B. A. – 1st Semester – Summer Drive

Subject Name: Foundations of Political Science

SET – 1

01 What is the significance of Political Science?

Solution:

Political science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the analysis of political systems and political behavior. Political scientists "see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions. And from these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of politics work."

Political science intersects with other fields; including public policy, national politics, economics, international relations, comparative politics, psychology, sociology, history, law, and political theory. Political science is commonly divided into three distinct sub-disciplines which together constitute the field: Political Philosophy, Comparative Politics and International Relations. Political Philosophy is the reasoning for an absolute normative government, laws and similar questions and their distinctive characteristics. Comparative Politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International Relations deal with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations.

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioural, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, and model building.

Generally, the importance of political science is the application of political powers and authority in the realm of government structures. The ordinary citizens may know and learn about their political rights and privileges from a given form of government including the political structure and processes of the state.

1. The knowledge of human rights and privileges will educate the citizens about their role in the political affairs of the state particularly in political rights: a) The right to vote (suffrage); b) The constitutional rights and privileges ( due process of law); c) the right in providing the basic services such as education, health and sanitation, employment and other public support.

2. The study of political science motivates the citizens to participate in the political activities of the state as to achievement the development thrust of the government in relation to the improvement of quality of life.

3. The political science concepts on democracy, dictatorship and power structures give the citizen full understanding as to the consequences on the individual political action as defined by the political power and authority of the state.

4. The concept of politics may well be studied in the political science not simply in the art of persuasion and influence that the citizens learn about also how this political concept area applied in the society.

5. The comprehensive study on the branches, forms and systems of government provide the individual better understanding in the concept of separation of powers, parliamentary system, diplomatic immunity, human rights, general welfare, and social services.

From the understandings of these basic concepts of government, state, laws and institutions those who would study political science must know its importance and function, relationship with other discipline and broader understanding to its specific roles of individual in a civilized society. The students and professionals should not only know the political theories but also deeper insights as to its application in their own field of expertise. Thus the study of political science will also include the empirical investigation of political facts through social research and the application of critical thinking. The key words in the comprehensive analysis on the principles of political science are state, government, law, institution, power relationships, legal process, constitutions and politics. These are the important dimensions to study political science that need to be constantly in touch to mould the citizens in achieving quality of life to our society.

02 Explain the relationship of Political Science with other social sciences.

Solution:

The concept of political science studies the systematic study of government. It is also the ability to influence and persuade people to achieve the vested political power and authority to conform the development thrusts and directions of the national government. It has wide range of specialized relationships in social sciences to connect the societal activities of the state.

1. HISTORY

History relates on the past events where we can find the rise and fall of empire or kingdom. The historical achievements of the rulers, kings and emperor have been the main focus as it unfolded the rise of the nation and state. The historical chronicles of events have always been related to the political struggle of power and authority. The history of the nation originated so much the political expansion and division of the state that had shape the history of the nation

from the early civilization and the rise of empire; its division which later form feudal age; the rise of the state and its role colonial administration; and the maturity of the individual state. These are the significant relationship of history with that of political science such as the concept of feudalism, socialism, mercantilism, absolutism, and other related term that involved the political power and authority of the state.

ELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH HISTORY

a) The Political Development of State and Empire. The Greek, Egyptian, Persian, Indian and Chinese Civilizations that promulgated the political development along the theory of divine rights of kings and emperors, state tax and force labour,

b) The Rise and fall of Emperors and Kings. These are the famous political rulers in the past empires like Hammurabi, Alexander the Great, Julius Ceasar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Tsi Huan Ti, and etc.; absolutism with the theory of divine rights of the king and emperor; and the political dynastic cycle of the rulers;

c) The National Revolution. The political activities that led to the dissatisfaction of the people just like French Revolution, Indian Revolution, American Revolution, Asian  Revolution and Latin American Revolution.

d) The Political Historical Transition. The political upheaval and transition of historical period on slave society, feudal system, mercantilism, colonialism ,imperialism and the rise of national state.

e) The Age of Reformation and Enlightenment. The political and religious awakening of the sovereign people along the Protestant reformation, including the political ideas on human freedom, independence, integrity and esteem in the age of enlightenment.

f) The Establishment of Sovereign State and Government . The political upheavals of the colonies of Africa, America and Asia into sovereign government with a parliamentary and presidential system of government.

g) The Economic System Advocacy . The political and economic transition to the communist state for social equality and authoritative rule; government participation in economic enterprise through the idea of socialism; and the free market economy of the democratic and republican state.

2. PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy focuses on the study of logic, ethics, and morality. It has special interest in the areas of personal and collective values on wisdom, equality, freedom, justice and truth. These are the foundation of political science as completed by the study of state and government. The ideas of people empowerment, human rights and justice, revolution and independence were articulated by the philosophers to enforce the democratic and authoritative role in the society. The wisdom and its role in governance transforms into what we call Political Philosophy. The political philosophers of the age of enlightenment have shown united

thought on the ideas of social contract, democratic rights, good governance and the political ideologies that set the new authoritative form of government in the past.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PHILOSOPHY

a) The Ancient Political Philosophy. The systematic political analysis of Socrates, Arsitotle and Plato about justice, wisdom and the development of city-states that finally led the foundation of Political Science as a discipline.

b) The Political Philosophers and the Philosophical Advocacy on the Ethical Views of Government. The political philosophy in the study of government structure, ethics, and the sovereign state just like the work of Niccolo Machiavelli on epistemological structure of government; Thomas Hobbes on social contract; Baruch Sinoza on the political authority and rational egoism; Confucius on political ethics; John Locke the nature of sovereign authority of the citizen; Baron de Montesquieu on the presidential system and check and balance. Voltaire on the advocacy of civil liberties; Jean-Jacques Rousseau on general will and ideal democracy; and other political philosophers that shape the existence of the stable government and state.

3. SOCIOLOGY

Sociology studies the interaction of man in the society. The relationship in political science reflects of the social activities of man. It also relates on how they rule the society as they have to base it in the culture, tradition, values, norms, beliefs and mores. The political practices on the dynastic rule, respect of the elders and authority, the formulation of laws according to the mores and norms, religious beliefs have its relationship to the formation of the government and state. The relevant relationships of Political Science with Sociology is the study of the demographic profile, mobility and productivity of labour, the social setting of rural and urban; and the concern on population. Furthermore, sociology can also be studied by the social concerns such as addressing the problems of squatters, unemployment and mobility of labour, age and gender structures, other emerging societal problems.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH SOCIOLOGY

a) The socio- demographic structure as to the gender, age, religion, educational attainment profile of certain groups of society. These are the important variables to identify the political services needed in the society.

b) The socio-cultural structure of the society along the tradition, culture, norms, and mores. The cultural diversity and ethnicity in the promulgation of special laws and state polities including other cultural interest of the society.

c) The demographic social issues and concerns on unemployment, prostitutions, squatters, other and social crimes.

4. PSYCHOLOGY

The psychology studies the human behavior of the society. The human desires, motives, needs and attitudes are the root causes of the political actions particularly in serving the people. As we all know politics is the art of persuading and influencing other people in order to be elected and gain power and authority in the society. The political behavior can also study the general actions and attitudes of government in dealing with the people. The political action responds to the peoples’ evaluation such as political survey about the performance of politicians; demonstrations and other forms of political grievance mechanisms.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PSYCHOLOGY

a) The utilization of political survey to study the political behavior of the voters; political researches on the satisfaction levels on the government performance of politicians; the qualitative surveys and mock elections.

b) The political behavior of voters, consumers, professionals, and other sovereign citizens as to the political issues on graft and corruption; public service, economic and social services; fiscal management and others.

5. ECONOMICS

Economics studies the management of scarce resources for the utilization of human needs and wants. In political science, it also studies the economic growth and development in areas of employment, income, budget and expenditures and the production of public goods and services.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH ECONOMICS

a) The concept of economic growth and development to determine the employment rate, national income (GNP & GDP); monetary and trade policies; and other economic tools for development.

b) The social and economic services such as the infrastructure developments like construction of farm to market roads, national roads, bridges, and public buildings.

c) The economic policies of free trade, economic investments, tariffs, economic zones and the economic enterprises.

6. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration refers to the execution, of the national government thrust based on the utilization of government resources to ensure the general and common welfare of the society. While political science provides the similar field of interest as to the systematic study of government and state. It is also formulation, execution and implementation of government programs which also include the study of fiscal and public management.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PSYCHOLOGY

The fiscal management of economic resources through the study of taxation and revenue generation program; budget and public expenditures; borrowing and deficit financing.

03 Explain the relationship between behaviouralism, post – behaviouralism and neo – behaviouralism.

Solution:

04 What is the difference between state and government?

Solution:

The ‘State’ refers to the present state of system. It also refers to a governed entity such as a province. A government on the other hand is a kind of agency through which authority is exercised by political units.

There are different types of states such as Sovereign state, Member state, Federated state and Nation state. The term ‘government’ on the contrary refers to the civil government of a sovereign state.

There are different types of government such as Anarchism, Authoritarian, Communism, Constitutional monarchy, and Constitutional republic, Democracy, Dictatorship, Monarchy, Oligarchy, Plutocracy, Theocracy and Legalism.

A state is an organized political community occupying a certain territory. A government on the contrary is an organization that has the power to make and enforce laws for a definite territory. The word ‘govern’ has the meaning of ‘power to administrate’.

It is interesting to note that a state generally occupies a certain geographic area. A state is characterized by the presence of culture, language, people and history as well. One of the major differences between a state and a government is that a state is like an organization whereas a government is like a management team.

A state is an independent entity characterized by certain tasks to be carried out. It is interesting to note that these administrative tasks are carried out by the so called government for the proper functioning of the state. In short it can be said that a government has the complete right to exercise power over people and the region. In other words a state is the territory and the government has the right to exercise its power over the territory.

One of the important differences between a state and a government is that a state is a geographic entity covering people and trade, whereas a government is a political administration of state or a country.

05 Explain ‘Social Contract theory’. Highlight Hobbes views on social contract theory.

Solution

The term social contract describes a broad class of philosophical theories whose subject is the implied agreements by which people form nations and maintain a social order. In laymen's terms this means that the people give up some of their rights to a government in order to receive protection and social order. Social contract theory provides the rationale behind the historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is an heuristic examination of the human condition absent any social order, termed the “state of nature” or “natural state”. In this state of being, an individual’s action is bound only by his or her conscience. From this common starting point, the various features of social contract theory attempt to explain, in different ways, why it is in an individual’s rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the freedom of action one has under the natural state (their so called “natural rights”) in order to obtain the benefits provided by the formation of social structures.

Common to all of these theories is the notion of a sovereign will which all members of a society are bound by the social contract to respect. The various types of social contract theory that have developed are largely differentiated by their definition of the sovereign will, be it a King (monarchy), a Council (oligarchy) or The Majority (republic or democracy). Under a theory first articulated by Plato, members within a society implicitly agree to the terms of the social contract by their choice to stay within the society and receive protection. Thus implicit in most forms of social contract is that freedom of movement is a fundamental or natural right which society may not legitimately require an individual to surrender to the sovereign will.

The social contract theory has some basic features where it says- firstly. State is an artificial institution signifying that it is a means to an end, secondly, it is created by human beings with the help of a contract, thirdly, the contract must be based on the consent of one and all, and lastly that prior to formation of state me lived in a hypothetical situation known as ‘state of nature’.

Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most famous philosophers of the social contract theory, which formed the theoretical groundwork of democracy. Although the theory of natural rights influenced the development of classical liberalism, its emphasis on individualism and its rejection of the necessity to subordinate individual liberty to the sovereign will stands in opposition to the general tenets of social contract theory.

According to Hobbes' theory, without society, we would live in a state of nature (a hypothetical situation since it cannot be supported by historical data), where we each have unlimited natural freedoms. The downside of this general autonomy is that it includes the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten one's own self-preservation; there are no positive rights, only laws of nature and an endless "war of all against all". In other words, anyone in the state of nature can do anything he likes; but this also means that anyone can do anything he likes to anyone else.the state of nature according

to Hobbes is presocial and pre political in nature and there is no scope for development to take place. To avoid this, we jointly agree to a social contract by which we each gain civil rights in return for subjecting ourselves to civil law or to political authority. In Hobbes' formulation, the sovereign power is not a party of the contract but instead the sovereign is its creation, and so is not bound by it. The command of the sovereign is law and the contract is irrevocable.

Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with militia, or defence activity.

State of nature is a term in political philosophy used in the social contract theories to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the state's foundation and its monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. In a broader sense, a state of nature is the condition before the rule of positive law and order comes into being.

In some versions of social contract theory, there are no rights in the state of nature, only freedoms, and it is the contract that creates rights and obligations. In other versions the opposite occurs: the contract imposes restrictions upon individuals that curtail their natural rights.

Hobbes's philosophy

The concept of a state of nature was first posited in the 17th century by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes in his famous work Leviathan. Hobbes described the concept in the Latin phrase ‘bellum omnium contra omnes’, meaning "the war of all against all." In this state any person has a natural right to do anything to preserve their own liberty or safety

Hobbes believed that human beings in a state of nature would behave with cruelty towards one another. Yet Hobbes argued that people had every right to defend themselves by whatever means necessary in the absence of order. He believed that such a condition would lead to a "war of every man against every man" and make life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." He believed that in the international arena, states behave as individuals do in a state of nature.

06 According to Laski, ‘No man can be at his best self without rights’, if so highlight the importance of Human rights in the present age.

SET - 2

01 Explain the nature of Liberty and its various forms.

Solution:

Every time an officer of the constabulary, in the execution of his just and awful powers under American law, produces a compound fracture of the occiput of some citizen in his custody, with hemorrhage, shock, coma and death, there comes a feeble, falsetto protest from specialists in human liberty. Is it a fact without significance that this protest is never supported by the great body of American freemen, setting aside the actual heirs and creditors of the victim? I think not. Here, as usual, public opinion is very realistic. It does not rise against the policeman for the plain and simple reason that it does not question his right to do what he has done. Policemen are not given night-sticks for ornament. They are given them for the purpose of cracking the skulls of the recalcitrant plain people, Democrats and Republicans alike. When they execute that high duty they are palpably within their rights.

The specialists aforesaid are the same fanatics who shake the air with sobs every time the Postmaster-General of the United States bars a periodical from the mails because its ideas do not please him, and every time some poor Russian is deported for reading Karl Marx, and every time a Prohibition enforcement officer murders a bootlegger who resists his levies, and every time agents of the Department of Justice throw an Italian out of the window, and every time the Ku Klux Klan or the American Legion tars and feathers a Socialist evangelist. In brief, they are Radicals, and to scratch one with a pitchfork is to expose a Bolshevik. They are men standing in contempt of American institutions and in enmity to American idealism. And, their evil principles are no less offensive to right-thinking and red-blooded Americans when they are United States Senators or editors of wealthy newspapers than when they are degraded I. W. W.'s throwing dead cats and infernal machines into meetings of the Rotary Club.

What ails them primarily is the ignorant and uncritical monomania that afflicts every sort of fanatic, at all times and everywhere. Having mastered with their limited faculties the theoretical principles set forth in the Bill of Rights, they work themselves into a passionate conviction that those principles are identical with the rules of law and justice, and ought to be enforced literally, and without the slightest regard for circumstance and expediency. It is precisely as if a High Church rector, accidentally looking into the Book of Chronicles, and especially Chapter II, should suddenly issue a mandate from his pulpit ordering his parishioners, on penalty of excommunication and the fires of hell, to follow exactly the example set forth, to wit: "And Jesse begat his first born Eliab, and Abinadab the second, and Shimma the third, Netheneel the fouth, Raddai the fifth, Ozen the sixth, David the seventh," and so on. It might be very sound theoretical theology, but it would surely be out of harmony with modern ideas, and the rev. gentleman would be extremely lucky if the bishop did not give him 10 days in the diocesan hoosegow.

So with the Bill of Rights. As adopted by the Fathers of the Republic, it was gross, crude, inelastic, a bit fanciful and transcendental. It specified the rights of citizen, but it said nothing

whatever about his duties. Since then, by the orderly processes of legislative science and by the even more subtle and beautiful devices juridic art, it has been kneaded and mellowed into a far greater pliability and reasonableness. On the one hand, the citizen still retains the great privilege of membership in the most superb free nation ever witnessed on this earth. On the other hand, as a result of countless shrewd enactments and sagacious decisions, his natural lusts and appetites are held in laudable check, and is thus kept in order and decorum. No artificial impediment stands in the way of his highest aspiration. He may become anything, including even a policeman. But once a policeman, he is protected by the legislative and judicial arms in the peculiar rights and prerogatives that go with his high office, including especially the right to jug the laity at his will, to sweat and mug them, to subject them to the third degree, and to subdue their resistance by beating out their brains. Those who are unaware of this are simply ignorant of the basic principles of American jurisprudence, as they have been exposed times without number by the courts first instance and ratified in lofty terms by the Supreme Court of the United States. The one aim of the controlling decisions, magnificently attained, is to safeguard public order and the public security, and to substitute a judicial process for the inchoate and dangerous interaction of discordant egos.

Forms of Liberty:

(a) Natural Liberty:

It is the liberty which people enjoyed in the imaginary 'state of nature'. Liberty in fact cannot exist in the absence of the state.

(b) Civil Liberty:

It is the liberty enjoyed by the people in civil society. It is the direct outcome of civil rights.

(c) Political Liberty:

It is derived from political rights. People share the authority of the state through political liberty.

(d) Economic Liberty:

It lies in reasonable material security and freedom from want.

(e) National Liberty:

It implies the birth right of every nation to be free from external control or domination.

02 Explain the different kinds of liberty and the relationship between equality and liberty.

Solution:

Equality is a multi-dimensional concept. Diverse opinions are put forth in locating the exact relationship between these two concepts. Writers like De Tocqueville and Lord Acton hold the view that liberty and equality are opposed to each other as they are antagonistic. The desire to have equality destroys the possibility of having full liberty. Achievement of equality demands positive state action. Equality needs a 'positive state' and liberty needs a 'Negative State'. The Elite theory of Democracy is against the principle of equality. But on the other hand writers like Maitland, Rousseau, Barker, Laski etc. hold the view that they are complementary to each other. Liberty and equality have a common end, the promotion of the value of the personality and the free development of its capacities. R. H. Tawney rightly remarks that "a large measure of equality, so far being inimical to liberty, is essential to it". No one of these can be enjoyed in isolation.

L. T. Hobhouse opined that liberty without equality is a high-sounding phrase with squalid results. Liberty lies in equality. Liberty without equality degenerates into licence and equality without liberty lapses into uniformity.

Liberty is superior to equality because equality serves under liberty. To Prof. Barker "Equality in all its forms, must always be subject and instrumental to the free development of capacity; but if it be pressed to the length of uniformity; if uniformity be made to thwart the free development of capacity, the subject becomes the master, and the world is turned topsy-turvy."

The development of a rich variety of personalities require a large measure of liberty and forbids all attempts to impose a dead level of social and economic equality. Liberty unites men but equality criticises the social hierarchy and contributes towards the stability of the community. Therefore liberty would be hollow without some measure of equality and equality would be meaningless without liberty. In this age of democracy where voting is a powerful weapon in the hands of the electorate economic equality is most essential condition because the economically powerful person will use his economic resources to gain political power. Political equality will be a mockery in the absence of economic equality. All the democratic constitutions of the world have incorporated liberty and equality in their constitutions because both of them have a common aim- the development of human personality and to make life worth-living. Therefore, it is said liberty without equality is narrow and equality without liberty is monotonous. Both at them are the essential conditions of human existence.

Five Different Types of Liberty:

1. Natural Liberty:

It is the liberty which men enjoyed in the imaginary 'state of nature' when civil society did not exist. It is generally identified with unlimited and unrestricted freedom. Rousseau was the chief exponent of the concept of natural liberty. In his opinion, man lost natural liberty with the emergence of the state or civil society. But such a concept of liberty is illusory. It is license, not liberty.

Liberty, in the political sense, cannot exist prior to state. Liberty, as a political concept, is based on a system of rights. It is the state which guarantees rights. It is, therefore, impossible to conceive of any liberty in the 'state of nature'. This is a misconception of liberty.

The concept of natural liberty is a contradiction in terms because law or authority is the essential condition of liberty but the same was conspicuous by its absence in the 'state of nature'. In the 'state of nature' liberty was enjoyed only by the strong. Might was right. In a civil society, on the other hand, liberty is the common possession of all.

2. Civil Liberty:

It implies freedom enjoyed by the people in civil society. It denotes the civil rights guaranteed by the state. Civil rights consist in the right to life, liberty, property, speech, press, association, education etc. The more the civil rights, the greater the civil liberty.

It has both positive and negative aspects. In the negative sense, it means freedom or the immunity of an individual from interference on the part of others. In the positive sense, it implies the right to free action, the opportunity of self-expansion and self-expression.

According to Gettel, 'Civil liberty consists of the rights and privileges which the state creates and protects for its subjects".

3. Political Liberty:

Political liberty implies rights to determine government and share in authority of the state. It is essentially associated with democracy. Without political liberty, neither, state can be demo-cratic nor can the individual enjoy full civil liberties.

Civil liberty is meaningless if people do not possess the power to compel the government to accept their view-point. Political liberty is variously defined by different philosophers.

Leacock defines it as the right of the people to choose their government which should be responsible to the general body of the people". Laski defines it as "the power to be active in affairs of the state. Political liberty is identical with constitutional liberty which means democratic rule."

The political liberty revolves around the following points :

(a) The Right to Vote:

The right to vote to all adults to elect their representatives who constitute the legislatures. This right has now been granted by all the democratic states to its citizens irrespective of caste, sex or economic status.

(b) Right to be Elected:

The right to be elected to all the representative offices in the state irrespective of discrimination.

(c) Periodical Election:

The accountability of the legislature to the electorate necessitates periodical elections.

(d) The Right to Criticize the Government:

This is provided by the right of speech, public meeting, publication and association.

4. Economic Liberty:

It means reasonable material security. Civil and political liberties become meaningless in the absence of economic liberty. Economic liberty does not imply free competition in the eco-nomic sphere.

It lies in the absence of gross inequalities of wealth that may enable some to obtain an unfair control over the lives and happiness of others by the mere fact of their economic superiority. It implies a socialist or socialistic system of economy. It may not mean economic equality but it means removal of wide economic disparities.

It further means that material needs do not become a hindrance to the growth of human personality. Therefore, not only it implies right to work, but also right to a decent wage, right to leisure and right to social insurances like old age, sickness, disablement and unemployment insurances.

It further implies that no person or a body of persons should be in a position to exploit other citizens. Thus the ownership of means of production by the community is the condition precedent of economic liberty. Private property must not become an institution of exploitation but of social good. It must be earned and socially justifiable.

5. National Liberty:

It implies that every nation has a birth right to be free from political domination of others. It is synonymous with national independence or Swarajya. It is based on the principle of self-determination. Every nation has a right to regulate its national life according to its own will.

Freedom is the necessary condition oif development of every nation. No cultural social, economic or political development is possible so long as one nation is ruled by another. It is

only when freedom is achieved by all nations of the world that a real international community can grow and possibilities of permanent peace can arise.

03 ‘A citizen must be a good member of the state’ Comment.

Solution:

A citizen is a member of the community or a state enjoying certain privileges and performing certain duties He looks after security and the wellbeing of the community and the community looks after his safety and security. He works for the welfare of the community or the state of which he is a permanent member. As a member of a civilised state he is expected to discharge his duties well and to enjoy the privilege granted by the state. In short, his rights and his duties are interred connected. He cannot ask for privileges or right without performing his duties.

It is the sacred duty of a citizen to defend his country against external attack of the enemies. If required he must be prepared to go to the battle-field as a soldier and fight for the safety of the nation. He must pay the taxes imposed on him from time to time. He must obey all the civil and criminal law and the orders of the Government from time to time. He should always feel that he is part and parcel of the Government. Thus he should show interest in public affairs and should deal with his fellowmen honestly.

A citizen generally enjoys three kinds of right: — (1) Economic, (2) Political, (3) Social. He enjoys certain fundamental rights such as rights to property, right to equality of opportunity, right to freedom of speech and freedom of movement. He has the freedom of professing, practicing and propagating any religion. The most important of his political right is the right to vote.

A good citizen always acts as the guardian of law of the state. He exercises his right to vote in a very responsible manner.

Good citizens always make a good nation. Therefore it is necessary that the children of a state must be trained properly to be good citizens in their youth.

04 What was John Rawl’s theory of Justice? Highlight the ‘Thought Game’ of Rawls.

Solution:

John Rawls' A Theory of Justice (1971) explains how the logical ordering of principles of justice may answer such questions as how should society be structured, how basic rights and duties should be assigned to individuals, and how should social and economic advantages be distributed to all members of society. Rawls is primarily concerned with defining the principles of justice which would regulate an ideal society, rather than with describing how justice may be restored to an unjust society. Rawls argues that the principles of justice which would establish the basis of an ideal society are principles which would be chosen by every individual if every individual were in an 'original position' of equality with regard to rights and duties and if all individuals were acting rationally in a mutually disinterested manner. This 'original position' is a hypothetical situation in which every individual is acting behind a 'veil of ignorance' as to his or her own social position, class status, individual assets, and personal aptitudes or abilities.

Rawls discusses the applicability of utilitarianism and of social contract theory to the theory of justice, and he argues that social contract theory provides stronger support for equality of basic rights for all individuals. While utilitarianism may try to justify infringements upon the rights of some individuals if these infringements produce a greater happiness for a larger number of other individuals, the theory of justice as fairness (which is a social contract theory) denies that infringements upon the basic rights of individuals can ever be morally justified. The theory of justice as fairness argues for equal rights for all individuals, and denies that injustice toward any particular group of individuals is justifiable unless this injustice is necessary to prevent an even greater injustice.

Rawls explains that the theory of justice as fairness is a deontological theory, but that utilitarianism is a teleological theory. In the theory of justice as fairness, the principle of equal rights for all citizens has priority over the goal of producing the greatest amount of happiness for the largest number of individuals, but in utilitarian theory the goal of producing the greatest amount of happiness for the largest number of individuals has priority over the principle of equal rights for all citizens.

Rawls argues that the term 'justice as fairness' does not imply that justice and fairness are identical, but that the principles of justice are agreed to under fair conditions by individuals who are in a situation of equality. 'Justice as fairness' also implies that the principles of justice apply equally to all individuals.2 These principles must be decided upon in such a way as to benefit all individuals, and must not be merely designed to favor the interests of a particular group of individuals over another group of individuals.

According to Rawls, the two principles of justice which would be agreed to by rational and mutually disinterested individuals in the ‘original position’ of equality are that: 1) each individual should have an equal right to as much liberty as is compatible with the rights of others; and 2) any social or economic inequalities which occur between individuals should be designed to benefit every individual, and should belong to positions which are equally available to all individuals.

The first principle of justice is referred to by Rawls as 'the principle of greatest equal liberty.' The two parts of the second principle are 'the difference principle' and 'the principle of fair

equality of opportunity. According to Rawls, the first principle of justice is logically (and lexically) prior to the second principle, in that for justice to be attained the first principle of justice must be satisfied before the second principle can be satisfied. The logical order of the second principle of justice is (a) the principle of fair equality of opportunity, and (b) the difference principle. Thus, for justice to be attained the principle of fair equality of opportunity must be satisfied before the difference principle is satisfied.

Rawls explains that the logical priority of the first principle of justice over the second principle implies that violations of basic rights cannot be justified by arguing that such violations may produce economic or social advantages. Furthermore, the logical priority of the first part of the second principle over the second part implies that infringements upon fair equality of opportunity cannot be justified by arguing that such infringements may produce economic or social advantages.

Rawls also explains that judgments about the principles of justice in the 'original position' of equality among individuals are most likely to be reasonable and impartial if they are made in conditions of 'reflective equilibrium' and are not distorted by temporary or changing circumstances.

Rawls argues that the principle of efficiency may be applied to the method by which basic rights and duties are assigned and to the method by which social or economic inequalities are structured. The method by which rights and duties are assigned may be described as efficient if there is no possible rearrangement which could be performed to make this assignment of rights and duties more advantageous to any particular individual without simultaneously making it less advantageous to another individual. Similarly, the method by which social or economic inequalities are structured may be described as efficient if there is no possible restructuring which could be performed to make this structuring more advantageous to any particular individual without simultaneously making it less advantageous to another individual.

Rawls also argues that the difference principle may be applied to the method by which rights and duties are assigned and to the method by which social or economic inequalities are structured. The method by which rights and duties are assigned may be described as fair and impartial if it cannot be made any fairer to any particular individual without simultaneously making it less fair to another individual. Similarly, the method by which social or economic inequalities are structured may be described as fair and impartial if it cannot be made any fairer to any particular individual without simultaneously making it less fair to another individual.

According to Rawls, the principle of efficiency and the difference principle are mutually compatible and are principles of justice for social institutions. Principles of justice for individuals include fairness, benevolence. generosity, the duty to keep promises, the duty to offer mutual aid, the duty to show mutual respect, the duty not to cause unnecessary suffering, the duty not to harm or injure others, and the duty to uphold justice.

Rawls describes three types of teleological theories of justice: 1) the classical principle of utility, 2) the average principle of utility, and 3) perfectionism. According to the classical principle of utility, the best actions produce the greatest amount of utility for the greatest number of individuals. According to the average principle of utility, the best actions maximize the average utility which may be enjoyed by each individual. According to

perfectionism, the best actions maximize human achievement (e.g. in the arts and sciences) or maximize the attainment of some desired goal.

Rawls argues that a major defect of utilitarianism is that the principle of utility may require that individuals who are disadvantaged in relation to others in their ability to attain primary social goods (e.g. rights, opportunities, income, and wealth) may have to suffer even greater disadvantages if this redistribution of rights and opportunities produces greater happiness for a larger number of individuals. Moreover, individuals who already have advantages over others in their ability to attain primary social goods may gain even greater advantages if this redistribution of rights and opportunities produces greater happiness for a larger number of individuals.

Rawls also argues that perfectionism is not a fair and equitable method of distributing primary social goods. While the values of human achievements in the arts and sciences are to be appreciated, the theory of justice as fairness denies that individuals should receive a greater or lesser share of basic rights and duties because of their personal achievements or because of their personal contributions to society.

According to Rawls, the principles of justice (including the principle of greatest equal liberty, the principle of fair equality of opportunity, and the difference principle) may be fulfilled by a constitutional democracy. However, a frequently-seen defect of constitutional democracy is that it may allow a greater disparity in the distribution of wealth and property than is compatible with equality of economic, social, and political opportunity for all individuals. Another frequently-seen defect of constitutional democracy is that it may allow political power to accumulate in the hands of a particular group or party who may use the institutions of government to gain greater advantage. Rawls concludes that in order to correct these defects, it is necessary for political equality of opportunity (i.e. equal rights of participation in the political process) to be constitutionally guaranteed.

Rawls emphasizes that the theory of justice as fairness is a deontological and not a teleological theory. In the theory of justice as fairness, equal liberty for all individuals is not merely a means to an end but is a principle of justice which must be satisfied before other political interests are satisfied. Rawls argues that equal liberty for all individuals may become insecure and vulnerable to infringement if utilitarian or perfectionist principles are applied as principles of justice, and if it is argued that the basic rights of individuals can be adjusted to achieve a greater net balance of satisfaction or a higher sum of intrinsic value. The theory of justice as fairness is thus an egalitarian theory of moral conduct which applies to all the obligations which individuals have toward each other.

05 Compare Karl Marx and Laski’s view on property.

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06 Explain India as a Democratic country – the advantages and disadvantages.

Solution:

Newspapers, as their name suggests, provide us with News. With the spread of education, the popularity and importance of newspapers have increased by leaps and bounds. Everybody today wants to read a newspaper.

Those who cannot read themselves want others to read it out to them. Even in a backward country, like India, newspapers have become very popular. They are published in English, Hindi, Urdu and in all other regional dialects of the country. They are read, or listened to, with great interest by everybody. They exercise a profound influence on the minds of the people.

The most important function of newspapers is to bring us news of the world. News is their chief interest and charm. They tell us what is happening not only in our country by in other countries of the world as well. Without newspapers, we would be like a frog in a well who knows nothing of the outside world.

In a democratic country, like India, they are an important means of forming public opinion. They comment on current events and criticize or appreciate the conduct of the government. It is through them that the public comes to know of the problems that face the country and the different possible ways of solving those problems. They, thus, educate the public mind and enable the people to have their own opinion on matters of public importance. They, thus, make democracy possible. Everyone must read newspapers. This is essential for national integration. This is essential to keep down fissiparous tendencies.

Besides this, the newspapers are also an important means of communication between the government and the people. It is through the newspapers that the government places its programmes, its policies, and its achievements, before the people. The public also uses them to express its dissatisfaction with the government. They voice the grievances of the people and suggest measures of reform. Thus, by expressing public opinion they serve as a check on the government. They are essential for the proper functioning of democracy. The press is all powerful in a democracy. A free press is essential for its success.

Newspapers are also an important means of advertisement. They help trade and commerce. If a trade or an industrialist wants to increase his business, he can do so by advertising his goods in the newspapers. They help both the employer and the employees through their 'wants' columns. The large number of advertisement of every kind is a clear proof of the popularity of the newspapers as a means of advertisement.

But the newspapers have some drawbacks also. They serve as a means of propaganda for the various political parties. Often views and comments are expressed through them that confuse the people and misguide them. The people fail to understand the truth. Sometimes, news are even twisted and distorted. At other times, they stir up class hatred. They sow seeds of communal quarrels. This misuse of newspapers did much to encourage agitations in Gujrat,

Bihar and other parts of the country. Often they publish wrong advertisements which deceive and cheat the people and corrupt the public taste by giving indecent pictures and advertisements.

But these disadvantages are nothing in comparison with their manifold advantages. They are really of great use for the people. So they should be encouraged in every way. On the whole, the habit of reading newspapers is a good one.