placing restrictions

on delivery times

Organising deliveries to be spread out to prevent a

build up of vehicles awaiting to make deliveries

Ensure drivers switch off their engines when they

are not needed

136

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Planning for and Dealing with Environmental Emergencies

EC1 ~ Element 9

Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, candidates

should be able to:

– Explain why emergency preparedness

and response is essential to protect the

environment

– Describe the measures that need to be in

place when planning for emergencies

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Emergency Planning to Protect the Environment

NEC1 ~ Element 9.1

137

Natural:

– Winds may cause wind-blown damage

– Rain can cause flooding

– Storm sewers may overflow

Spillages and Containment:

– Road traffic accidents

– Failure of pipes, hoses and other equipment

Fire:

– Road closures, power outages

– Disposal of fire water (e.g. Buncefield)

Example Events?

Emergency Planning

Requirement of an EMS, also necessary under

certain legislation.

General duty of environmental law is not to pollute

The general response to the occurrence of

pollution is that the polluter pays to clean up

Pollution clean up can be very expensive,

especially if immediate action has not been taken

to mitigate the effects of the pollution immediately

it occurs e.g.

– Rivers

– Aquifers and artesian wells

Need for Prompt Action

Prompt action will be needed in order to protect

people and the environment (receptors)

Emergency plans will need to be developed for the

organisation covering:

– Potential sources of environmental hazards

– The pathways by which the environmental hazard

take to the receptors

– The possible receptors that could be affected.

138

Pollution Costs

Contamination/clean up costs

– Could far outweigh those imposed by the courts

Replace and/or repair to damaged/ruined plant

and/or materials

Costs of civil claims for losses suffered by third

parties

Loss of reputation could result in loss of future

orders or the public buying products from a

manufacturer/supplier who has a poor pollution

record.

SuccessfulPractical

Relevant

Planning for Emergencies

EC1 ~ Element 9.2

Emergency Response Plan

Emergency plans, covering such things as:

– Potential harm

– Immediate actions to be taken

– Controls to be implemented

– Damage limitation

– Recovery etc.

Emergency centre (focal point for emergencies):

– Will need a relatively safe location from which to

control the emergency situation

– Will need to have good sources of communication

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Training and Practising

Training:

– Staff will need to be trained in the emergency

response plans, particularly their particular roles.

Practising of Emergency Plans:

– Staff must have a clear understanding of what is

required of them.

– Systems should occasionally be practiced to evaluate

its effectiveness, identify weaknesses and corrective

actions.

– Could be Drills, Seminars, Walk-through, Desktop,

Live

Recognising Risk Situationsand Action to Take

Plant and equipment operatives will need to be

trained to:

– Recognise potentially hazardous situations

– Take the appropriate action to mitigate the risks

from the environmental hazard

– Report the event to the relevant company

personnel and external agencies using an

established environmental reporting procedure

– Make a suitable and sufficient record of the event

and the actions taken

Dealing with Spills

Spillages can be caused by a variety of

circumstances, e.g.

– Road traffic accidents

– Failure of pipes, hoses or other equipment

Analysis of risk will need to be undertaken using

SPR technique

Equipment should then be put in place to reduce

the risk to a condition which is as low as practicable

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Equipment to deal with Spills

Absorbent materials

– Loose to deal with small spillages

– In bags of various sizes to contain spills

Flotation tubes to deploy into water sources to

contain oil and fuel spillages.

Sand bags or similar devices to block of drains

and/or divert flows of potentially hazardous

substances to containment areas

Temporary portable bunds in which to stand leaking

containers etc.

Site Plans

Access will be needed to site plans which should show:

– Site drainage; foul, surface water, natural run off

– Storage of materials

– Locations of permitted discharge points

– Pipe-work delivering substances around the plant

and shut of valves etc.

– Equipment emergency shut-down control panels etc.

– Locations of spill kits and any other emergency

equipment

Inventory of Materials

There should be an up to date inventory of

substances, present or likely to be present, which

could have environmental consequences if they

escape

Should include innocuous substances that could be

environmentally damaging if they escape

– e.g. tanker milk spilled into a watercourse can

destroy the ecosystem

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Environmental Impact of Fire

Not only will the fire damage the

premises, but could also affect:

– The neighboring properties

– The local community

– The environment

Containment of Water Run Off ~ 1

Sacrificial Areas

– Water run off pumped to

remote sacrificial area

Bunded vehicle parking/other

hard standing

– Impermeable areas

bunded to make temporary

lagoons

Containment of Water Run Off ~ 2

Pits and Trenches

– Subject to potential groundwater

contamination, could be used to

temporarily hold water run off.

Portable Tanks, Overdrums and

Tankers

– Portable storage facilities, able to

be moved and set up rapidly to

store water run off or other

spillages

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Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 1

Pollutants may escape from site into the water

ecosystem by a number of pathways:

– Surface water drainage system

– Direct run off into nearby watercourses or onto

ground with potential risk to ground waters

– Via foul drainage system where they could

pass unaltered through the sewage system

– Through atmospheric deposition, e.g. vapour

plumes

Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 2

Fires can give off large quantities of toxic smoke

and fumes which contain pollutants such as

asbestos

Prevailing winds will carry these over long

distances and fall to the ground in rain water

Toxic and Corrosive Smoke

Smoke consists of small particles or partially

burnt carbonaceous materials

The size and quantity of particles will

determine the thickness of the smoke which

can be further thickened by water vapour

Smoke and its by products are normally very

corrosive and can cause long term damage to

buildings and other materials if not cleaned

correctly

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Liaison with External Agencies

In order for emergency plans operate smoothly and

efficiently, it is important that responsibilities are set

down and understood both internally and externally.

External agencies that could include those that may

be involved in the development of plans as well as

its implementation.

External Agencies

Police

Fire

Ambulance

Welfare contractor

HSE

Local Companies

Local and National enforcement bodies

Handling the Press and Media

Handling the press and media will be an important

issue

This should be undertaken by a suitably competent

person with good interpersonal and

communications skills

They will need to be well briefed and

knowledgeable about the organisation and

environmental issues to that they can give well

reasoned and accurate responses to potential

questions