Four Generations of Artificial Environments (AEs)

Where we have been, where we are, and where we are going

First Generation

Unidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person but not the person to the machine.

Second Generation

Bidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine.

Third Generation

Virtual Reality-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine. Ideally, the synthetic environment is indistinguishable from the actual environment.

Fourth Generation

Life Simulation-The synthetic and actual environments are indistinguishable and the person does not know whether they are in an actual or synthetic world.

Automation Usage Decisions (AUDs)

AUDs: Choices in which a human operator has the option of using manual control or one or more levels of automation (LOAs) to perform a task.

Some AUDs Are Commonplace

Checkbooks may be balanced with a calculator or by mental computation

Automobiles can be set to cruise control or the driver may operate the accelerator pedal

Stock purchases may be based on the output of software programs or investors may depend upon their subjective assessment of the market

Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences

Casey Jones Pearl Harbor Three Mile Island

Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences

USS Greenville 2000 Election

Types of Automation

• Static: Level of automation is set a the design stage

•Adaptive: Level of automation varies depending upon the situation

Optimal And Suboptimal AUDs

If it is assumed that the objective is to perform a task, the optimal AUD is to employ the level of control, manual through full automation, that maximizes the likelihood of a successful outcome.

A suboptimal AUD is a choice to use a level of control that does not maximize the likelihood of successfully performing a task.

Types of Suboptimal AUDs

Misuse is over reliance, employing automation when manual control or a relatively low LOA has a greater likelihood of success

Disuse is the under utilization of automation, manually performing a task that could best be done by a machine or a higher LOA.

Errors Resulting in Misuse and/or Disuse

Recognition Errors-Operator fails to recognize that an alternative, either automated or manual, is available.

Appraisal Errors-Operator inaccurately estimates the utilities of the options.

Intent Errors (also called action errors)-Operator knowingly selects the alternative that does not maximize the likelihood of task success.

Two Images of an Operator

An operator is a single minded individual whose sole object is to maximize task performance

An operator‘s decision to rely on automation is based on a number of contingencies only one of which is to achieve a successful performance.