Food on a low income Four households tell their story

2

Acknowledgements 7

Section1

Introduction 9

Section2

Literaturereview 11

Introduction 11

Foodpoverty 12

Factorscontributingtofoodpoverty 12

Foodpovertyamongspecificgroups 15

Conclusion 15

Section3

Methodology 17

Researchaimandobjectives 17

Researchapproach 17

Researchplanning 17

Recruitment 18

Fieldwork 24

Dataanalysis 25

Limitations 25

Table of contents

Publicationdate:October2011

ISBN:978-1-905767-19-9

Appendices

MembersoftheResearchAdvisoryGroup 71

Topicguide 72

Recruitmentquestionnaires 77

Exitquestionnaires 81

Exitquestionnairedata 87

Penportraits 93

References 101

Foodonalowincome

Section4

Findings 27

Introduction 27

Whatiseatenandhowitisprepared 27

Doingwithoutandmakingsacrifices 32

Understandingthekeythemes:Selfregulation 37

Understandingthekeythemes:Agency 46

Understandingthekeythemes:History/modernity 50

Understandingthekeythemes:Emotionalmanagement 54

Themesthatdidnotemerge 57

Section5

Discussion 61

Contextandscenesetting 61

Section6

ConclusionsandRecommendations 63

Conclusion 63

Summaryofconclusion 67

Recommendations 69

Policy 69

Community 69

Evidencebase 69

6 7

ListofFigures

Figure1 Influencesonfoodchoices

Figure3.1 Recruitmentprocess

Figure3.2 Focusgroupstructures

Figure4.1 Keythemes

Figure4.2 Sourcesoffinancialpressure

Foodonalowincome

safefoodwishestothankallwhowereinvolvedinthisresearchproject,including:

• Thosewhokindlyparticipatedintheresearchandprovideduswithvaluableinsightsintotheirreallifeexperiences.

• AlltheindividualsandorganisationswhoassistedwithparticipantrecruitmentincludingHealthyFoodforAll,theMen’sHealthForuminIreland(particularlyColinFowler)andanumberwhocannotbenamedtoprotecttheconfidentialityofparticipants.Wearealsoindebtedtotheorganisationswhichprovidedvenuesforthefocusgroups.

• MembersoftheResearchAdvisoryGroup(seeAppendix1).

• MillwardBrownLansdownewhoconductedtheresearchandpreparedareportonitsfindings.

• Dr.KenMcKenzie(ResearchPsychologist)whoguidedthedevelopmentofthetheoreticalframeworkfortheplanningandanalysisoftheresearch.

ThisreportisprimarilywrittenbyMillwardBrownLansdowne.Asummaryofthereportbysafefoodisavailablefromitswebsite(www.safefood.eu)

Acknowledgements

8 9

1

InequalitiesinaccesstoahealthydietareissuesforasignificantproportionofthepopulationontheislandofIreland(IoI),anditisimportantthattheneedsofdisadvantagedgroupsarerecognisedandaddressedinrelationtofoodpoverty.ManystudiesonthesubjecthavebeencarriedoutthroughouttheislandofIreland.Muchoftheavailableresearchisquantitativeinnature;however,arecentsafefoodfundedresearchprojectledbyJohnKearney(DublinInstituteofTechnology)includedaqualitativemethodologyaspartoftheproject.Kearney’sresultshighlightedtheimportanceandvalueofqualitativeresearchinteasingoutthesensitiveissuesrelatingtofoodpoverty.Specificallyqualitativeresearchprovidesthecontextualbackgroundforunderstandingthe'why'behindthestatisticspresented.Suchexplorationisnecessarytoproviderelevantcommunicationandcontextualadvicetothistargetgroup.

Whiletheresearchbriefnotesthatfinanceistheprimarydeterminantoffoodpoverty,italsoobservesthatthisisacomplexissuethatincorporateseducation,transport,literacy,cultureandenvironmentalplanning.Thusfoodpovertyisnotjustabouttheconsumptionoftoolittlefoodtomeetbasicnutritionalrequirements,butalsoincludessocialandculturalcontextswherepeoplecannoteat,shopfor,provideorexchangefoodinamannerthatistheacceptablenorminsociety.

Asthebackgroundoutlinedabovehighlightstheneedforamoreprobingandinvestigativeapproach,andbecausethetopicsforthecurrentprojectaresocomplexanddiverse,qualitativeresearchisthebestapproachtoadopttomeetitsaimsandobjectives.Qualitativeresearchhasbeendescribedasusing“aholisticperspectivewhichpreservesthecomplexitiesofhumanbehaviours”(1).Itenablesanexplorationofthebehaviours,attitudes,motivationsandconcernsofvulnerablegroupsinrelationtofoodpoverty.Theresearchobjectivesoutlinedbelowlendthemselvestosuchanexploratoryapproach.

Targetingcommunicationsdirectlytovulnerablegroupsinsocietyisakeystrategicobjectiveforsafefoodnowandinthefuture.Inordertoinformthisobjective,MillwardBrownLansdowne(MBL)wascommissionedtoexplorethecurrentattitudesandbehavioursamongsectorsofthepopulationmostatriskoffoodpoverty.Thestudyaimedtouncoverandgivevoicetoparticipants’ownexperiences.Theoutputsoftheresearchwillbeusedtobuildavividpictureoftheexperiencesandperceptionsofthoseatriskoffoodpovertywhichcanguidepolicyandpractice.

Introduction

1 Introduction

10 11

2

Introduction

Anestimated68millionpeopleremainatriskofpovertyintheEuropeanUnion(EU)(2).Thisis16percentofthetotalpopulationoftheEUand19percentofitschildren.TheNorthernIrelandAnti-PovertyNetworkhasstatedthat:“Ourunderstandingofpovertyissoimportantbecauseitdirectlyinfluencesthetypeofpoliciesandactionsdevelopedtodosomethingaboutit.Somepeoplethinkpovertyisapersonalchoicebutmanyareoftheopinionthat:‘Povertyisnotaccidental,it’ssocial,structuralandeconomicdecisionsthatcauseit’”(3).AccordingtotheNationalAnti-PovertyStrategyintheRepublicofIreland(ROI),“Peoplearelivinginpovertyiftheirincomeandresources(material,culturalandsocial)aresoinadequateastoprecludethemfromhavingastandardoflivingwhichisregardedasacceptablebyIrishsocietygenerally.Asaresultofinadequateincomeandresourcespeoplemaybeexcludedandmarginalisedfromparticipatinginactivitieswhichareconsideredthenormforotherpeopleinsociety”(4).

In2009,14.1percentofthepopulationinROIwasatriskofpovertywithincreasedlevelsamongchildren(18percent),loneparents(35percent)andtheunemployed(33percent).“Atriskofpoverty”isdefinedasthepercentageofpersonswithanequivaliseddisposableincome

oflessthan60percentofthenationalmedianincome(5).In2009,5.5percentofthepopulationwaslivinginconsistentpoverty,i.e.hadanequivaliseddisposableincomeoflessthan60percentofthenationalmedianincomeandalsoexperiencedtwoormoreoftheeightdeprivationindicators(5).InNorthernIreland(NI)in2009around20percentofthepopulationwaslivinginlowincome(poverty)households(6).InNIahouseholdisdefinedashavingalowincomeifitsincomeislessthan60percentofthemedianUnitedKingdom(UK)householdincome.Theproportionofpeoplelivinginlow-incomehouseholdswasslightlylowerthanthatofEnglandandWales.AroundaquarterofchildreninNorthernIrelandarelivinginpoverty(7).Peoplelivinginpovertyareparticularlyatriskofpoordietaryintakeandhealthinequalities(8).

Literaturereview

2 LiteratureReview

12 13

Livinginpovertyimposesconstraintsonfoodconsumptionbehaviourinthreewaysaffordability,accessandpsychosocialfactors(9).

Affordability

Limitedeconomicresourcesandthecostofanutritionallyadequatedietareconsideredtobemajorbarrierstosustainingahealthydietandsubsequentgoodhealth(8).Whilehouseholdbillssuchasfuelandrentarenotnegotiable,foodistheonlyhouseholdexpensethatcanbeflexibleandoftenotherexpensestakepriorityoverspendingonfood(8,11).Inaddition,whenmoneyforfoodislimited,familiesbuythesamefoodseachweektoavoidwastagewhichcanmeanalackofvarietyinthedietanddifficultyforsometofollowdietaryguidelines(12-13).Frieletal.,(14)lookedatthecostofhealthyeatingoverthecourseofaweekforlow-incomehouseholdsandfoundthatveryhighproportionsoftheirincomewouldbenecessarytopurchasea'healthy'foodbasketbasedoneconomylineproducts,showingthathealthyeatingwasnotfeasibleamongcertaingroupsonsocialwelfarebenefits/minimumwage.InastudyinROIofpeopleonlowincomes,DalyandLeonard(13)foundthatfoodwasthesinglelargestcategoryofspending,accountingforalmostathirdofweeklyhouseholdincomeandsomeindicatedthatthereweredayswhentheydidnothaveenoughmoneytobuyfood.Theconstantworryoverbillsfeaturedstronglyinsuchaccounts.IntheUK,Hitchmanetal.,(15)foundthatthosewithlowincomespracticeskilfulbudgetingandthatshoppingwaswellthoughtout,deliberateandcontrolled.O’Neill(16)describedsimilarfindingsinastudyamongwomenlivinginDublin.

Access

Accesstofoodwhichisaffordable,healthyandofgoodqualitycanbeanissueforlowincomegroups.Localshopsareoftenmoreexpensivethansupermarkets,withlimitedvarietyandfreshfoods(17).However,thoseonlowincomestendtoshopclosetohome(8,18).Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreasingconcentrationonthemajorretailersassourcesofgoodquality,affordablefood.Howevertheseareoftenlocatedoutoftownandsothis,togetherwiththedemiseoflocalshops,hashadmajorimplicationsforlowincomefamiliesinbeingabletoaccessfresh,affordableandhealthyfood(19).Accesstosupermarketscanbedifficultforpeople,especiallyiftheydependonpublictransportwhichcanbelimitedornon-existentinsmalltownsandruralareas.Inaddition,therecanbedifficultiesforthosewithreducedmobilityinbuyingandbringinghomefoodfromshops.Accesstofoodcanalsobeaffectedbyalackofstorageandcookingfacilitiesinthehome.InastudylookingatthebarrierspeoplefaceinaccessingahealthydietinEngland,Caraheretal.,(20)foundthataccesstofoodisprimarilydeterminedbyincomeandthisinturniscloselyrelatedtothephysicalresourcesavailabletoaccesshealthyfood.

Limitedeconomicresourcesandthe

costofanutritionallyadequatediet

areconsideredtobemajorbarriers

tosustainingahealthydietand

subsequentgoodhealth.

2 LiteratureReview

Food poverty

Thosewhohaveapoordietandareunabletoaccessthefoodnecessaryforahealthylifearesaidtobeexperiencingfoodpoverty.Althoughtherearemanydefinitionsoffoodpoverty,allencompassaninabilitytoaffordahealthydiet.FrielandConlon(9)definedfoodpovertyas:

“Theinabilitytoaccessanutritionallyadequatedietandtherelatedimpactsonhealth,cultureandsocialparticipation".

Foodpovertyisacomplexissueanddoesnotonlyaffectdietaryintakebutalsohasimplicationsforlifestyle,socialinteractionand,importantly,healthstatus(8).Poordietisamajorhealthriskandcontributestothedevelopmentofobesity,andsomecancers,coronaryheartdisease,diabetesandalsolowbirth-weightandincreasedchildhoodmorbidity.Dietswhichcontributetotheonsetoftheseconditionsusuallyincludeahighintakeof

fat,sugarandsaltandlowintakesofvitamins,mineralsanddietaryfibre.Twokeyreportshavefocusedonfoodpoverty(8-9).InNI,Purdyetal.,(8)foundpoordietaryintakeamongstpeopleonlowincome.InROI,FrielandConlon(9)conductedastudyonfoodpovertyandpolicy,whichfoundthatlow-incomehouseholdseatlesswellandhavealowercompliancewithdietaryrecommendations,butalsospendarelativelyhighershareoftheirincomeonfoodandhavedifficultiesaccessingavarietyofgoodqualityaffordablefood.Whilelow-incomehouseholdsknowthehealthyfoodoptions,theyexperiencefinancialandphysicalconstraintsinexercisingthesechoices.

Factors contributing to food poverty

Manyfactorsinfluencepeople’sfoodchoices:macro-economicpolicies,foodaccessibilityandaffordability,socialinfluencesandindividualpreferences(Figure1).

Figure1Influencesonfoodchoices

Food availability

Food grown and imported

Food available in shops

Food eaten outside the home,

in schools, workplace canteens

Land, tools and seed for home

production

Food access

Access to shops

Time and ability to go shopping

Cost and affordability

of food

Domestic storage, kitchen equipment

Food access

Access to shops

Time and ability to go shopping

Cost and affordability

of food

Domestic storage, kitchen equipment

Family practices

Household food distribution

(to parents, children, grandparents)

Needs and tastes

Personal beliefs and convictions

Likes and dislikes

Personal choices

Cultural beliefs, family structure, individual medical needs

Household food security

Food obtained

Nutrition security

Food consumed

Public policiesAgricultural support employment Food prices Retailing, catering Educationplanning and transport Social security Trade Advertising Mass media

Source: Robertson et al., (10) (p. 166)

15

responsewasthreepercenteachfornotbeingabletoaffordamealwithmeat,chickenorfisheveryseconddayoraroastdinneronceaweek.

Individuals’ food and nutrition consumption patterns Thereisevidenceofinequalitiesbetweensocio-economicgroupsandtheirdietaryintakeontheislandofIreland.Frieletal.,(26)foundthatthosefromhighersocialclassesachievedahealthierbalanceofenergyderivedfromfat,proteinandcarbohydrate.IntheSurveyofLifestylesandNutrition(SLÁN)(27),whilemostrespondentswere'always'or'usually'abletoaffordfood,respondentsaged18-29yearsandthoseinsocialclassesfive-sixwereleastlikelyto'always'beabletoaffordfood.Comparedtorespondentswhocould'always'affordtobuyfood,thoserespondentswhoreportedthattheycould'sometimes/rarely/never'affordfoodweretwiceaslikelynottomeetanyoftheshelfrecommendationsofthefoodpyramid.Distinctsocio-economicdifferencesinfoodandnutrientintakeswerealsoidentifiedbyKearneyetal.,(28).Disadvantagedwomenhadlowerintakesoffruitandvegetables,dairyfoods,fibreandbreakfastcerealsandhigherintakesofenergy,totalfatandsaturatedfatandsodium.Qualitativeresearchidentifiedthatamongstthedisadvantagedwomen,psycho-socialstress,suchasinsecurehousingtenure,localcrimeandsocialdisorder,wasamajorcontributortoadversedietaryintake.Whilethecostoffoodwasmentionedasapotentialbarriertohealthyeating,itappearedtoonlyplayasubservientrolewhencomparedwithotherimpedimentssuchasstress-relatedcomforteating,timeconstraintsandpoordietaryknowledge.InNI,analysisoftheExpenditureandFoodSurveyshowedthatpeopleonlowincomeshadahighconsumptionofmilkandcream,processedmeats,crispsandconfectionery,cannedvegetablesandfruit(8).TheLowIncomeDietandNutritionSurvey(LIDNS)(29)conductedthroughouttheUK,foundthatpeopleonlowincomeshadalowerconsumptionoffreshfruitandvegetablesthan

adultssurveyedintheNationalDietandNutritionSurvey(NDNS).Inaddition,consumptionofpizza,wholemilk,meatsandprocessedmeatswashigheramongstlow-incomegroups.

Food poverty among specific groups

Peoplewhoaremostlikelytoexperiencefoodpovertyarethoselivingonlowincomesorwhoareunemployed,olderpeople,peoplewithdisabilities,householdswithdependentchildrenandethnicminorities(30).TheHealthBehaviourinSchoolAgedChildren(HBSC)(31)study,foundthat16.6percentofschoolchildreninIrelandreportedgoingtoschool/bedhungrybecausetherewasnotenoughfoodathome.In2003,Hillyardetal.(25)reportedthat37.4percentofallchildreninNIweregrowingupinhouseholdsfallingbelowtheconsensualpovertythreshold.Researchhasshownthatloneparents(32),olderpeople(33),olderpeoplewithlimitedmobility(34)andhomelesspeople(35-36)areallatriskofnotbeingabletoaccessanutritionallyadequatediet.Inaddition,studieshaveshownaruralurbandivideinthecostofliving(17),withthecostofaminimumessentialstandardoflivingforsixhouseholdtypesbeinghigherinruralareasinROIthaninurbanareas,withfoodandtransportcomprisingthetwolargestareasofdifference(37).

Conclusion

Theliteraturedemonstratesfoodpovertyisacomplexissuewithnosinglecause.ItalsoshowsthatontheislandofIrelandpeopleareexperiencingfoodpovertywithcertaingroupsmoreatriskthanothers.Whilefoodpovertyishavingasubsequenteffectonpeople’sdietaryintake,italsoaffectsthesocialandculturalinfluencesonfoodintakethatistheacceptablenorminsociety.

2 LiteratureReview

Psychosocial factors

Foodconsumptionbehaviourisalsoinfluencedbyaperson’sskillsandknowledge,cultureandpersonalbeliefs(9).Poorliteracyskillsandproblemswithnumeracycanmakeitdifficultforapersontochoosehealthyfoodfortheirfamilies,alsotheirabilitytoreadandunderstandfoodlabellingorhealthyeatingmessagesmaybeaffected(8).Foodalsoplaysaroleinsocialinteractionandalackofresourcesmaylimitaperson’sabilitytoenjoyeatingoutorinvitingafriendorfamilytotheirhome(9).Inaseriesoffocusgroupswiththoseconsideredtobeatriskorlikelytobeexperiencingfoodpoverty,Purdyetal.,(8)foundthat,whileparticipantsrecognisedthatcookingfromscratchwasmostcosteffective,somereportednothavingsufficientcookingskills.FindingsfromfocusgroupsconductedintheArmaghandDungannonHealthActionZone(ADHAZ)showedthatfoodandfoodconsumptionarestronglyinfluencedbysocialandculturalfactorssuchassocialstatus,genderandidentity(21).Foodservedasameansofexpressingpartsofone’sidentity,includingone’svaluesystemandgenderrolewereevident,withwomenmainlyresponsibleforbuyingandpreparingfood,andalsoperceivedaseatingmorehealthyfoodsthanmen.

Foodpovertyisacomplexissuewithnosinglecause.Pooraccesstoaffordable,healthyfoodbotheconomicallyandphysicallyaredeterminantsoffoodpoverty.Inaddition,transportation,motivationtoeathealthily,familystructureandthenatureofmodernretailingallcontributetowardspeoplenotbeingabletoaccessaffordable,healthyfood(15,22).

Inequalities in food intake

Morbidityandmortalityratesinindustrialisedcountriesfollowasocio-economicgradient(23).Moredisadvantagedgroupssufferfromhigherratesofobesity,diabetes,cardiovasculardisease,certaincanceranddentalcariesthantherestofsociety.All

ofthesediseaseshaveadirectlinktonutritionanddiet(24).Adietwhichishighinfat,sugarandsaltandlowinessentialvitamins,mineralsanddietaryfibre,ismorelikelytocontributetotheonsetofthechronicdiseasesmentioned.(8).

Poverty and social exclusion

TheEUSurveyonIncomeandLivingConditions(SILC)collectsinformationrelatingtoenforceddeprivationexperiencedbyindividuals.Enforceddeprivationreferstotheinabilitytoaffordbasicidentifiedgoodsorservices.Itismeasuredbyresponsesto11deprivationindicators.Threeoftheseindicatorsarefoodrelated.1SILCdatafrom2009forROI(5),showedthatbetween14-17percentofpeoplewereunabletoaffordamorning,afternoonoreveningoutinthelastfortnightandunabletoaffordaroastonceaweek.Ninepercentwerenotabletoaffordtohavefamilyorfriendsforadrinkormealonceamonth.Forthoseatriskofpoverty,24.6percentwereunabletohavefriendsorfamilyforadrinkormealonceamonth.InNI,Hillyardetal.,(25)developedapovertyindexbasedonincomeanddeprivationandthreeofthedeprivationitemsrelatedtofood.2Theindexwasdefinedintermsofahouseholdonlowincome(averageequivalisedincomeof£156.27/week)andlackingthreeormoreofthedeprivationitems.Usingtheindex,29.6percentofNI’spopulationwasconsideredtobelivinginpoverty.Fivepercentofrespondentswerenotabletoaffordfreshfruitandvegetableseveryday.The

1 Unabletoafford:amorning,afternoonor

eveningoutinthelastfortnight,amealwith

meat,chicken,fishorvegetarianequivalent

everysecondday,tohavefamilyorfriendsfor

adrinkormealonceamonth.

2 Unabletoafford:freshfruitandvegetables

everyday,mealwithmeat,chickenorfish

everysecondday,ifyouwantedit,aroast

dinneronceaweek.

14

16 17

3

Research aim and objectives

Theaimofthisresearchwastoinvestigatetheeverydayexperiencesoffoodamongfourlow-incomehouseholdgroupingsontheislandofIreland.

Thekeyresearchobjectiveswere:

• Tounderstandthemeaningandroleoffoodinfourdifferenttypesoflow-incomehouseholds

• Toexplorefoodmanagementstrategies,includingfactorswhichinfluencepurchaseandconsumption

• Toinvestigatethemeaning/understandingof'healthyeating'forlow-incomehouseholdsandelicithowexternalbodies,suchassafefood,cansupporthouseholdsinthisregard

• Tohighlightanydifferencesorcommonalitiesinexperiencesamongthedifferentgroupings

Research approach

Duetotheexploratorynatureofthesubjectmatteraqualitativemethodologywasadopted,asthediscursivenatureoffocusgroupdiscussionsallowsforagreaterunderstandingofwhatmotivatesparticipants’behaviour.

Research planning

Asthisresearchwasconsideredtobeofaparticularlysensitivenatureitwasvitalthatthewholeprocessfromrecruitmenttothemoderationofthefocusgroupswascarriedoutinanethicalmannerandthatallbestpracticemarketresearchguidelineswerefullyadheredto.TheresearchplanningprocesswassupportedbyanAdvisoryGroup(seeAppendix1)comprisingindividualsandorganisationsthatworkwithorhavepreviouslyconductedresearchwiththetargetgroupsinvolvedinthisresearch.Thegroupmetontwooccasions;on13April2010toreviewtheresearchmethodology,includingtopicguide(seeAppendix2forfinalversion)andon9Sept2010todiscusstheresearchfindings.

Thepanelgaveinputonmanyaspectsoftheresearch,including:

• Thedefinitionofquotasegmentsandtheneedtobalanceidealgroupprofilewithaflexibleandinclusiverecruitmentapproach

• Makingappropriateaccommodationstomakeattendancepossibleforfocusgroupparticipantsi.e.provisionofrefreshments,travelexpenses,childcare,etc.

Methodology

2 LiteratureReview

18 19

byanemailforlaterreference.Thee-mailincludedadescriptionofthefourhouseholdtypeswesoughtandaskedgroupleaderstoadvisewhichofthefourhouseholdtypestheymightbeabletohelprecruit.Theyinstructedeachgroupleadertoplanonrecruiting10qualifiedparticipantsforashowofsixtoeightpergroup.

Groupleadersthenbegantheprocessofconsultingwiththeirstaffandreachingouttoindividualcontactstoassessthefeasibilityofrecruitingagroupof10participantsthatfittedoneofthefourtargetprofiles.TheturnaroundtimeforthemtoreportbacktoMillwardBrownLansdownerangedfromafewdaystoafewweeks,dependingontheirworkloadandtheiropportunitiesforcontactwithrelevantstaffandcommunitymembers.Duringthistime,MBLmaintainedcontactviabothphoneande-mail.

Asgroupleadersrespondedwithpotentialresponserates,aschedulewasdevisedthatoutlinedwhichhouseholdtypeswouldberecruitedfromeachlocation.EveryeffortwasmadetodistributethegroupsforeachhouseholdtypeacrossNIandROIjurisdictions,andacrosscity,urbanandrurallocationstocapturearangeofviews.

Peerreferralswereencouragedduringthisprocesstoincludepeoplewhomightnothavebeen'serviceusers',butwereotherwisesimilarintheirlivingconditionsandmightbenefitfromservicesprovidedbylocalcommunityresources.Ultimately,sevengroupswererecruiteddirectlybygroupleadersortheirstaff,MBLrecruitersorganisedthreegroupsfromcontactlistsprovidedbygroupleaders,andtwowererecruitedonafree-findbasisbyMBL’ssistercompanyMillwardBrownUlster.WhetherornotMBLrecruitersbecameinvolvedintherecruitmentprocesswasateachgroupleader’sdiscretion.

3 Methodology

• Agreementonaccessingparticipantsthroughcommunitygroupsandconductingfocusgroupsincommunitygroupvenues.Allagreedthatconductingtheresearchinthecontextoffamiliarpeopleandsurroundingswouldbothencourageparticipationandenhanceparticipantreassuranceduringtheresearch.• Holdingthefocusgroupsincommunity-

basedlocations,ratherthanthestandardcentrallocations,madeparticipationmoreaccessible,involvingminimaltravelforparticipants.

• Inaddition,holdingthegroupsonparticipants’'homeground'wasdeemedmorelikelytocreateanenvironmentconducivetoopenandfree-flowingdiscussion.

• Theimportanceofmaximisingthereachoftherecruitmentprocessbyaskingcommunitygroupleaderstousereferralsinrecruitmentsothattheparticipantsparticipatinginthefocusgroupswerenotexclusivelypeoplewhoparticipateincommunityprogrammesconnectedtofood.

• Agreementthatthegroupscouldbeclusteredwherepossibleforefficienciesoftimeandtravelexpenses,providedthattheoverallbalanceoflocationswouldtakeintoaccountvariationsinaccessandavailability.Ultimately,threecommunitygroupleaders(inTralee,LeitrimandClonmel)wereabletorecruitgroupsfortwodifferenthouseholdtypes.

Recruitment

Approach

Thefourhouseholdtypesmostrelevanttothisstudywereelicitedfromareviewofexistingdataandpreviousresearch(14,37-38):

• Loneparents• Two-parenthouseholdfamilies• Singlemales• Singleolderpeople

Householdswithchildrenwererecruitedtocapturetheimpact,ifany,ofyoungerandolderchildren,aspreviousresearchdemonstratedtheincreasedcostsassociatedwiththepresenceofateenagerinthehousehold(37-38).Twelvegroupswereplannedsothatthreegroupscouldbeconductedwitheachofthesehouseholdtypes,spreadacrossrural,urban,andcitylocationsandbetweenNIandROI.

Process

Thequalityoftherecruitmentprocesswasessentialtoensurethatparticipantswerefacilitatedinacomfortableenvironmentwheretheywerewillingtoengage,shareandcontributetotheresearch.Allpartieswerealsomindfuloftheneedtoavoidmakingtheresearchanegativeexperienceforparticipantswhocomefromamarginalisedandthereforepotentiallyvulnerablesegmentofsociety.Basedontheseconsiderations,itwasrecommendedthatparticipantsberecruitedfromestablishedcommunitygroupswhichwouldbefacilitatedbyHealthyFoodforAll(HFfA)and,incertaininstances,safefood(figure3.1).

Establishingcontactwithgroupleaderstypicallyrequiredmultipleattempts,duetotheirbusyandoftenunpredictableworkschedules.MillwardBrownLansdowneprovidedeachgroupleaderwithadetailedverbalexplanationofthepurposeandprocessoftheresearchprogramme,followed

Declined (n=1) [staff shortage]Confirmed (n=9)

Additional groups identified by safefood/HFfA and details passed to MBL and also one free-find group convened by MB Ulster

MBL researchers contacted 10 group leaders by telephone to confirm participation

HFfA/safefood passed contact details to MBL** – 10 contacts (22.04.10)

HFfA*/safefood contacted community group leaders to brief them on research and invite them to participate

Expressed wish to participate Expressed wish not to participate

Figure3.1Recruitmentprocess

*HFfAistheall-islandmulti-agencyinitiative,HealthyFoodforAll**MBListhecompanywhichconductedthefieldwork,MillwardBrownLansdowne

21

• Timerequiredrecruitinggroupparticipantsonceafocusgroupwasscheduled.

• Theneedtoreplacescheduledfocusgroupswhenco-operatinggroupleaderswereunabletorecruitwillingparticipantswhometthebriefinsufficientnumbers.

WhilethefirstgroupsgotunderwayinlateJune/earlyJuly,additionalcommunitygroupleadswererequestedtofillgapsinjurisdictionandcommunitytypeforeachofthefourhouseholdtypes.Duringthistime,safefoodandHealthyFoodforAllcontinuedtoassistbysourcingadditionalgroupleadercontactswhenneededtoensurebalancebetweenthefourhouseholdtypes,NIandROI,anddifferentcommunitysizes(city,urbanandrural).Towardstheendofthefieldperiod,adecisionwastakenjointlybyMillwardBrownLansdowneandsafefoodforMillwardBrownUlsterrecruiterstoorganisetwooutstandingfocusgroupsonafree-findbasis,ratherthanwaitingtosourceleadsfromappropriatecommunitygroups,inordertoexpeditetheconclusionoffieldwork.Takingthisdecisionallowedustomaintainthedesiredbalanceofcommunitytypes(rural/urban/city)withouttakingthetimetodevelopnewcommunitygroupcontacts.

Fromtheoutset,allpartiesandadvisorsagreedthatsomeflexibilitywouldbeallowedintherecruitmentandconductofthesefocusgroupsforthesakeof:

• Communityrelationsbetweenthegroupleadersandthepoolofpeopletheywererecruitingfrom.

• Settingacomfortableclimateforthediscussionitselfasparticipantsarrivedatthevenueandpreparedforthediscussiontobegin.

Thesefamilieswereinitiallycontactedthroughanumberofvoluntaryandcommunityorganisationsbasedinthelocalitiesselectedforthefieldwork.

Athirteenthgroupwasheldasparticipantsforoneofthegroupsintendedtorepresentloneparentsturnedouttobefromtwo-parenthouseholdfamilies,resultinginatotaloffourgroupsconductedwithtwo-parenthouseholdfamiliesandthreegroupsconductedwitheachoftheremaininghouseholdtypes.

FulldetailsofthestructureofthefocusgroupsaregiveninFigure3.2.

3 Methodology

20

TherecruitmentquestionnairesusedinROIandNIareincludedintheappendixtothisreport.Uptothreeweekswereallowedforrecruitment,butsomegroupleaderswereabletocompletetheirswithinoneweek.

Somegroupleaderswereunsuccessfulintheirattemptstorecruitasufficientnumberofparticipantswhomettheirbriefandwerewillingtoparticipateintheresearch.Onegroupleaderhadtodropoutbecauseseveralindividualssheapproachedregardingtheresearchweresuspiciousanduncomfortableaboutparticipatinginresearchconductedby'outsiders'.Anothergroupleaderfoundthatthewomenshewastryingtorecruit(mothersfromeitherloneparentortwo-parenthouseholds)wouldnotparticipatebecause,althoughcrècheserviceswereprovided,manywereunaccustomedtohavingsomeoneoutsidetheirimmediatefamilymindtheirchildren.Twogroupleadersweresimplynotabletorecruitsufficientnumbersfromanysinglehouseholdtype.

Ifsufficientnumbersofthetargetprofileagreedtotakepartintheresearch,thegroupleaderinformedMillwardBrownLansdownethattheywerereadytoproceed.Onceagroupwasconfirmed,groupleaderswerealsoaskedtorecommendanappropriatevenue,dateandtimeforthegroups,basedonparticipants’convenienceandcomfort.Wetriedtoholdgroupsessionsintheusualmeetingplaceforparticipantswhoareinvolvedinthecommunitygroup.Theseplaceswerealsoaccessibletoparticipantswhowerenotdirectlyinvolvedbutrecruitedbyreferralfromthesamecommunity.

Groupleadersalsorecommendedwhatformofincentivewouldbemostappropriateforthegroupstheyhelpedrecruit;thesetooktheformofcash(forsixofthegroups),localsupermarketvouchers(fivegroups)ordonationstoacommunitygroupproject(onegroup).Insomecases,groupleadersbelievedasupermarket

voucherwouldbemoreappropriatethancash,giventhepurposeofthediscussionwasaboutfood.Regardlessoftheformofincentiveused,theirvaluewasfixedatthesamelevelsusedincommercialresearch:¤50/£40perpersonforsinglemaleandsingleolderPersongroupsand¤60//£50perpersonfortwo-parenthouseholdandloneparentgroups(theextra¤10/£10coversthecostofchildcare).

Groupleaderswhorecommendedcashfeltthisallowedparticipantsgreaterflexibilityandautonomythanasupermarketvoucherwhichrestrictswherethemoneyisspentandwhatcanbepurchased.Groupleaderswhorecommendedsupermarketvouchersfeltthatthischoicemadeitmorelikelythatthemoneywouldbeusedforaconstructivepurpose.Thegroupleaderwhorecommendedagroupdonationusedthefocusgroupasanopportunitytoraisefundsforacommunitygardenprojectalreadyunderway.Ashalfthegroupwererecruitedthroughreferrals,healsousedthefocusgroupanddonationappealtoencouragelocalmennotalreadyinvolvedintheprojecttoparticipateinit.

Theentirefieldworkperiodlastedfrom24Juneto19August2010.Anumberoffactorsprolongedthefieldperiodbeyondoriginalexpectationsoffourweekstoconductthe12groups:

• Timerequiredcontactingcommunitygroupleaderswho,bydefinition,spendmostoftheirtimeoutoftheoffice.

• TimerequiredforcommunitygroupleaderstoassessthefeasibilityofrecruitingspecifichouseholdtypesandcommunicatebacktoMillwardBrownLansdowne.

• Theneedtoorganiseschedulingofthefocusgroupsaroundpublicholidays(especiallyinNIwhereallgroupsneededtobepostponeduntilaftertheJulypublicholidays),groupleaderandstaffholidays,andvenueavailability.

22 23

SingleolderpersonNonelivingwithparentsorpartners,fixthreeplusmeals/wk

Group Age Location Location Date Details

7 66+F Tralee,ROI Urban 01.07.109:30–11am

Allnineparticipantscametothecentrefortheirweeklyseniorwomen’slunchonaWednesday(althoughsomeonlyattendedoccasionally)Thelunchwasusuallyjustachatbetweenthemselves,butsometimestherewasaspeakerorcookingdemonstration

8 66+M Drumshanbo,Leitrim,ROI

Rural 16.07.1012–1:30pm

Allnineparticipantswereinvolvedinagroupandweretakingpartinavideoprojectrecordinglifeexperiencesinindividualinterviewsthroughouttheday.

9 66+F Cushendall,NI Rural 24.06.107:30–9:00pm

Mostofthenineparticipantshadattendedcookerydemonstrationsandtalksonhomeeconomicsatthecentre

Loneparenthouseholdwithchildren(female-onlyparticipants)Nonelivingwithpartnersorparents,oneormorechildren<18livingathome

Group Age Location Location Date Details

11 20-50 Clonmel,ROI Urban 22.07.103:45–4:30pm

OneofthesevenparticipantshasaparttimejobasacommunityworkerintheDevelopmentCouncil.Nonearespecificallyinvolvedinfoodgroups.

12 20-50 Coolock,Dublin,ROI

City 15.07.1010:30am–12:00pm

All10haveattendedprogrammesrelatedtotheirkidsandexercise,especiallyswimmingsessionswherethecentreprovidedtransporttothepool.Somealsotalkedaboutasessiononhealthyeatingandhowfoodaffectstheirmood.Threeofthe10wereattendingWeightWatcherstogetheraswell.

13 20-50 Belfast,NI* City 19.08.102:00–3:30pm

Notrecruitedthroughacommunitygroup;noinvolvementinlocalcommunitygroupprogrammesmentioned.

*ConductedinMillwardBrownUlsterViewingFacility

3 Methodology

Figure3.2Focusgroupstructures

Twoparenthouseholdwithchildren(female-onlyparticipants)Marriedorlivingasmarried,oneormorechildren<18livingathome

Group Age Location Location Date Details

1 20-50 Manorhamilton,ROI

Rural 09.08.102:45–4:10pm

Noneofthesixwereregularusersofthecentre,butwererecruitedthroughpersonalcontactsofthegroupleader.

2 20-50 Dublin(Clondalkin),ROI

City 28.06.1010:45am–12:30pm

Fouroftheelevenparticipantsareinvolvedinwhattheyterm'thefatclub'atthecentre–actuallyacombinationofhealthyeatingandfitwalkinggroups.

3 20-50 Ballymena,NI Urban 28.07.103:10–4:45pm

Notrecruitedthroughacommunitygroup(‘freefind’).OneinvolvedinWeightWatchersforafewmonths;otherwise,nocommunitygroupinvolvementmentioned.

10 20-50 Belfast,NI City 30.07.1011:30am–1pm

Fiveoftheeightparticipantswereregularusersofthecentre.Threehadattendedcookingclasses.

SinglemalesNonelivingwithparentsorpartners,fixthreeplusmeals/wk

Group Age Location Location Date Details

4 25-40 Tralee,ROI Urban 30.06.104:30–6pm

Nonewerespecificallyinvolvedinprogrammesattheirlocalcentre,howeverallhadvolunteeredatthecentrewhenmaintenanceormanuallabourhelpwasneeded

5 45-56 Belfast,NI City 03.08.102–3:30pm

Fiveofthesevenparticipantshadtakencookerylessonsand/orbeentonutritiontalks

6 30-60 Cavan,ROI Rural 24.06.107:30–9:00pm

Fiveofthenineparticipantswereinvolvedinamen’scommunitygardenprojectonthegroundsofthecommunitycentre

24 25

Data analysis

Alloftheinterviewswererecordedandtranscribed.Inordertoidentifyandcategorisethekeythemesfromtheresearchfindings,MBLcollaboratedwithDrKennethMcKenzie,aResearchPsychologistatUCD’sSchoolofPublicHealthandPopulationScience,regardingtheanalysisofthequalitativedata.Thisinvolvedidentifyingcommonstrandsorthemesthroughallthefocusgroupstoaidtheirunderstandingand,inturn,suggestingcertainconclusionsregardinghowpeopleonlowincomesexperiencefood.Athree-stageprocessofdataanalysisbasedonAttride-Stirlingwasadopted(39).

Coding

AninitialsetupmeetingwasheldbetweenthegroupmoderatorsandDrMcKenzietodiscusshowthecodingshouldprogressandtoidentifytheformatrequired.Eachmoderatorworkedindependentlytocodeindividualtranscripts.Havingdevelopedtheirowncodes,theresearchersmettodeterminethecodescommontoall,developingasinglecodelistforexperiencesoffoodamongthoseonlowincome.

Themes

Thenextstagewastoidentifythemeswhichsubsumedthecodes.Thiswasdonethroughacombinationofmeetingsandemailcorrespondence,inwhichDrMcKenzietooktheleadonidentifyingthethemesandMBLelaboratedonthewaysinwhichthesethemeswereexpressedamongdifferentcohorts.

Explanations

Inafinalmeeting,DrMcKenziesuppliedthepsychologicalexplanationswhichgobeyondparticipants’self-reportedreasonsforwhytheybehaveastheydo(e.g.,lackoftime,affordability,whatchildrenwilleat).Thesepsychologicalexplanationsaregroundedinacademicresearchandcanbeusedtounderstandfoodbehaviourinthelargercontextofhumanbehaviour.

Limitations

Thelimitationsofqualitativetechniquesarethattheydrawfromsmallerandmoreselectsamplesthanquantitativeresearchandsodonotproducestatisticallypredictivemeasurements.Quantitativeresearchisrestrictedbythestructurednatureofthequestioning,whereasqualitativequestioninghastheflexibilitytoexploreanddiscoverunanticipatedinsights.

Itwasagreedthatifindividualswhodidnotmeetthebriefineveryrespectexpressedastrongdesiretoparticipateinthegroup,wewouldmakeaslightcompromiseintermsofthepurityoftherecruitmentandallowthemtotakepart.Weagreedthataskingpeoplewhohadturnedupexpectingtoparticipatetoleaveatthebeginningofthediscussionwouldbetoodisruptiveandmightimpactnegativelybothontheindividualandonotherparticipants’willingnesstobeopenandhonestintheircomments.Whensuchexceptionsweremade,themoderatorleadingthediscussiontookcaretolimitthenon-representativeindividual’sparticipationandbalancedtheirinputbysolicitingviewsfromotherparticipantswherenecessary.

3 Methodology

Fieldwork

Thiswasanextensivequalitativeproject,comprising13focusgroupsspreadovertheislandofIreland;eightintheRepublicofIreland(ROI)andfiveinNorthernIreland(NI).Asecondqualitativemoderatoralsoattendedeachgroupforqualitycontrolandadditionaldepthofanalysis.Thefirstmoderatorconductedthegroupdiscussion,whilethesecondmoderatoractedprimarilyinanobservationalrole,sittinginonthediscussionsinordertorecordthesofterelementsoftheresearchsetting;forexample,grouppersonalities,theappearanceofparticipants,roomset-up,temperatureandlighting,disruptiveelementssuchasinterruptions,externalnoise,etc.Itwasfeltthatthisextensivebackgroundinformation,particularlyrelatingtothepersonalcharacteristicsoftheparticipants,wouldaddmuchtotheoverallinterpretationofthefindings.

Eachdiscussiontookitsownshapebasedonparticipants’contributions,butallcoveredthefollowingtopics:

• Whattheirhouseholdeatsandwhy• Wheretheygetfoodfortheirhousehold

andwhy• Foodshoppinghabitsandthecircumstances

andfactorsthatshapetheirhabits• Howtheymanagetheirhousekeepingbudget

andfoodexpendituresasaportionoftheiroverallbudget

• Havetheyeverchangedtheireatinghabitsforanyreason

• Howdotheyfeelabouthealthyeating.

Thediscussionsgenerallylastedapproximately90minutes.Attheendofeachfocusgroup,aself-administeredquestionnairewasdistributedtocapturekeyinformationregardingparticipants’householdbudgetstoputtheirviewsincontextaccordingtotheireconomiclivingconditions(SeeAppendix4).Thisinformationwassuppliedonananonymousandvoluntarybasis;a98percentresponseratewasachieved.

Duetothesmallsamplesizeineachhouseholdtype,theself-selectivenatureoftherecruitmentprocessandthepossibledifferencesininterpretingthequestionnaire,thisdataisnotstatisticallypredictiveandcannotbeextrapolatedouttothelargerpopulation.Also,becausethequestionnairewasself-administeredandcompletedconfidentially,wecannotverifythedataprovided.Atmost,weknowwhichgroupeachcompletedquestionnairecamefromandcanmakesomeinferencesininterpretingresponses,basedonthecontextofthediscussion.Footnotesareprovidedtocontextualisesomesurprisingfindingsfromtheexitquestionnairewithinformationgiveninthediscussion,buttheinferencesmadeareonlyspeculative.Nevertheless,itdoeshelpframeourunderstandingofthefinancialcontextwithinwhichtheparticipantsoperateandunderlinetheextenttowhichthisshapestheirfoodmanagementstrategies.AsummaryoftheresultsappearsinAppendix5.

26 27

3 Methodology

Suchexceptionsweremadeinthefollowinginstances:

• OnemarriedwomanwholiveswithherhusbandinthesingleolderpersongroupinTraleeandonemarriedmanwholiveswithhiswifeinthesingleolderpersongroupinDrumshanbo

• Onegrandmotherwhoisraisinghergrandchildreninthetwo-parentgroupinClondalkin

• OnewomanwhohasnochildrenbutliveswithherboyfriendandhissonintheloneparentgroupinClonmel

• OnewomanintheManorhamiltongroupself-identifiedasrecentlyseparatedduringtheintroductionstothefocusgroup

Afulldescriptionofthecircumstancessurroundingeachoftheseexceptionswasincludedinthemoderator’snotesfortherelevantgroups.

Anotherlimitationoftheprocesswasthat,whiletheoverallgroupstructureandrecruitmentbriefweredesignedtobebroadlyrepresentativeofthoseatriskoffoodpovertywithinthefourhouseholdtypes,someoftheindividualsincludedwerenotnecessarily'typical'ofthecohorttheyrepresented.

• TwoyoungmenparticipatingintheSingleMalegroupinTraleereportedweeklyincomesof'¤1000ormore'ontheself-administeredquestionnaire.Thesemenmayhavebeenhighearnerswhodidnotstrictlyfitthebriefforthegroup(althoughonlyonemaninthisgroupreportedbeingemployedfull-time).Itisalsopossiblethattheymayhavemadeanerrorininterpretingthequestionnaire(perhapsconfusing'weekly'incomewith'monthly'income).Householdincomewasnotaskedasaconditionforrecruitmentinadvanceofthesessionstopreserveparticipantprivacyanddignity,sotheonlysourceforthisinformationistheanonymousself-administeredquestionnaire.

• FourofthenineparticipantsintheCavansinglemalegroupenjoyedmorealternativelifestylesthantheothersand,althoughtheyfitthebriefforhouseholdtypeandlowearnings,didnotfitthemainstreamprofileofthoseatriskoffoodpoverty.Theseindividualswereinvolvedinmusic,artandgardeningratherthanmainstreamoccupations,theywereinterestedincookeryandtheymadeaspecialefforttobuyorganicandartisanfoodproducts.

Mostgroupsincludedsomeparticipantswhoareorhavebeeninvolvedinacommunitygroupprogrammerelatedtofoodorhealthand,insomecases,allparticipantswereexposedtosometypeofcommunityintervention.Itcouldbearguedthattheyweremoreinformedorconcernedaboutnutritionanditslinkstohealththanthosewhohadnevertakenpartinsuchaprogramme.

4

Introduction

ThischapterprovidesdetailsoftheeverydayexperiencesoffoodandthemeaningandroleitplaysforpeopleatriskoffoodpovertyontheislandofIreland.Italsolooksathowthethemesofself-regulation,agency,history/modernity,emotionalmanagementandplanned/strategicshoppingresonateacrossthedifferentpopulationcohortsstudied(figure4.1).

What is eaten and how it is prepared

What is eaten?

Somekeythemesemergedacrossthefourcohortsintermsofwhattheytendtoeat.Commontoallwasadefiniteconservatismaboutfoodchoicesundoubtedlydictatedbyacombinationofindividualtastesandfinancialconstraints.Intandemwiththistherewasalackofvarietyinfoodchoicesandatendencytobuyandeatthesamethingsweekafterweekasamatterofroutine.

Figure4.1Keythemes

Findings

The experience of foodamong low income

households

Self regulation/agency

Emotionalmanagement

History/modernity

Planned/strategic shopping

28 29

Householdswithchildren(two-parentandloneparent)Inhouseholdswithchildren,betheysingleparentortwo-parent,itwasveryevidentthatchildren'setthepace'regardingwhatfoodchoicesweremade.Overall,strongemotionswereevident,withvisibleguiltandanxietywhilediscussingthechallengesoffeedingthefamily.Thecomplexitiesoffeedingchildrenofdifferentagesandwithdifferentappetitesandtastestendedtodictatebehaviour.Underpinningthiswastheneedtoseethatthechildrenwerefedandthis,ratherthantheactualcontentorqualityofwhattheywerebeingfed,wasparamount.Thus,thenutritionalvalueandhealthimpactofthefoodbeingservedtendedtobeoverlookedintheiranxietytoseethatthechildrenhadactuallyeaten.Theinevitableresultofthiswasthatmakinganumberofdifferentmeals(referredtobytheresearchersas'platespinning')wasthenorm,withmothersstrugglingtogiveeachchildwhattheywouldeat.Notsurprisingly,giventheemphasisonappetite,appealandneedtoprepareseveraldifferentdishesatonce,processedconveniencefoodsdominatedwithinhouseholdswithchildren.

Singlemalehouseholds(withoutchildren)Beingontheirownandwithoutdependants,thiscohortwereabletosuitthemselvesregardingwhatandwhentheyeat.Themajorityhadlittleinterestinthewholesubjectofshoppingforandpreparingmealsandfeltthattheywererelativelyunskilledinthisarea,whichwasoftenseenasexclusivelythedomainofwomen.Notsurprisingly,theydescribedahighdependenceonprocessedfoods,takeawaysanddelisintheirself-cateringhabits,preferringfoodthatwastastyandrequiredminimalskilltoprepare.

Routineandplanningdidnotfeaturetoanygreatextentandthemajorityappearedtotakearatherhaphazardapproachtofeedingthemselves.Skippingmealswasquiteprevalent,withmanyofthosewhowereunemployedorondisabilitypayment(i.e.DisabilityAllowance/BenefitinROIandAttendanceAllowance/DisabilityLivingAllowanceinNI)observingthattheydidnotneedtoeatasmuchnowastheyrememberedeatingwhentheywereworking.

“Iwouldhavethreecupsofcoffeeandaboutfourorfivecigarettesatthebeginningofmyday.IwouldbeupforfourorfivehoursbeforeIwouldeat”.Singlemale,Tralee

“WhenIwasworkingIhadalotmoreappetite.I’deatabigfriedbreakfast–quitealot,y’know.ButnowI’mnotworking,Iwouldn’tgetanappetite.Gettoastandthatwoulddome‘tiltheeveningsortofthing”.Singlemale,Cavan

Familysupportassumedconsiderableimportanceinthedietsofthiscohortandmanydescribedhavinga'proper'mealinasister’sormother’shouseatleastonceandasoftenasthreetimesaweek.Thesemealsnotonlysupplementedthelimitedfoodsuppliesofmenoperatingwithintightbudgetaryconstraintsbutalsoofferedgreatervarietyandmorefreshfoodsthanthefoodtheytypicallyboughtandpreparedforthemselves.

“Igohometomymother’saboutthreedaysaweekformydinner”.Singlemale,Tralee

4 Findings

Anothercommonthemewasalackofroutineandregularityregardingmealtimes,withadefiniteimpressionthatthesegroupstendedtodivergefromthepopulationasawholeintermsofmealroutines.3Manymothers,singlemalesandsingleolderpersonswillskiporomittheirownmealsdependentonappetite,therebyconservingboththeirtimeandfoodsupplies.Children,ontheotherhand,weregivennotonlythreemealsadaybutalsoatleasttwosnacksbetweenmealsperday.Therewas,however,somementionofkeepingtothetraditionofaweekendfry-upandSundayroast.Interestingly,manyinthesinglemalegroupswouldgotoafamilyhomeforthesemeals–witheitheramotherorsistersupplyingthemeals.

“Idon’treallyeatabreakfastinthemorning.I’dhaveacupofteaandabiscuit,y’knowandtheweeunstheywouldhavetheirs.Icouldgoalldaywithouteatingandthensitdowntodinneratnight”.Two-parentfamily,Ballymena

“Irunaroundwithabottleofwater,Isnackoncrisps.Sometimesthatisenoughforme”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

3 MillwardBrownLansdownequalitative

researcherscollectivelyconductdozensof

focusgroupsrelatingtomealhabitsfora

varietyofcommercialclientsintheFast

MovingConsumerGoods(FMCG)sector,

aswellaspublicsectorbodiessuchas

safefood.Allthreeresearchersauthoring

thisreportperceivedthatparticipantsin

thesegroupsreportedlessregularmeal

habitsthanthemoremiddleandupperclass

participantstypicallyresearchedfortheir

commercialclients.

Strongcalendareffectsalsoinfluencedeatinghabits,andacrossthedifferenthouseholdtypesmanymadeanefforttobe'good'MondaythroughThursdaybutweremorerelaxedandindulgentattheweekend.Manywomenwithchildren(regardlessofwhetherornottheyhaveapartner)viewedFriday/SaturdayasMother’sdayofffromcookingandorderedtakeawayinsteadofcooking.Similarly,whenthebudgetwastightattheendofthemonth/'waitingday'bothmothersandsinglemalestendedtorelyonastockpileoffrozenandpackagedfoods.Manymothersandsinglemalessaidstockinguponfrozenandpackagedfoodswasoneofthepillarsofthefirstshoppingtripaftertheygotpaid(whatevertheirsourceofincome).

“OnceamonthIgotoIcelandonthechildren’sallowanceandIstockthechestfreezer”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

Apartfromsomeparticipantsintheolderandsinglemalecohorts,diningoutonaregularbasisdidnotfeature.

Apartfromthesecommonthemestheirdomesticcircumstancesdictateddifferentbehavioursforthedifferentcohortsandtheseareoutlinedinthefollowingparagraphs.

Whenthebudgetwastightthere

wasatendencytorelyonastockpile

offrozenandpackagefoods.

30 31

inthetraditionalway,moreuseofleftoversandamorecasualapproachtoeatingandpreparingmealsingeneral.

“Irarelygetroundtoeating‘tillaterintheday.SometimesIwouldhaveapoachedegg,y’know,accordingtohowIfelt”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

How food is prepared

Thegeneralimpressiongivenacrossallcohortswasthatfewwereactuallycookinginthetruesenseofthewordandre-heatingmightmoreaccuratelydescribeagreatdealoftheirmealpreparation.Preparingmealsfromscratchtendedtobeavoideddueto:

• Lackofskill• Timeconstraints(particularlyinhouseholds

withchildren)• Lackofmotivation• Lackofperceivedsavingsincookingfrom

scratch(giventherelativelylowcostofconveniencefoodsandeventakeawaymeals)

Apartfromamongsingleolderpeople,particularlyolderwomenwhotendedtohaveextensiveexperienceincookingandmealpreparation,alackofskillwasveryapparentinmostothercohorts.Manyreadilyadmittedthattheydidnotknowhowtocook,comparingtheirhabitsagainsttheexpertiseoftheirownmothersandgivingtheimpressionthatcookingasaskillisallbutforgotten.However,aclearenablingfactorintheirapparentlackofcookingskillswasthereadyavailabilityofconvenienceandpreparedfoods.Formany,theavailabilityofconveniencefoodstranslatedasnoperceivedneedtocookfromscratch.

Inhouseholdswithchildrentherecouldbeahighlevelofanxietyandtensionaroundfoodpreparation,butthiscouldbeamelioratedbytheavailabilityofconveniencefood,whichallowedonetocaterfordifferenttastesinthehouseholdwithoutspendingmuchadditionaltime.Inthecaseofsinglemalehouseholds,lackofmotivationtoinvesttheeffortincookingfromscratchwasamoredominantfactor.Areinforcingfactorwastheviewthattherewasnocostbenefittocookingfromscratch,giventhelowpricesofmanyconveniencefoodsandeventakeawaydinners.Manymothersalsotalkedabouttaking'aholiday'or'dayoff'fromcookingbyorderingtakeawayforthefamilyatleastonceaweek–typicallyFridayand/orSaturday.Afewsinglemalesalsoreasonedthatbuyingtakeawaywasnotnecessarilymoreexpensivethancookingfromscratch.

“Atourhouse,FridaynightequalsBigBrotherequalstakeaway”.Twoparent,Manorhamilton

“OnenightaweekIdon’tcook.Irefusetocook–it’smydayoff.Wegetatakeaway”.Twoparent,Ballymena

“IjustnoticedthereifIwastocookamealfortwoformyselfandthegirlfriendandifIwastoeatoutandgetanIndianorsomethinglikethatyouarestillpayingroughlythesame.Ifyoupayfortheingredientsitisabouttwentyquidandthenifyoupayforatakeawayitisabouttwentyquid”.Singlemale,Tralee

“Eatingoutinacaféforafryandstuff,whenyouconsiderwhatitwouldcosttogetallthestuffinandthenstandingtherecookingit,it’snotthatdear”.Singlemale,Belfast

4 Findings

“Ijustgotomymam’sonaMonday.Theusualcraic;‘Wouldyoulikeacupofcoffee?’andthenyougointothekitchenandsay,‘Isthereanythinginthatfreezer?’andthenyouhavealumpofmeathiddenunderyourcoat”.Singlemale,Belfast

Justafewofthemeninthesegroupsmadeanefforttoeathealthilyandcookfromscratch.Beingabletocontrolthequalityandhealthfulnessoftheirfoodwasthekeymotivationforthemtoinvesttheextratimeandeffortintolearningtocookandcookingversusheatingupfood.Afewsaidtheybegandoingthiswhentheystoppedworking,reasoningthattheynowhadmoretimetolookafterthemselvesthantheydidwhentheywereemployed.Othersmentionedbecomingmoreconsciousofthecontentandqualityoffoodwhentheybecameparents,althoughtheynolongerlivedwiththeirchildren.

Singleolderpeople(withoutchildren)Forthiscohort,traditionalfoodcookedfromfreshwastotheforefrontandtheuseofprocessedconveniencefoodswasmuchlowerthanintheotherthreecohorts.Theytendedtohavegreatermasteryoverfoodpreparationandknowledgeaboutfoodthantheyoungercohorts,andweremuchmoreaccustomedtocookingfromscratch.Mostofthesingleolderwomenhadextensiveexperienceofcookingandpreparingmealsforafamilytodrawon,whilethesingleoldermenseemedtotakecookingforgrantedaspartoflookingafteryourself.Whentheydidresorttoconveniencefoods,theytendedtobuyreadymealsanddelimealsthatwereabitclosertofreshthanthemoreprocessedfrozenandtakeawayfoodspreferredbyyoungercohorts.Theirdiettendedtobefairlywellbalancedandincludedgoodproportionsoffreshfruitandvegetablesandwholegrains,althoughtheirrepertoireoffoodscouldbequitenarrow.

“Wedon’teatchipsandwedon’teaty’knowthedippersnow,orwedon’teatthedeepfatfries,y’know,thefish.Weusuallyeatplainfoodallthetime”.Singleolderfemale,Tralee

“It’susuallysaladwithabitofhamandmushroomorsalmonandcarrotsusuallyorcabbage,cauliflower,somethinglikethat”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

“EverynightI’dputonthespuds,alwaysspudsandbaconormaybeacoupleofchops,acoupleofsausages.Ijustrathercookmyself.Itwouldn’tbotherme.Yougetitthewayyouwantit.Alotofthesesmallerrestaurantstheyreheatfoodinmicrowaves,soiftheyhavefoodleftovertheyreheatit”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

However,omittingmealsseemedtobemorecommonamongthiscohortthanitwasincohortswithchildren.Diminishedappetiteisagenuinefactor,withmanyreportingthattheydidn’teatasmuchastheyusedto.Medicationscouldalsolimittheoccasionswhentheycouldtakefoodanddrink.Solitarylivingalsocontributedtoomittingmealsintwoways.Firstly,solitarylivingremovedbarrierstoomittingmealsbecausetheycouldpleasethemselvesanddidnothavetotaketheneedsofothersintoaccount.Secondly,manystronglyassociatedeatingalonewithnegativeemotionsandthereforewereinclinedtoavoidtheseoccasionswherepossible.Bothofthesefactorscouldleadtolessfrequentpreparationofmeals

Olderpeopletendedtohavegreater

masteryoverfoodpreparationand

knowledgeaboutfood.

32 33

Doing without and making sacrifices

Acrossallthegroups,experienceof'leantimes'wasafactoflife,requiringonetoadoptcopingstrategiesandmakesacrifices.

Sources of financial pressure

Forpeopleonlimitedincomesvarioussourcesoffinancialpressurecouldplaceconstraintsontheday-to-daymanagementoftheirhouseholdfinances.ObviousexamplesquotedareincludedinFigure4.2.

CarRenewaloftaxandinsurancewasasignificantbutanticipatedpressure.Unexpectedmaintenanceandrepaircosts,andevenfuelpricefluctuations,oftenhadamoredramaticimpactastherewasnotimetoplanforthemandtheyhadtobeabsorbedallatonce.Thiswasanissuethattendedtosurfacemoreinruralareas,wheredependenceonacarfortransportwashigherthanforurbandwellers.

“Therearetimeswhenyouhavetorenewyourinsuranceandtaxatthesametime,andrent.Therearetimeswhenyouarecaughtlikethat”.Singlemale,Tralee

UtilitybillsUtilitybillsforessentialservicessuchaselectricity,heatingorphonecouldwreakhavocwiththehouseholdbudgetingandneededtobefactoredin,thoughthesecouldbesomewhatlessonerousforthosesharinghousing.

Socialising,holidaysandfestiveeventsSacrificeshadtobemadeiffundsweretobeavailableforholidays,festivalevents,orforanyformofsocialising,suchasgoingdrinkingonceaweek.ForparentsChristmaswasamajorfactorwithsomestartingtomakeprovisionforpresentsandChristmasfoodthreetofourmonthsinadvance.

“I’dratherhavesomethingunderthetreethanonthetableonChristmasDay.Nobodyisgoingtogotoschoolandask‘Whatdidyouhavefordinner’”?Loneparent,Clonmel

Alloftheseimposedextraconstraintsonthehouseholdbudget,thoughlessfornon-parentgroupsthanforfamilies.

“I’vekindofasystemonFriday,IjustsaylikesomuchofftheChorus,somuchofftheESB,somuchoffthephone,andthenthere’ssomuchforthefood.ButImakesureIgotmoneyforSaturdaynightbecauseIgoouttheweekendswiththefriendsandthecousinsformydrink–that’sforme!”Singleolderfemale,Tralee

Somesinglemalesopenlyadmittedthattheyweremorelikelytoprioritisehavingmoneyforpublicactivitiessuchassocialisingthanforprivateconsumptionsuchasmealsathome.

Schoolexpenses(trips,back-to-school,supplies)Schoolexpenses,suchastrips,back-to-schoolrequisitesandsuppliesandotherincidentals,alsoputsignificantpressureonparents,necessitatingmorecarefulbudgetingordeferringpayingsomeotheritemsuntilinfundsagain.Manymotherscomplainedthatschoolsoftengaveverylittlenoticebeforepaymentwasrequired,leavingthemlittletimetotrytogetthemoneytogether.

PeermatchingParentsreadilyadmittedthattheirchildrenwantedthesameaseveryoneelseandfounditdifficulttosay'no'torequestssuchaslunchfromshopsratherthanbroughtfromhome,tripstoMcDonalds,orthedeli,orchipper.Thedesiretomakesuretheirchildrenwereabletomatchtheirpeersalsoaddedtotheneedtospendextramoneyfortripsandactivities,astheydidnotwanttheirchildrentobeleftoutduetolackoffunds.

InfluenceofadvertisingonchildrenMuchoftheadvertisinggearedatchildrenparticularlywhenfocusedonlicensedcharacters,createsbrandattachmentswhichdrivedemandsthatparentscanfinddifficulttodeflect.Thus,theretendedtobeaviewthatadsarebrainwashingchildrentodemandparticularitemsthattheirparentscannotafford.

Sacrificeshavetobemadeiffunds

weretobeavailableforspecial

occasions.

4 Findings

Againstthescenarioofaheavydependenceonconvenienceandpreparedfoods,thekeyappliancesusedweretheoven,microwaveanddeepfatfryer.Healthiermethodsoffoodpreparationsuchassteamingorgrillingdidnotfeaturetoanyrealextent,exceptamongthetwogroupsofsingleolderwomen.

Overalltheresultssuggestthatamongthesekeycohortsatriskoffoodpovertycookingpracticeswereextremelyrestricted.Frequently,therewasnoclearmotivationtopreparefoodfromscratchandthisinturnnegativelyimpactedontheamountoffreshfoodpurchasedandprepared.

Figure4.2Sourcesoffinancialpressure

Car Utility bills

Socialising, holidaysand festive events

Influence ofadvertising on

children

Peer matching

Sources offinancial pressure

School expenses

34 35

Mostwerepreparedtomakeabudgetsacrificeandupgradedtomoreexpensiveshoppingoutletsforthesakeofbetterqualityincertainkeyfoodstuffs.Interestingly,mostofthefoodstheytradedupforwereperishablefoods,wherefreshnesswasakeycomponentofqualityperceptions.Examplesofthisincluded:

• Buyingmeatatthebutcher’sinsteadofasupermarketordiscounter(commonacrossallhouseholdtypes)

• Buyingfruitandvegfromthelocal'vegvan,''fruitandvegstore'oropenairmarket(some)

• Buyingcheeseandfreshfishfromopenairmarkets(afew,primarilyrural)

• Buyingcakesandspecialoccasionfoodsatmoreexpensivesupermarkets(especiallyMarks&Spencer’s)(afew)

Theacceptabilityofcheaperfoodalternatives,suchasownbrandsorunfamiliarbrands(asseeninAldiandLidl)werecontingentupon:

• Previoustrialorwordofmouth/recommendation

• Taste• Spoilage/wastage(e.g.howlongitcanbe

stored)• Structure(e.g.rashersthatshrivelupinthe

pan)

Whenpriorexperienceandwordofmouthrecommendationswereabsent,theoverallperceptionorreputationoftheretailoutletwasusedasasignalofexpectedquality,andshoppersweremorelikelytobuyownbrandsinstorestheytrustedtodelivergoodqualityandtaste.Motivationtotrycheaperalternativeswasobviouslyalsoinfluencedbybudgetconstraints,butrepeatpurchasewascontingentuponsatisfactorytrialexperience.

SacrificesWhensacrificeswererequired,therewasahierarchyofitemsthatcouldbeomittedfromtheshoppingbasket/trolleybasedonacombinationofperceivedimportancetosustainingthehouseholdandconsiderationoftheunitcost.Whichitemswereonthislistandtheirpositioninthehierarchyvarieddependingonwhetherornotchildrenwerepresentinthehousehold.

AllhouseholdtypesForall,theleastlikelyitemstobesacrificedwerebread,sandwichfillings,otherstaplefoods,petfoodsandtobacco.Theyoungestgroupofsinglemales(inTralee)alsoincludedalcoholatthislevel,preferringtoskimpontheirprivateconsumptionratherthansacrificesocialnightsout.Participantsexplainedtobacco’sprotectedpositionbyarguingthatcuttingbackorgoingwithouttemporarilyhadinthepastledthemtosmokeevenmoreassoonastheycouldaffordto.Theyreasonedthatitwasbettertokeepsmokingataconsistentlevel,ratherthanputtingthemselvesthroughapatternofpeaksandtroughs.

Whensacrificeswererequired,

therewasahierarchyofitems

thatcouldbeomittedfromthe

shoppingbasket/trolley...

4 Findings

Coping strategies

Allhaveexperienced'leantimes'andhaveadoptedcopingstrategiestomanagetheirfoodsupplies.Habitualstockpilingof(mostlyprocessedandpre-packaged)foodwascommon.Whenfinancialresourceswereexhaustedattheendoftheweekormonth,(aperiodsometerm'waitingday')theyresortedtoastockpileoffrozen,tinnedandpackagedfoodaccumulatedovertime.Thefreezerandcupboardassumedtheroleofsavioursinthesecircumstances.Thesesupplieswerewelcomedwithreliefthattherewassomethingtotidethemover.

“It’sinthebackofmyheadthatifwehaveareallybadweekandy’knowthere’snotmuchmoney,thenatleastIhavethefreezertofallbackon”.Loneparent,Clonmel

“Iusuallyfindifyou’reabitskint,thenyou’vegotthemagiccupboardandthere’sstuffintherethatyou’veboughtlikemaybeeightorninemonthsagoyouneverusedy’know?Andatthebackofthefreezer”.Singlemale,Cavan

Thefactthatthefirstshoppingtripafterreceivingallowanceandbenefitspaymentsoftenfocusedon'fillingthefreezer'showedthatthiscycleofstockpilingandscavengingisaregularroutine,ratherthananexceptionalbehaviourreservedfortimesofextremeprivation.Stockpilingwasfacilitatedbythefactthatlessperishable,processedfoodstuffssuchasfrozen,tinnedorpackagedfoodscomprisealargeproportionoftheirfoodconsumption.Theonlycohortthatdidnotengagemuchinthisstockpilingbehaviourwasthesingleolderpersoncohort.Becausetheyboughtmorefreshandlessprocessedfoods,theyhadasmallerrepertoireofnon-perishablefoodsthatcouldbestockpiled.

“There’snothinginthecupboard–maybemice!Coffee,sugar,that’sitlike”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

TradingupandtradingdownThefoodparticipantsboughtandconsumedvariedslightlyaccordingtohowmuchmoneytheyhadtospend,andincludedthingstheywouldscrimponinleantimesandotherstheywouldsplurgeoningoodtimes.Participantssplurgedatweekendsandduringholidaysaswellasjustaftera'payday'/receiptofbenefits.Theytendedtoscrimponweekdaysaswellasduringthefewdaysimmediatelyprecedingtheir'payday.'

“DependIthinkonwhereyouwereandwhatdayitwasregardingmoney.Wednesdayswedon’teatatallexceptwhat’dbeinthepress,beinghonestwithyou.Andthenwhateverdayyougetpaidon,youmightbeextravagant”.Loneparents,Coolock

“Youwouldtryandkeepsomethinghalfdecentforyourteathatevening.Atheendofthefortnight,breakfastandlunchdisappear”.Singlemale,Belfast

Allhaveexperienced'leantimes'

andhaveadoptedcopingstrategies

tomanagetheirfoodsupplies.

36 37

Understanding the key themes: self regulation

DEFINITIONOFSELFREGULATION:Selfmastery;abilitytoresistimpulsesandmoderatetheemotionalaspectsofone’sdecisionmaking,operateinaplanfulandfuture-focussedmanner.

Thethemeofself-regulationprovidesapsychologicalexplanationformanyofthefood-relatedbehavioursparticipantsdescribed.Accordingtotheirowndescriptions,participantsexhibitedvaryingdegreesofself-regulation,fromweaktostrong,acrossfourdifferenttypesoffood-relatedbehaviour:

• Managingtheirowndiet• Managingtheirchildren’sandpartners’diets• Cooking• Shopping

Listeningtoparticipants’accountsofhowandwhytheybehaveastheydoacrossthefourtypesoffoodbehaviourabove,theresearchersconcludethatmany(althoughnotall)arecaughtinacycleofunhealthyeating.

• Thecyclestartswiththewaytheyviewfood.Manyhaveafunctionalviewoffoodandseeitasameanstomeetingimmediateneedstatessuchasappetite/satiety,energylevels,andpleasure/comfortseeking.

• Itcontinueswiththewaytheyviewcooking,whichmanyseeasa'hassle,''chore'or'bother.'Manyadmittedtheylacktheskillsettodomorethan'heatfoodup'(especiallywhentheyreflectonthewaypreviousgenerationspreparedmostfoodfromscratch).Atthesametime,theyexpressednodesiretolearntheseskills,perhapsviewingthemasunnecessarygiventheavailabilityofconveniencefoods.

• Participantsoftenusedthesamedescriptors'hassle'and'chore'todescribefoodshopping,whichtendedtobehighlyroutinisedforthesakeofkeepingthehousekeepingexpenditurepredictableandcontrolled.

• Alloftheabovefactorsconspiredtoencourageparticipantstoprimarilypurchaseandconsumehighlyprocessedconveniencefoodsthatare'quick,''easy,''handy'and'convenient.'Suchfoodsrequirelittlepreparationtimeandminimaleffort.Manyconveniencefoodscanbestoredinafreezerorcupboardforlongperiodsoftime,makingforwardplanninglessessential.Thesefoodsalsomeettheimmediateneedstatesthatdefinetheirviewoffood.

Thenextfoursectionsexaminehowthethemeofself-regulationisexpressedacrossthefourtypesoffoodbehaviour:managingtheirowndiet,managingtheirchildren’sandpartner’sdiets,cookingandshopping.

Managing their own diet

Themajorityacrossallfourhouseholdtypeshaveastronglyfunctionalviewoffoodasmeetingimmediateneedstates.Thekeyimpulsesparticipantsmentionwithrespecttotheirowndietareappetite/satiety,energylevels,pleasure-seekingandcomfort-seeking.

• Appetite/satiety–gettingfromonemealtothenext.Participantsdescribedchoosingwhatandhowmuchtoeataccordingtotheappetiteofthemoment,butwithinthecontextofwhattheyhadalreadyeatenandwhattheyexpectedtoeatlaterthesameday.Forinstance,manydeferlunchoreatalightlunchbecausetheyhaveahabitofeatingabigdinner.

4 Findings

Householdswithchildren(two-parentandloneparent)Forhouseholdswithchildren,thefirstproductstogowereindulgencesand'treats'gearedtowardstheparents.Thistypicallyincludedalcoholandanyfooditemsthatmothersboughtexclusivelyforthemselvesorfortheadultsinthehousehold,butnottobacco.

Asecondlevelofitemsatriskintimesofneed,butnotamongthefirsttobesacrificed,werejuices,diluteddrinks,andtake-aways.

Thelastitemstobecutweresnacksandtreatssuchaschocolate,crispsandbiscuits,consideredessentialtocaterforthedemandsofchildren.Whiletheremightbesomedowngradingoftheseitemstoownlabelsifnecessary,motherstypicallymadeeveryefforttokeepastockoftheseitemsonhand.Tobaccoforthemselvesandotheradultsisalsoincludedinthistierof'lasttobesacrificed'items.

Householdswithoutchildren(singlemaleandsingleolderperson)Insinglemaleorsingleolderpersonhouseholds,thefirstproductstobesacrificedinleantimeswereperceived'badforyou'treatse.g.chocolate,crisps,biscuits,etc.Manyalsoincludedalcoholinthiscategory,buttheyoungestgroupofsinglemalessaiditsvalueaspartoftheirsociallivesgaveithigherpriorityandplaceditamongthelastthingstheywouldcut.Amongsingleolderpeople,whotendedtohavefeweroutlaysandconstraintsontheirbudget,thesacrificesoftenendedwiththeseitems.

“Ithinkthatprobablythedrinkandthesocialisingcomesbeforethefoodandthenyoutryandworkouthowmuchyouhaveleft”Singlemale,Tralee

“IsupposeI’dcutoutsweetstufflikebiscuitsorwhatever,justforthefactthatitmakesyouhealthier”.Singlemale,Cavan

Forsinglemales,however,therewassometimesafurtherlevelof'nicetohave'itemssuchastoiletriesandcleaningproducts,takeaway,delifoodandmealsout.ThesinglemalegroupinBelfast(arguablythemostdeprived)alsoincludedmilk,sugarandcheeseinthiscategory.

“Thereismanyatimeyoujusthavetotakeyourcoffeeblackbecauseyouhavenosugarormilk.Youjustcan’thaveiteveryway”.Singlemale,Belfast

Forhouseholdswithchildren,

thefirstproductstogowere

indulgencesand'treats'geared

towardstheparents.

38 39

• Somelimiteddiscussionofweightlossasamotivationfortemporarilyregulatingone’sdietoccurredinmanyofthegroups,acrossallhouseholdtypes.

• Severalparticipantsinonegroup(theTraleesinglemalesgroup)alsodescribedtemporarilytryingtoeathealthierfoodforthesakeofbetterathleticperformanceduringthefootballseason.

“Ithastobehealthy.Ihaven’tmuchofachoicebecauseI’veosteoporosisandIhavetohavealotofcalciumandIdrinkaglassoflowfatmilkeveryeveningwithmydinnerandonehastoeatthegreenvegetables–they’refierceimportant”.Singleolderfemale,Tralee

“Ifindithardtosticktoaroutine.Iwouldsortofslipbackintohabits,butIhavetried”.Singlemale,Belfast

Managing their children’s/partners’ diets

Inthetwohouseholdtypeswithchildren,thechildrenusuallysetthepaceforfoodbehaviourinthehousehold.Themajorityofmothersinbothtwo-parentandloneparenthouseholdsfoundittoodifficulttowithstandchildpressureandgavein,acknowledgingthattheypandertotheirchildren’slikesanddislikesfarmorethantheirmothersdidtotheirs.Thedesireforaneasierlifehinderedparents’willtowithstandchildpressure,anotherinstancewhereself-regulationwasweak.Manyobservedthatitwasmucheasiertobuyandcookthefoodachildlikes,ratherthanengageinabattlewhichcanresultinwastage.

Motherswhohadmorethanonechildtypicallydescribedhavingtopreparedifferentdinnersfordifferentchildren,aseachassertedtheirindividualtastes.Childrenofdifferentagesoftenhaddifferentschedulesaswell,andthereforewantedtoeatatdifferenttimes.Thisoftenleadstoanincreasedrelianceonreadytoeatandquicktopreparefoods,asmotherswouldnototherwisehavethetimeorenergytocaterformultipledishesforeachmealtime.

Excusesfornotenforcingabalanceddietwerecommonplace.Themostcommonwere:

• Thechildrenwillnoteatwhattheydonotlike,thereforeifIfixthemfoodtheydonotlike,theywillgohungryandIwillhavetothrowthefoodout.

• Deferralandhopethatchildren’stasteswillchange,thattheywilllearnbetterhabitsinschoolorthattheywillimposeself-regulationonthemselveswhentheygetolder,resultinginhealthiereatingdowntheline.

However,aminoritydidwithstandtheirchildren’spressureandimposedaregimeofcommunaldinnerswhereeveryoneeatsthesamethingintheirhousehold.Theirexertionofself-regulationtendedtobedrivenprimarilybyadesiretoeconomiseandcontrolthetimeandbudgetinvestedinfeedingthehouseholdratherthanhealthconcerns.Theseinstancesofstrongerself-regulationtendedtobefoundamongparticipantsfromtwo-parenthouseholds.

Childrenoftenhaddifferent

schedulesandwantedtoeat

atdifferenttimesleadingtoan

increasedrelianceonready-to-eat

foods.

4 Findings

• Pleasure-seekingandcomfort-seeking–foodsthataretastyandfamiliarwerefreelyconsumed,withoutreferencetotheoverallnutritionalbalanceofthemealoraday’sfoodconsumption.Inmanygroups,participantsnamedtakeawaymealsassomeofthemostenjoyable.Compulsivelymunchingonbiscuits,chocolatebars,sweets,crispsorcerealinfrontoftheTVafterdinnerwasalsoacommonhabit.

• Energy/fuellevels–manygrazedonquickenergyfoods(typicallyhighinsugarorstarch)whentheyneededaboost.Biscuits,chocolatebars,sweets,crispsandfizzydrinkswereeitherkeptonhandorpurchasedasneededfortheseoccasions.

• Security–participantsdescribedahighdegreeofpredictabilityandroutinisationintheirday-to-daydiets,whichgavethemasenseofsecuritythattheirneedswouldbemet.Variety,whenmentioned,wastypicallydismissedasafeaturethatwouldriskeitherwastageoroverspending.

Onlytheminoritymentionedfoodasasourceofhigherlevelbenefitssuchas:

• Sensation-seekingthroughexperimentationwithnewandexoticfoods/dishes(afewacrossgroups)

• Afeelingofaccomplishmentgainedfromcookingyourownfood(afewsinglemalesinCavanandBelfastandsingleolderpeople)

• Enjoyingbetterhealththroughhealthyeating,eitherinthepresentorthefuture(singlemalesinCavan,singleolderpeople)

• Asenseofidentitythroughself-signallingwithyourfoodpurchases(afewsinglemalesinCavan)

Thefewparticipantswhoreferencedthesehigherlevelbenefitstendedtocomeprimarilyfromthesingleolderpersonandsinglemalecohorts,ratherthanthetwo-parentorloneparentcohorts.Theseparticipantsalsodescribedthemselvesaseatingfresherandlessprocessedfoodsthanotherparticipantsandcookingfromscratchmorefrequentlythantheothers.

Thisfocusonthehereandnowresultsinparticipantsnotexertingmuchcontroloverwhattheyeat.Mostdidnotdescribemakinganyefforttoregulatetheirfoodintakeonaday-to-daybasis.Instead,theyateinresponsetotheimpulsesmentionedabove.Thereislittle,ifany,unprompteddiscussionofhealthyeatinginmostgroups.

Thosewhodidexplicitlymentionregulatingtheirdietfellintooneofthreecategories:

• Therewereafewwhohadbeenprescribeddietaryrestrictionsasaresultofchronichealthproblemssuchascardiacdisease,diabetes,orobesity.Adherencetomedicaladviceamongtheseparticipantsvaried,withsomeobservingthebenefitsofcompliance,butothersclearlyadmittingtheydidnotfollowtheadvicetheyhadbeengiven.

• Unsurprisingly,participantswhohadbeenprescribeddietaryrestrictionstendedtobeconcentratedinthesingleolderpersongroups,buttherewerealsoafewscatteredacrossgroupsrepresentingotherhouseholdtypes.Singleolderpeopleacrossallthreegroupsalsotendedtofindhealthyeatingforthesakeofbetterhealthoutcomesmoreimmediatelymotivatingthanparticipantsinothercohorts.Whileyoungerparticipantssometimesmentionedthattheyexpectedtheymayhavetodevelophealthiereatinghabitsiftheirhealthdeterioratedatsomepointinthefuture,singleolderpeopleweremorelikelytoclaimthattheytriedtoeathealthilynowinordertopreventthedeteriorationoftheirhealth.

40 41

Someofthetacticstheyimplementedtoresistpressurefromtheirchildrenincluded:

• Downsizingchoice:limitingtherepertoireoffoodanddrinksavailable,enforcingcommunalmealswhereeveryoneatethesamethingatthesametime,notgivingintofussyeaters,notbuyingsomanysnacks

• Disguisingvegetables:gravy,beansandtomatosaucewereallpraisedfortheirabilitytodisguisefoodsand'enhance'tasteandwereheavilyreliedon.

• Bribe:holdingbackontreats/privilegesinexchangeforfinishingmeals.

“Imadedinnerandsmothereditingravyandheateeverybitofit”.Two-parentfamily,Manorhamilton

“Isayifyoudon’teatit,youdon’tgoout.I’mnotstandingtwoorthreedinners.You’lljusteatthesameaseveryoneelse”.Two-parentfamily,Ballymena

Pressurefrompartnerswasrarelyreferencedinthetwo-parentgroups,butthepresenceofasecondadultseemedtofacilitateresistancetochild-pressure.Thiswillbeexploredfurtherunderthethemeof'Agency'onp46.

Cooking

Themajorityacrossthreeofthefourhouseholdtypesexpressedastrongdislikeforcookeryandfoodpreparation.Thispointofviewdominatedacrossthesinglemale,two-parentandloneparenthouseholdtypegroups,withafewexpressingthispointofviewinsingleolderpersongroups.Mothersespeciallyviewedmealpreparationasastressfuljobandmadefrequentreferencestowantingtoescapethisresponsibilityand'takeaholidayfromcooking'(inboththetwo-parentandloneparentcohorts).Thisactivedislikeofcookingultimatelyexpresseditselfinweakself-regulationwhenitcametofoodpreparationandconsumption.Theresultingbehaviourswereavoidanceoffoodpreparation(wherepossible)andrelianceonconveniencefoodsthatrequiredonlyminimalfoodpreparation(e.g.heatingup).

Although,atvariouspointsinthediscussion,theseparticipantsrecognisedthatfreshfoodcookedfromscratchishealthier,theywerereluctanttodothisforavarietyofreasons:

• Noperceivedneedtocookfromscratchduetotheavailabilityofconveniencefoodssuchaschickennuggets,chips,fishfingers,etc.

• Noclearcostsavingsincookingfromscratch:Conveniencefoodsaresolow-pricedthatmanybelievedcookingmealsfromfreshingredientswouldbejustascostlyorpossiblyevenmoreexpensive.

• Conditioning:Manyhavedevelopedahabitofeatingconveniencefoodsandadmittedthattheyareinclinedtostickwithwhattheyknowandtypicallyeat,insteadofexperimenting.

“Iwouldusuallyusestuffoutofthemicrowavemostly.Itwouldn’tbelikefilletsteaks.IfIcouldaffordthem,Iwouldn’teatthemanyway”.Singlemale,Belfast

• Theylackedtheskillstocookfromscratch:Afewopenlyadmittedtothis,butdidnotexpressanymotivationtoacquiretheseskills.Withothersitcouldbeinferredfromthefactthattheday-to-daycookingactivitiestheydescribedarelittlemorethan'heatingup'foodsinanoven,microwaveorfryer,aswellasthattheymadenoreferencetoanycomplexorsequencedcookingtechniques(asidefromparticipantsinthetwogroupsofsingleolderwomen).

“I’mmoreofanovenmanmyselfbecauseit’seasy.Wedgesandcheesefordinnerandpizzasintheoven”.Singlemale,Tralee

“Ibuythosepiesthatyoucanjustthrowintheovenandthereisyourmeal”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

“I’dneverdoroasts.IhaveneverdonethemsoIjustdon’teverwanttofacethem”.Two-parentfamily,Manorhamilton

• Neophobiaorlackofinterestininnovation:Thosewhodislikedcookingseldomexpressedanydesiretoincreasethevarietyoftheirdietortrynewthings.Theydidsay,however,thattheyfeltcompelledtokeeptheirconsumption(andthereforetheirspending)predictable.

• Negativeemotionssurroundingfoodpreparation:Thistookdifferentformsdependingonhouseholdcomposition:

• Inloneparenthouseholds,soleresponsibilityforfeedingandbudgetingforafamilycreatedtensionandanxiety

• Intwo-parenthouseholds,thistensionandanxietywassomewhatmoderatedbyanotheradulttobackyouup,butresponsibilityforfeedingandbudgetingfoodspendingstillfellprimarilyonthemother

• Inbothsinglemaleandsingleolderpersonhouseholds,manyviewedsolitaryeatingas'miserable'socookingandeatingbyyourselfwasnotsomethingtheyenjoyed.Eveniftheyhadtheskillstocook,asmanyofthesingleolderwomenandmendid,theyoftenfeltitwasnotworthinvestingthetimeandeffortiftheywereeatingalone.

“Don’tthinknowthatIwouldbothermakingadinnerformyself.Iwouldn’tdopotatoesandeverything,y’know”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

“Mineisalazydaywhenitcomestocooking”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

Therewas,however,alsoaminoritywhogotsatisfactionorevenpleasureoutofcookingandfoodpreparation.Theseparticipantswerefoundprimarilyinthesinglemalegroups(almosthalfintheCavangroup,acoupleintheTraleegroupandoneintheBelfastgroup).Theyhadlearnedhowtocookandwerewillingtoinvestsometimeandeffortintopreparingmeals(althoughtheirupperlimitisusuallyanhourpermeal).Someofthemreservedcookingfromscratchforguests,suchasvisitinggirlfriendsorchildren.Butafewcookedfromscratchregularly,believingthatgavethembothbetternutritionandbetterenjoymentthanjust'heatingup'conveniencefoods.OneBelfastmanevendescribedcookingas'therapeutic.'

4 Findings

Participantsrecognisedthat

freshfoodcookedfromscratchis

healthier.

42 43

Othershoppers,includingmothersandsingleolderwomen,madeapointofremovingpesterpowerduringtheirshoppingtripsothattheywerenottemptedtomakeunplannedpurchasesorbuymorethantheyneed.Shoppingonafullstomachwasonestrategy.Anotherwastoavoidpesterpowerbynotbringingchildren/partnerswiththem,unlesstherewasnoalternative.

Storeselectionwasalsostrategic–butthepreferredstoresetvarieddependingonhowconfident,knowledgeableandskilledtheshopperfeltandtheirhouseholdsize/composition.Mothersandsingleolderwomenweremoreknowledgeableandskilledshoppersthanothersandhadmoreconfidencenegotiatingbiggerstoreswithalargervarietyandrangeofgoods.Incontrast,singlemalesandsingleoldermentendedtoprefersmallershopswithalimitedrange,evenatthecostofhigherprices,becausetheyfoundtheproliferationoflowpricedgoodsandpromotionstemptedthemtooverbuyandoverspend.Mothersalsohadmorepeopletoshopfor,whichmadethesavingsavailableinmultiplesanddiscountersworththeriskofover-stimulation,whereaspeopleshoppingforjustthemselvesdidnotneedthesamerangeandcostsavingsperitem.

Mothersandsingleolderwomenwerealsomoreinclinedtodistributetheirshoppingamongseveralstoresforthesakeofcherry-pickingthebestpricesforeachtypeofitem,e.g.Lidlfortoiletries,Icelandforfrozenfoods,Aldiforbiscuitsandcheese.Mothersandsingleolderwomenalsotendedtoactivelylimittheamountoffoodtheypurchasedinlocalconveniencestores,knowingthattheycouldpaylowerpricesformostitemsatasupermarketordiscounter.

Singlemalesandsingleoldermen,ontheotherhand,weremoreinclinedtoconsolidateasmuchoftheirshoppingaspossible,evenifthismeantpayinghigherpricesperitem.Avoidingbigmultiplesupermarketsinfavouroflocalshops/mini-martswasacommonshoppingpatternforsinglemalesandsingleoldermen.

“IalwaysgetmyfruitandveginHoran’s,they’rekindofbetternow.Ifinditgreat.Butforhouseholdstuff,youknow,yourwashingupliquid,I’dgotoTescoorevenAldi’scanbemuchcheaper”.Singleolderfemale,Tralee

“AldiandLidl,someofthestuffisgrand,butIwouldn’tmissthemiftheydisappeared.Theyareprobablybetterforfamilies”.Singlemale,Tralee

Preferenceonsmaller,localshops,despitehigherunitprices,wasnotsimplyamatterofaccessoravailabilityoftransport–manyavoidedshoppinginlargeroutletsasameansofavoidingtemptation.Eventhemostsophisticatedandexperiencedshoppershadlearnedthatstoresthatoffermuchcheaperpricesacrosstheboardthantheirusualoutlets(e.g.crossbordershopping,ASDA)oftentemptedthemtooverbuy.Forexample,theytoldstoriesofstockingupontoiletriesthatweremuchlessexpensivethantheirnormaloutlets,onlytofindthattheywereleftwithoutenoughmoneytobuythefoodtheynormallywould.Somesingleoldermalesfeltthatnottravellingtolargerretailchainswithlowerpricesactuallyregulatedtheirpurchasingand

Participantsusedstrategieswhen

shoppingtoavoidunplanned

purchases.

4 Findings

“Youfeelbetter,Isuppose.Youfeelthatyou’reeatingbetterifyoucookitfromscratchyourself,Ithink,becausethere’slesscrapinit”.Singlemale,Cavan

“Cookingforyourselfisfarsuperioranditistherapeuticindoingit.Ienjoydoingit".Singlemale,Belfast

Shopping

Incontrastwiththeireatingandcookinghabits,participantstendedtoexhibitstrongself-regulationwithrespecttofoodshopping.Shoppingwasaverystrategicandtightlycontrolledactivityformostparticipantsacrossallfourhouseholdtypes.Tightpursestringsandtheneedtoavoidover-spendingwerethekeytriggerstowardsincreasedself-regulationinfoodshopping.Exercisingsomuchself-controlandworkingwithsuchlittlemarginforerrorleadmanytodislikeshopping,asdiscussedunderthethemeofEmotionalmanagementonp54.Theirself-regulationwasfacilitatedbytheguilttheyfeltwhentheyexceededtheirbudgetorwhentheywastedfoodtheyhadpurchased.Wastagetendedtobeagreaterconcernamongthesingleolderpersongroups,mostlikelybecausetheyconsumedmorefreshandperishablefoodsthantheothers.

Oneofthekeywaysthatparticipantsmaintainedcontrolovertheirfoodshoppingwastokeeptheirstoreandproductselectionaspredictableaspossible,becausethislessenedtheriskoflosingcontrolandincurringunexpectedexpense.Thisroutinisationensuredlittlevarianceandcouldleadtoboredom.However,theyviewedthepredictabilityoftheirfoodshoppingasabenefitbecauseitinsulatedthemfromtheriskof'wasting'limitedresourcesonthingstheydidnotneedandwouldnotuse.

Themissionofanyshoppingtripwastogetthefoodinfortheday/week/monthandbuyonly

whatwouldbeeaten,resistingtemptationtobuyanythingnewthatmightnotbeusedbecause,withsuchalimitedbudget,wastewasnotanoption.Muchoftheprocesstheywentthroughwhentheywentfoodshoppingwasdesignedtopreventoverspendingandwasteinaretailenvironmentwhichtheyrecognisedisdesignedtoencouragespending.

Theytypicallystartedwithmenuplanning–workingoutwhattheyweregoingtoeat/feedtheirfamiliesandwhattheyneededtobuytodoso.Motherstendedtodomoreoftheirshoppingonaweeklybasis,sotheythoughtintermsof'thefivedinners,'whereassinglemalesandsingleolderpersonsweremorelikelytoshopatleasttwotothreetimesaweek,ifnotdaily,andoftenboughtdinnersthesamedaytheywereeaten.Menuplanningcouldbefairlyautomatic,asmanyboughtandatethesamethingsweekafterweek,butmoststillinvestedsomeconsciousthoughtinit,ifonlytomakesurethattheyhadenoughmoneytobuywhattheyneeded.Somemadealistasameansofexercisingadditionalcontroloverwhattheywouldspend.

“YouworkoutyourMondaytoFridaydinnersbeforegoingshopping.IwritealistifI’mshortofmoneythatweekbecauseyouareonlybuyingnecessities,notbuyinganyluxuries”.Loneparent,Belfast

“Iwrite‘’emdown.OtherwiseI’mjustmillingarounddoingnothing.OrIcomeoutwithatrayloadofbeerandIwentinforeggs”.Singlemale,Cavan

“LookinthefreezernowbeforeIgoandI’dgoright,okay,don’tneedthis,tryandmemoriseit”.Loneparent,Clonmel

44 45

buyinganythingtheydidnotusuallybuy.Many'tottedup'theirtotalspendingastheyshopped,makingamentalnoteaseachitemwentintothetrolley.SomeexplicitlyappreciatedthatIcelandmadethiscalculationeasierbykeepingitspricepointsroundedtothenearestwholecoin.Overall,theirrelianceonpredictabilityandroutineinfoodpurchasingcamewithamarkedreluctancetobuynewfood,orNeophobia.Manyclaimedthatthecontentsoftheirshoppingtrolley/basketremain90percentconstantonaweeklyorfortnightlybasis.Thismeanttherewaslittleroomforhealthieroptionstoinfiltratetheirestablishedrepertoire.

“IwouldcountupwhatIamspendingasIgoaroundtheshop.IwouldknowhowmuchitisgoingtocometobeforeIgettothetill.Notexactly,butIwouldhavearoughidea”.Singlemale,Belfast

“IthinkabouthowmuchmoneyIhavetospend.IamaddingitupinmyheadasIgoalong”.Singlemale,Tralee

“Youaresousedtowhereeverythingis–ifyougoarounditinadifferentwayyouseemoreandyoutendtobuymore”.Two-parentfamily,Ballymena

“Ifyouspendtimelookingaround,youarebuyingrubbish.Youarebuyingstuffthatyoudon’twantandyouareeatingstuffthatyoudon’tneedtoeat”.Singlemale,Belfast

Theylookedforspecialoffersinthehopethattheycouldsaveadditionalmoney,butcarefullyevaluatedwhetherornoteachspecialofferwoulddelivervalueforthem.Theywerewaryofspecialoffersthatrequiredthemtobuymorethantheywoulduse,resultinginwaste.Theywerealsoreluctanttobuyitemstheydidn’tnormallybuyforthesakeofsavingmoney,althoughtheydidswitchbrands.Theywerehappiestwhenthethingstheybought

regularlywereonoffer.Stockpiledfrozen,tinnedandpackagedfoodswereboughtonofferwheneverpossible,andsomeadmittedtheywoulddeferpurchasingthemwhentheywerenotonoffer.

“You’relookingoutforthe2for1andthebargainsandstufflikethat”.Loneparent,Clonmel

“Sometimesyoufindinthesupermarketthatifyoubuytwoyougetonefreebutyoumightn’tusethethree.It’snotabargainifyoucan’tuseit”.Singleolderfemale,Tralee

“Youtendtoactuallylook,andyouseewhenthingshavecomedown,Ialwaysgetenoughtokeepmegoinguntilthatonecomesdownagain,y’know”.Singlemale,Cavan

Forall,thebiggestchallengetoself-regulationwasthedesireforsmallindulgences.Theseindulgencesgenerallytooktheformofspendinganyextramoneyonfoodsperceivedas'luxuries'–treatsthathaveahigherunitvaluethanotherstaplesanddon’trequireanyfoodpreparation.Chocolate,biscuits,sweets,crisps,takeawaysandeatingoutallfellintothiscategory.However,someindulgencesrelatedmoretorelaxingself-regulationonhowtheyshoppedforfood,forinstance:

• Shoppinglocallyathigherpricedconveniencestoresratherthantravellingtoasupermarketwithlowerprices.

• Buyingwhatyouwantedandoverspendingratherthankeepingwithinyourbudget–allowingyourselfimmediategratificationevenknowingthatyouwouldhavetodepriveyourselflater.Afewmentionedthattheysometimesgottiredof'tottingup'theirshoppingastheywentanddecidedto'wingit.'

• Buyingtakeawaysinsteadofshoppingandcooking.

helpedthemtobudgetmoreeffectively,withoutthetemptationtobuytoomuchthattheyoftenassociatedwithasupermarketvisit.

“Ifindwhenyougotoabigsupermarketyoubuymore.Youtendtoputalotofshoppingin,soyouwould,somaybewhenyoucomehomeyousay‘GodknowswhatIspent’andthenyouwouldthinktherestoftheweek,well,I’llhavetomakethatdo,y’know?”Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

“Icelandisnotsobadbecausethey’venotoysoranything.Tescohavecomputergames,DVDs,toys”.Loneparent,Belfast

“Icouldn’tshopinDunnesinSwords,don’taskmetodomyfoodshopthere,I’mlikealostchild.IshopinthesameDunnesallthetime;Iknowwhereallmystuffis.Thetrolleynearlygoesonitsown”.Loneparent,Coolock

Accesstoshoppingoutletsandlackoftransportdidnotsurfaceasamajorissueforanyofthefourcohorts.Veryfewseemedtobesoisolatedthattheyneededtransporttodoanyshopping–justafewoftheruralparticipantssaidatriptothelocalshopsmightrequireadriveoralong(upto40minute)walk.Nearlyallhadsmallshopswithinwalkingdistance–atleastaconveniencestoreormini-supermarketandabutcherineventhemostremotelocations,withtheadditionof'fruitandveg'stores,smallsupermarketsandPound/Eurostoresincityorurbanneighbourhoods.LargersupermarketssuchasTesco,Dunnes,Sainsbury’sorMorrison’sweretypicallyashortdistanceaway,easytoreach.Inonewayoranother,allclaimedtohavesufficientaccesstotransporttoshopatthesestores.Iftheydidnothaveacarthemselvestheyhadworkedoutasystemtoovercometransportbarriers,eitherbygettingaliftwithfamily,neighbours

orfriends,andwalking,ortakingthebustotheshopandtheneithergettingataxibackorhavingtheshoppingdelivered(especiallyfromretailerswhoofferfreedeliveryaboveaminimumspendthreshold).SuperdiscounterssuchasASDAorCostcutter,nichesupermarketssuchasIcelandorMarksandSpencerandopenairmarketsweresometimesfurtheraway(thenexttownoradifferentpartoftownincities)butweretypicallyconsideredcloseenoughformonthlytripsifdesired.Interestingly,afewfeltthatnothavingacaractuallyregulatedtheirpurchasingandhelpedthemtobudgetmoreeffectively,bylimitingthetemptationtobuytoomuchthattheyoftenassociatedwithavisittoalargerretailoutlet.

“Ionlygotothetwolocalshopsandthebutcher’s.ObviouslyifIwasinEnniskillenmaybeI’dtakeabrowsearoundASDAbutIwouldn’tgointogetthestuffinASDAbecauseIwouldn’tuseit.Ifeelitwouldgotowaste”.Singlemale,Cavan

Onceatthestore,mosthadamentalmaporhabitualroutethroughvarioussectionsthatallowedthemtogetwhattheyneededandavoidbeingtemptedtomakeanyunplannedpurchases.Theyexplicitlyavoidedaisleswithnon-foodgoodssuchasclothing,toys,DVDsandvideogames,especiallyifshoppingwithchildren.Someshoppedwithalisttoenforcedisciplineonthemselvesandavoidedunplannedpurchasesbynotbuyinganythingthatwasnotonthelist.Othersachievedsuchahighdegreeofroutinisationintheirshoppingthattheydidnotneedalist,butstillexercisedcontrolbynot

4 Findings

Afewfeltthatnothavingacar

actuallyregulatedtheirpurchasing

andhelpedthemtobudgetmore

effectively

46 47

“I’mjustasbadasthekids.Iseethesweetsandsay‘I’lljusthaveaweepackofthem’”.Two-parentfamily,Ballymena

“IfIlikedthestuff,Iwouldbuyit,nomatterwhatprice.ThewayIlookatit,tohellwithpoverty.Enjoyyourselfonedayandthensufferforitthenextthreeorfourdays.Lifeisallaboutsuffering,isn’tit”?Singlemale,Belfast

Understanding the key themes: agency

DEFINITIONOFAGENCY:Senseofcontrolofone’sdecisions,actionsand(inasmuchasispossible),importantoutcomese.g.,health,identityandchoices.

Householdcompositionisanintrinsicfactorinagency.Thekeyquestionsthatuncoverthepatternsofagencybehindbehaviourinthesediscussionsare'WhodoIcarefor?'and'Whocaresforme?'

Family households

Forthemajorityoffamilyhouseholdstheresponsibilityregardingwhatthehouseholdconsumesfellonthemother.Intheircapacityas'headchef'theywerethegroceryshopper,mealplanner,andcook.Asaresultofthis,mothershadrestrictedagencyregardingfood.Theyreliedonthemselvesalonetomakebetterfoodchoicesbutalmostalwayshadtoworkwithintheconfinesofwhatthechildrenwouldeat.Theinfluenceofthechildrenandhusband/partner(ifpresent)providedstructureandroutineintheirlivesandamotiveforpreparingregularmeals,involvingmenuplanningandtheneedtocaterfordifferentappetites.

Thehusband/partner(ifpresent)couldsometimesplaytheroleassecondmoderator.Thereseemedtobeabitmoredisciplineorregulationaboutfoodchoicesintwo-parenthouseholds,asthehusband/partnerwassaidtobelesslikelytogiveintothepesterpowerofchildrenandtoadoptamorepragmatic'takeitorleaveit'approachtowhatwasputonthetable.Amongotherfamilymembers,grandparentsdemonstratedahighlevelofagencyandwereoftenheavilyreliedupontoenforceroutineandfeedchildrena'good'substantialdinner.Mothersremarkedthattheirchildrenwereoftenmorewillingtoeatavarietyoffoodsattheirgrandparents’homesthanintheirownhome.

Oneofthemostimportantfactorsdictatingeatinghabitsinhouseholdswithchildrenwasthecombinationofdifferentagegroupswithalltheissuesthatthisbrings.Forexample,thecombinationofhungryteenageboys,image-drivengirlsandfussytoddlershadhugeimplicationsinrestrictingthemother’sagencyoverwhatisbought,cookedandeaten.Inhouseholdswitharangeofagegroups,itwasoftenthecasethattheyoungestfamilymembers(e.g.toddlers)werenotreallycateredfor,insteadbeingfedamoregrownupandnotnecessarilysuitabledietfortheirageanddevelopmentalstage.Thisseemedtohappenprimarilybecauseitwasbeyondthemother’sabilitytocaterforsomanydifferentappetites.

Manyofthemotherswespokewithalsofeltanobligationtogivetheirchildrensomemeasureofagencyovertheirfoodchoices.Theyrecalledbeingdeniedchoiceoverwhattheyatewhentheywereyoungandfeelingdeprivedwhenforcedtoeatfoodstheydidnotlikeanddeniedfoodstheywanted.Theyexplicitlysaidtheydidnotwanttheirchildrentoexperiencethesamefeelingsofmiseryanddeprivationtheyfeltaschildren.Asaconsequence,theytypicallyrefusedtodenytheirchildrenthefoodstheywanted,evenifthismeantbuyingandpreparingdifferentfoodsforeachchild.Givingchildrenagencyalsomeantbuyingmore'treats'thantheyhadaschildren–thisisdescribedinmoredetailunderthe'Historyandmodernity'section(p50).

Differences for lone parent households

Loneparentsweretypicallythemainandonlyarbitersofwhatwasboughtandconsumedinthehousehold,occupyingtherolesof'headchef'and'chiefmoderator',solelyresponsibleforbudgetingandfoodpurchasing.Althoughmanyhadfamilysupportviatheirownparentsandsometimessiblings,alotofthetimetheywererunningtheshowontheirown.

Day-to-dayhouseholdmanagementandbudgetingwassolelytheirresponsibilityandtheyadmittedshoulderingthisresponsibilityalone,withoutthesupportofapartnerwithwhomtodiscussandresolveissues,couldoftenbestressful.Furthermore,theabsenceofanadditionalincomemeantlessofacushionforbudgetinginhardtimes.Thegeneralconsensusamongloneparentswasthat'youhavetogetitright'orelsethechildrenwouldnoteatorbillswouldnotgetpaid.Severalsaiditoftencamedowntojugglingbetweenpayingbillsandprovidingfood.Insuchsituationsthemotherwouldgowithoutorwouldforfeitsomepurchasesforherselfinordertoensurethatthechildrenwouldgetfed.

“Irelyonmychildbenefitcomingin.Maybegetastitchofclothesforher,butmostofitgoesonmybillsandifIdidn’thavethatcomingineverymonth,I’dprobablybeoutoflight”.Loneparent,Clonmel

Pester power and fussy eaters

Forallhouseholdswithchildren,whetherloneparentortwo-parent,factorssuchaspesterpowerandfussyeatersexertedsuchamajorinfluenceonfoodchoicesthatitwasworthexploringtheseinmoredetail.

TheimpactofpesterpowerPesterpowerandthe'unreasonableness'ofchildren’seatingpatternswasakeyinfluenceinthemajorityofhouseholdswithchildren.

Thereseemedtobealmostunanimousagreementthatitwasvirtuallyimpossibletoresistchildpressureandparticipantsoftengavetheimpressionthatchildrenwouldnotbedenied,regardlessoftheconsequences.Essentiallythisamountedtogivingchildrenagency,asdescribedonp46.

Theinevitableresultofthiswasthatthemajoritydidnotenforcestrictrulesorguidelinesregardingwhattheirchildrenate.This,combinedwithmultiplechildreneachassertingdifferenttastes,appetitesandschedules,leadtothe'spinningplates'syndrome.Manymothersinbothtwo-parentandloneparentcohortsconsidereditthenormtopreparedifferentdinnerstocatertodifferenttastesandappetitesandtopreparedinnersatdifferenttimestosuitthechildren’sschedules.Thisledtoaheavyrelianceonconveniencefoodstocope.

“Whatevertheywantyoujusttendtomake.Ifsomeonewantsnoodlesatfiveandsomeoneelsewantschipsatseven,youmakeit”.Twoparent,Clondalkin

4 Findings

Oneofthemostimportant

factorsdictatingeatinghabitsin

householdswithchildrenwasthe

combinationofdifferentagegroups

withalltheissuesthatthisbrings.

48 49

Loneparentsappearedtobeparticularlychallengedbyfussyeaters,findingthisespeciallydifficultandcausingagreatdealofanxiety.Fewhadday-to-daysupportinpolicingtheirchildren’seatinghabits.Mostoptedforchildreneatingsomethingratherthannothingasadesirableoutcome,evenifthismeantthecontentandvarietyofthefoodeatenwasnotthebest.

Single males and single older people

Allthoselivingaloneperceivedthemselvesasmastersoftheirowndestiny,firmlyincontrolofthefoodshopping,cookingandbudgeting.

Thegeneralconsensusamongsinglemenwasthattheyonlyhadthemselvestoanswertoandcouldordertheiraffairstosuit.Ontheonehandthisresultedinlessanxietyregardingthefoodbudgetthanseeninfamilyhouseholds,astheywerenotresponsibleforanyoneelse.However,italsomeantskippingmealsandnotbeingmindfulofwhattheyhadeaten.Itseemedthatfrequentlyquitebasicsnacks(sandwiches,wedges,pizza)passedfordinnerasthoselivingalonewerenotbotheredbythehassleofpreparingafullmeal.Itisconceivablethatthistypeofbehaviourwasalso,onoccasion,amechanismforcontrollingexpenditureonfoodwhenfundsweretight.

Singleolderpeopleweremorelikelytopreparefullmealsfordinnerbecausetheywereinthehabitofcookingandeatingmoretraditionalfoods(baconandcabbage,chicken/beef/porkwithpotatoesandvegetableswerecommon).Likethesinglemales,however,theywereinclinedtoskipmealsatothertimesoftheday,claimingtheydidn’thavetheappetitetowarrantfixingabreakfastorlunch.Again,cuttingbackonfoodconsumptioncouldconceivablyalsoperformthefunctionofcuttingbackonexpenditure.

Occasionally,othershadtobecateredfor.Grandchildrenweresometimespartofthemixforsomeofthesingleolderwomenandthishad

theeffectofinspiringmorethoughtregardingfoodpreparation.Thesamewastrueforsomeofthedivorcedorseparatedsinglemalesonthedaysthattheirchildrenvisited.Itwaswidelyagreedthatthesociableaspectsofcateringforothersputstructuretothedayandalsoaddedsubstantiallytothesenseofenjoymentoffoodanddinner-time.

“IhavemeboysthreedaysaweeksoIusuallydocookingproperlythen.Theyneedproperfood,y’know”?Singlemale,Cavan

Amongthesinglemaleswespoketo,therewasevidenceofaverystrongrelianceonfamilysupportwithmanyturningtotheextendedfamilyformealsonaregularbasis.Itwasquitecommonforsinglemaleswithfamilylivinginthesamecommunitytohaveamealattheirmother’sorsister’stableatleastonce,andoftenasmanyasthreetimes,aweek.Menwithoutfamilynearbysometimeswenttoafriend’shouseoravailedoffreemealsatchurchandcommunitygroupmeetings.Thiswasveryimportantinamelioratingasenseofdeprivationandisolationthatmanywouldhavefeltifleftentirelytotheirowndevices.Italsoperformedthefunctionofreducingthenumberofmealstheyhadtocater(andpurchase)forthemselves.

Thesociableaspectsofcatering

forothersaddedsubstantiallyto

thesenseofenjoymentoffoodat

dinner-time.

4 Findings

Thepesterpowerofchildrenalsoextendedtobrandchoice,withmanyreportingthatunlesstheyboughtparticularbrandsofproductsthechildrenwouldnoteatthem,e.g.Kellogg’scereals,Heinzbeansandketchup,BuzzLightyearpasta,etc.

Otherwaysinwhichpressurefromchildrenhadanimpactonfoodbehaviourincludedmimicryandpeermatching.Manymotherscavedintopressurefromtheirchildren’snaturaltendencytowanttodoexactlyastheirpeersdid,andsuppliedpocketmoneyeverydayforschoollunchesandsnacks.Mothersoftenfeltquitefrustratedbythisdemandforcashregardlessofthefactthatallthenecessaryingredientstomakelunchmayhavebeenavailableathome.Nevertheless,theygaveintopressurefromtheirchildrenbecausetheydidnotwanttheirchildrentobedifferentorworseoffthantheirpeers.

“Ifeelyouhavenochoice.Youwanttodowhatyoucanforyourkids.Youtryandgivethemwhattheywant”.Loneparent,Clonmel

Whilethemajoritydidnotenforcestrictrulesorguidelinesregardingwhattheirchildrenate,preferringtobelievethattheirchildrenwouldgrowoutoftheirfaddishness,othersdidwithstandchildpressureandadoptedcopingmechanismsasdescribedaboveintheself-regulationsection(p37).Thesemothershadfoundwaystoexertsomecontrolwhilefulfillingtheirprimaryconcernofgettingthechildrentoeatandmakingsuretheywerenothungry.

TheimpactoffussyeatersFussyeaterswho,basedonthesegroupdiscussions,seemtobepresentinmosthouseholds,furtherrestrictedmothers’agencyoverfoodchoices.Inmanygroups,mothersexpressedconflictedfeelingsaboutthis.Ontheonehand,theyacknowledgedpartialresponsibilityforpanderingtotheirchildren’srequestsratherthanassertingcontrol.Atthesametimetheyexpressedfrustrationandalackoffaiththattheyhadtheabilitytoregaincontrolnowthatthechildren’stastesandhabitswereestablished.

Formanymothers,theirchildren’sfussinesstriggeredanacutefearthatfussychildrenmaynoteatenoughfoodandasaconsequencewouldnotgrowanddevelopproperly.

Mostdevisedwaysofcopingwiththeverychallengingtaskoffeedingfussyeaters,andtheseincluded:

• Givingintopesterpowerandallowingthemdictatethefoodtheywouldeate.g.BuzzLightyearpasta,sausagerollsforeverymeal,etc;

• Blendingfoodtodisguisefoodsthechildrenrejected;

• Bribingchildrentoeatwithpromisesofdessertortreatsafterdinner,permissiontoplayvideogamesorwatchTV,etc;

• TakingcomfortinthefactthateveniftheirchildrenrefusedtoeatallthethingstheyshouldforMother,theydideatforotherse.g.Granny,thecrèche.

Thesetechniquestendedtoreducetheelementofinterpersonalconflictingettingfussyeaterstoeatandalsoservedtoassuagetheguiltandanxietyamothermightfeelbecausesheknewthatatleastshewasgettingsomefoodintothechild.

50 51

Whilethemajorityofmothersspokeinaweabouthowtheirownmothersmanagedthehouseholdwhentheywerechildren,particularlytheirpowersof'organisation'and'discipline'mostexpressedlittleornowilltoemulatetheirmothers.Manyclaimedthattheirmothershadkeptafamilyhouseholdrunningonevenscarcerresourcesthantheythemselveshave.Yettheyclearlyfeltthatthiswasachievedonlybyprovidingveryspartanfareandpresentingitwitha'takeitorleaveit'attitude.TheyalsorecalledthattheirmothersrarelyallowedthemsmallindulgenceslikebiscuitsortripstoMcDonald’s,whereastheyregularlymadetheseavailablefortheirchildren.Itisclearfromtheircommentsthattheyfelttheirchildhoodwasdeprivedandweregladtheydidnothavetorefusesuchlittleluxuriestotheirownchildren.

“Wehaveasnackcupboardinourhousenowbutweneverhaditwhenweweregrowingup”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

Participantsfeltincreasedchoiceinthemarketplacehadbeenamajorfactorinchangingthings.Accordingtotheirrecollectionsof'theolddays'choicewaslimited,laboursavingconveniencefoodsnotavailable,mealsweremadetostretchandindulgenceswerenon-existent.Nowtheyfeltthescenewastotallydifferent,duelargelytotheavailabilityofinexpensiveconveniencefoodsviamultiplesanddiscounters.Theincreasedaffordabilityofconveniencefoodshasenabledpeopletoaffordtoeatfilling,tastyfoodsthataresatisfyingtotheappetite,eveniftheyare,forthemostpart,processed,massproducedandunhealthy.Inaddition,theincreasedavailabilityofinexpensivenon-perishablefoodhasmadeitpossibleformosthouseholdstostockpilefoodandtomaintainasnackcupboard.

“WhenIwasyoungeritwouldbespamfrittersandmysterytinsoutofthelocalmarket.Jesusyoudidn’thavehalfthechoiceyoudonow.Evenspagbolandallthosericedishes”.Loneparent,Clonmel

“Foodissocheapnow;youkeepbuyingmoreandputtingitinthefreezer”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

“PizzafromIceland,theyareonly£1andyoucangetaloadofthem–dothemallweek”.Loneparent,Belfast

“It’scheapertobuyapacketofburgersthanitistobuyapacketofapples”.Loneparent,Coolock

Withmoreconveniencefoodswidelyavailablecookingskills,whichwouldhavebeentakenforgrantedintheirownparents’day,haveapparentlydwindled.Freshfoodandtheskillstocookithavebecomeoutdatedinagenerationdependentonpackagedandprocessedconveniencefoodsthatrequirelittleornoskillinpreparation.Conveniencefoodsalsoenabledmotherstopandertotheindividualdemandsandappetitesofdifferenthouseholdmembers,whereaspreparingmealsfromscratchwouldmakethistootime-consuming.Asaconsequence,tastesandpalateshavebecomeusedtofoodthatishighinfat,sugarandsalt,resultinginaviciouscycleofunhealthyeatingandpoordiet.Participantsthemselvesfeltthat'unhealthy'processedfoods'tastenicer'than'healthy'freshfoodcookedfromscratchinnosmallpartbecause'we’reusedtoeatingthatway.'

It’scheapertobuyapacketof

burgersthanitistobuyapacket

ofapples.

4 Findings

Understanding the key themes: history/modernity

Harkingbacktotheirownyouthandmakingcomparisonswiththeirlifetodayhelpedmanytodefineandrationalisetheirbehaviour.Thesenseofdifferencebetween'then'and'now'wasparticularlypalpableforhouseholdswithchildrenandseemedtobeinfluentialonbehaviour.Themajorityofmothersinbothtwo-parentandloneparenthouseholdsembracedmodernityinthefoodsupplyasameansofescapingthedeprivationtheyknewaschildren.Forsinglepersonhouseholds,though,comparisonsappearedtobemorejudiciousandconsidered,withlife'now'notnecessarilydeemedtobebetterthanitwas'then.'

Households with children

Therewereverystrongimpressionsamonghouseholdswithchildrenofhowdifferenttheexperienceintheirhouseholdtodayisfromtheexperiencetheyhadduringtheirownchildhood.Therewasadefinitesenseintalkingtothewomeninbothtwo-parentandloneparentgroupsthattheythemselvescamefromverydisadvantagedbackgroundsandwereverywellacquaintedwithdeprivation.Theyspokeof'realpoverty'describingbarecupboards,nothingextra,nosnacksortreats,'justaboutgettingby.'Theseexperienceshavecausedthependulumtoswingintheoppositedirection,withmotherstryingtoavoidatallcostshavingtheirchildrenexperiencethedeprivationtheyknewwhenyoung.Desiretoescapeandrejectadeprivedpasthashad,andcontinuestohave,ahugelyinfluentialroleinshapingtheirbehaviourandtheirattitudesinmanagingtheirownhouseholds.

'WhenIwasgrowingup,mymahadbleedingnothing.TothisdayIwon’tbuycreamcrackersbecauseIgotsicktodeathofthemgrowingup.Therewasneverabiscuit;ifyouwentinyougotonecreamcrackerandyouallgotabit.'Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

Oneofthemostobvioussignsofthisisthat,astheyrecall,intheirownchildhood'spoil'wasnotaverbintheirvernacular–youatewhatyougotorwenthungry.Incontrast,itiswidelyacknowledgedthatchildrennowadaysare'spoilt'inthesensethattheyaretypicallygivenagencytodictatewhattheywillandwillnoteat.Motherswespokewithconcededthattheywereatfaultin'spoiling'theirchildren,butalsoseemedtorevelinthefactthattheycoulddoit–givingtheirchildrenmoresayinfoodchoicesthantheythemselveseverexperienced.

53

• Preferenceforbrandsknowntobelocallymanufactured,particularlybread,cereal,dairyandmeatproducts(common).

“IwoulduselocalfoodbeforeIwoulduseotherstuff.IlikethefactthatSupervaluisIrish.TescoisEnglish”.Singlemale,Tralee

• DistrustofbrandedfunctionalfoodssuchasActimel,BenecolandFlora,whichwereperceivedtobeoverpricedandunnecessaryifyoufollowedahealthybalanceddiet(commonconsensusinsingleolderpersongroups).

“Iwouldn’tmakeabitoftoastandputFloraonit.I’dsayyou’rebettertojuststickwithbutteranduseless”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

• Preferencefororganicfruitsandvegetablesandfree-rangemeatsandeggs,againassociatedwithadesiretoavoidproductstreatedwithchemicalslikepesticidesandpreservatives(afewintheCavanandTraleesinglemalegroups).

“Inonesupermarketyoucangetsixfilletsofchickenfor¤6andit’sterrible.Itrieditand

it’stoughandit’snotnice.Y’seethere’sallpreservativesinthesethingstokeepthemfreshforsolong.They’repumpedupwithwaterorsomething,theylooklovelyandfull,andfatbreastedchickenbutit’sallantibioticsandsteroids”.Singleolderwomen,Tralee

“FiveEnumbersonapackofbiscuits–youdon’tknowwhatit’smadefrom”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

Moststatedthattheywouldfollowtheabovepreferencesiffundsallowed,butsomeacknowledgedthattheycouldnotalwaysavoidbuyingcheapermass-producedalternativesduetobudgetaryconstraints.Someexpressedfrustrationoverthepricedifferentialbetweenmass-producedandmore“natural”traditionally-producedfoods.

“Itisonlynaturalwhensomebodyisworkingyouwouldeatalittlebitbetter.Youwouldtakemorecareofwhatyouareeatingandpaythatbitextra.Whenyouarejustlivingonyourown,youaregettingtwoforapound.Everybodydoesit;youfallforthebargain”.Singlemale,Belfast

Shoppinglocallyandavoidingmultiplesanddiscountersappearedtobethenormformanysinglemales,includingthegroupofsingleoldermales.Notonlydidthisaidtheirstrategicspendingonfood,itwasalsoseenasawaytosupportlocalbusiness.Undoubtedly,thiswasafacilityavailabletothesinglepersonhousehold,whereshoppingwasamoreadhoc,day-to-dayactivitywithverylittleneedtobuyinbulk.Thistypeofshoppingtoacertainextentreplicatedwhatmighthavebeenthepracticeofpreviousgenerations,andalsopotentiallyofferedmoreopportunitytobuyfreshlocallyproducedfoods.Itisunlikelythatparents/householdswithchildrencouldhaveindulgedtothesameextentinthistypeofshopping,because

Itisonlynaturalwhensomebody

isworkingyouwouldeatalittlebit

better.Youwouldtakemorecareof

whatyouareeatingandpaythat

bitextra.Whenyouarejustliving

onyourown,youaregettingtwo

forapound.Everybodydoesit;you

fallforthebargain.

4 Findings

52

“Wehavedonethistothem.Weletthemawaywithit”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

Inafewgroups,mothersnotedthatpeopleingeneral,andparticularlychildren,aremoreinclinedtoputonweighteatingthemoderndietoffastfoodandconveniencefoodsthantheywerewhenmorefreshtraditionalfoodwasthenorm.ThiswasdiscussedatsomelengthintheClondalkintwo-parenthouseholdgroup,butalsomentionedintheClonmel,CoolockandBelfastloneparenthouseholdgroups.However,makingthislinkbetweenweightgainandprocessedfoodswasnotenoughtoturnthemagainstprocessedfoods,withsomeexplicitlysayingtheappealingtasteandconveniencemakemodernprocessedfoodstoohardtogiveup.Instead,theytendedtotalkaboutlookingmorecloselyatlabelsandchoosinglowerfatoptionswhenpossible.

“Youwereneverfatwhenyoulivedwithyourmother”.Loneparent,Clonmel

“Mylittlefellowiseightandhehasabitofweightonhim.Butheismylittlepudgy,Iwouldn’thavehimanyotherway.Igivehimwhathewants”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

“Myweeone,helovesnoodlesbutIfoundouthowmanypointsisinthemsohe’snotgettingthemagain.Supernoodles,they’rereallybad.They’rehighinfat.There’slike11pointsinabagandthat’sterrible”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

The single older person’s and single male’s

perspective

Themajorityinthesingleolderpersongroupsexpressedthebeliefthattheoldwayswerebetterwithregardtofoodproductionandthequalityoffood.Thesamebeliefsurfacedinthesinglemalegroups,althoughitwasnotaspronounced,perhapsduetothefactthatmanyofthesinglemalesthemselvesconsumedahighproportionofprocessedfoods.

Manysingleolderpeopleandsomesinglemalesoftencriticisedthemodernmass-productionoffood.Manyexpressedadeeplevelofscepticismregardingtheabilityofretailerstoofferfoodproductsatpricessocheaptheyraisedquestionsregardingthequalityofthecontents.Manysingleolderpeopleandsomesinglemalesexpressedthebeliefthatqualityhadbeensacrificedtoquantityinmeetingthedemandsofthefoodsupplychain.Theirdistrustofmodernityinthefoodchainwasexpressedinseveralways:

• Distrustofforeignfoodimports,especiallymeat,fruitandvegetablesoriginatingoutsidetheEU,speculatingnotonlythattheyarenotasfreshaslocalproduce,butalsothattheymayhavebeentreatedwithmorechemicals(common).

“YouhavecartonsoftomatoesdownthesupermarketthataregrowninMorocco!Whatwasputonthemtogetthemhere?TocomefromMoroccotoLeitrimisalongway.Anditwas¤2foracarton,about40inthecarton;youcouldn’tgrowthemforthat”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

“GointoTesco,buyyouraveragepizzaorsomethingandbringithome,it’scomehalfwayaroundtheworldandit’sprobablybeenfrozenforabouttwoyears.PreservativesandGodknowswhatelse–Idon’tknowGMandthat”.Singlemale,Cavan

55

“Shoppingisachore,ithastobedone.Iwanttobeinandoutin20minutes”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

“WellIfind,you’veabuspass,somostweeksI’mtwiceinBallymenadoingsomeshoppingbecauseitpassesthedaykindofforme”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

Family households

Allmothers,especiallyloneparents,appearedtobeacutelyanxiousaboutmanagingthefoodbudget.Thiswasaconstantpressure,rarelyalleviated.Whileaslightliftoccurredon'payday'thiswassomewhatshort-livedandusuallymakingendsmeetwasakeyissueandonethatcausedconsiderableapprehension.Almostwithoutexception,mothersexpressedagreatdealofangerandfrustrationwhenitcametofoodandmanagingtheirhouseholdbudget.Thisgaverisetointenseemotionandclearlyvisibleandcommonlyheldfeelingsofguiltandanxiety.

“Theyareeatingmeoutofhouseandhome”.Loneparent,Coolock

“YougetcrankierIthinkbecauseyouarestressedoutthinkingofwhatyouaregoingtomakethem”.Loneparent,Coolock

Muchofthisderivedfromexternalforcesthatimpactedontheirday-to-dayhouseholdbudgeting.Muchoftheirangerandfrustrationwasdirectedatschoolswherelunchpolicies,schooltrips,feesandback-to-schoolexpensesallimpingedontheirabilitytocopeonalimitedbudget.Theyfeltschoolsdisplayedalackofrealismandunderstandingthathadadramaticimpactontheirday-to-daylives.

Mothersappearedtobeparticularlyaggravatedandfrustratedregardingschools’effortstoenforcehealthylunchpolicies.Manyfeltthat

ahealthylunchschemewasnotconsistent,realisticorpracticalwhenitrequiredparentstoequipachildwiththesortoffoodtheymightnotnormallyeat,orthatwastoocostlyfortheparenttoprovide.InBelfast,whereschoolcanteenlunchestendedtobeprovidedasstandard,mothersfeltthatmorecommunicationregardingtheweeklymenuforschoolluncheswasnecessaryaslunchwassometimesthesameaswhattheywerepreparingathomefortheeveningmeal.Thisoftenresultedinchildrenrejectingthemealathome,causingmothersfrustrationanddespairwhenfoodwasnoteaten.

“Itwouldendupcostingyouafortunetobuysomeofthestufftheysuggested”.Loneparent,Clonmel

“IfeelI’vewastedmytime.Itfeelslikeyouarecookingfornothing”.Loneparent,Belfast

Quiteapartfromthelunchpoliciesschoolsmightenforce,mothersinbothNIandROIexpressedfrustrationthatchildreninSecondaryschoolareallowedoutatlunchtimeandthatthesocialnormnowistovisitthechipperordeli,resultinginextraexpenditureonadailybasis.Mostmotherswouldnotdenytheirchildrenthisexpenditureinordertoenablethemto'fitin'withtheirpeers,yetfeltittookadisproportionatetollontheirfoodbudget.WhereasexpenditurewhentheywereatPrimaryschoolwasmoreeasilycontrolledwitheitherpackedlunchorstaticpaymentsforschool-madelunches,atSecondarylevelthechildren’sautonomyanddesireto

ofthediversetastesofthehouseholdandtherequirementtogetthebestvalueformoney.

Regional differences

Differencesinattitudesandperceptionswereapparentbetweenthoselivinginurbanandruralareas,withthoseinmoreruralareasbetterabletounderstandthemechanicsoffoodproductionandalsomorescepticalofmass-producedandimportedfoods.Speculationabouthowfoodisproducedandprocessed,howitgetstomarket,andhowthesefactorsinfluencethequalityofthefoodyoubuywascommonlymentionedanddiscussedindetailinruralgroupsinCavan,Manorhamilton,LeitrimandCushendall.Thesegroupsdisplayedanawarenessofthesupplychainbehindthefoodproductstheyboughtandofwhatthismeantforthem,whichwasnotevidentduringourdiscussionswithcitygroups.

Groupsinruralareaswerealsomorelikelytodescribeconsumingahigherproportionoffreshfoodcookedfromscratchthanurbanandcitygroups,andmorelikelytomentionthattheytriedtobuylocallyproduced/manufacturedfoods.Inaddition,theyweremorelikelytogrowsomeoftheirownvegetables,hunt,fish,orgatherwildfruitsandmushrooms,andpossiblyevenraiseafewanimalsforfood.

“I’dhaveafewsoupvegetables,y’know,parsleyandcelery,y’know,somethingfreshjust”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

“Freshfishfromthelake,haddockorcod”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

Understanding the key themes: emotional management

Throughoutallofthediscussionsandacrossallfourcohorts,astronglevelofemotion,anxietyandstresswasevident,largelyinspiredbythefactthatpeopleweremanagingonveryrestrictedbudgetsandtryingtofulfilquitedifficulttaskswithlimitedmeans.Anxietyandstresscanmanifestthemselvesinverydifferentwaysdependingonone’scircumstancesandthiswascertainlythecaseinexaminingthereactionsoffamilyhouseholdsandsinglepeople.

Themajoritydislikedshopping,becauseasdescribedonpp.42-46,ittendedtobeextremelyroutinisedandrequiredthemtoexertalotofself-controlinordertoresistactingontheimpulsestriggeredbytherange,merchandising,marketingandpromotionofproductsinfoodstores.Mostsinglemalesandsingleoldermalesviewedfoodshoppingasanecessaryeviltobeendured.Manymothers(inbothtwo-parentandloneparenthouseholds)viewedfoodshoppingasasourceofstressandanxiety.Howeversingleolderfemaleswereoftenmorepositiveaboutit,evenschedulingmoreshoppingtripseachweekthanwerestrictlyneededforthesakeoftheentertainmentvalueandsocialinteractioninvolved.Itshouldbenotedthatsingleolderfemalesalsoenjoyedboththehighestlevelofmasteryandthehighestdegreeofagencyoverfoodshopping.

YougetcrankierIthinkbecause

youarestressedoutthinkingof

whatyouaregoingtomakethem.

Astronglevelofemotion,anxiety

andstresswasevident,largely

inspiredbythefactthatpeople

weremanagingonveryrestricted

budgets.

54

4 Findings

56 57

People living alone

Peoplelivingalonewerepreytoadifferentsetofemotions,mostlystronglynegative.Withoutresponsibilityforothers,preparing,cookingandeatingmealssolocouldgiverisetoasenseof'misery',boredomandisolation.Manyalsolostmotivationtoinvestagreatdealoftime,energyandresourcesinproducingmeals,whenitwasonlyforthem.Wherethebenefitsofcateringforoneselfonlyarehardtoseeandmotivationislacking,aviciouscycleofunhealthyeatingtendedtobecomeembedded,notnecessarilybecausefundswerelimited,butmorebecausethey'justcouldn’tbebothered.'

“Itisverydepressingwhenyouarecookingforjustone.Ihavecookedmyselfamealandjustthrewitinthebin”.Singlemale,Belfast

Therewereseveralmoodmanagementstrategiestoalleviatethesefeelings.Manysaidtheytooktheirmealsinfrontofthetelevisionratherthanatthekitchen/diningtabletominimisetheirownsenseofisolationorloneliness.Manytriedtogivethemselvesaboostbyintroducingaparticulartreattobreaktheroutineandmakethemselvesfeelabitbetter.Thefactthatthistreatwasoftenatake-awayorrestaurantmealshowedthatavoidingfoodpreparationitselfwaspartofthereward.However,thesenegativeemotionscouldbechallengingtoovercome,despiteconsciouseffortstodoso.

“Ifyoucomeinandjustsitdownatthetableonyourown,Ithinkit’smiserable”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

“Weallhaveplentyoffriendswegohaveabitoflunchwith”.Singleolderfemale,Tralee

“Ilikeabitofchocolate.MaybeaMarsbar.Icouldn’tlastthedaywithoutit”.Singleoldermale,Leitrim

“Justnibblingmostly.Abiscuitorapieceofchocolate.IthinkI’mverybored,andthat’swhyIdoeatthethings.WiththeTVallday,y’knowwhatit’slike”.Singleolderfemale,Cushendall

Themes that did not emerge

Certainthemesandtopics,whichmighthavebeenexpectedtogetanairing,didnotsurfacetoanynoticeableextentduringthediscussions,andthereasonswhythismightbesoaresummarisedbelow.

Peoplelivingalonelostmotivation

toinvestagreatdealoftime,

energyandresourcesinproducing

meals,whenitwasonlyforthem.

4 Findings

conformwiththeirpeersmadetheexpenditurehigherandmuchmoredifficulttomanage.

“Whydotheyletthemout?It’stoomuchtobehandingoutmoneyforthemtobuytheirlunchouteveryday.LikeSubway,myweeboygoeseveryday”.Loneparent,Belfast

Manyalsofeltstronglythatschoolsdisplayedafundamentallackofunderstandingabouttheirsituation,oftenrequiringchildrentobringinitemsforprojectsandlessonsthatmustbeboughtfromalreadystretchedbudgets;anexamplegivenwasafreshpineappleforaHomeEconomicspracticesession–afoodthatwouldnototherwisebeboughtoreaten.

Schooltripsalsoputanoverwhelmingstrainonthehouseholdbudget.Parentsreportedthatoftensufficientnoticeisnotgivenand,asaresult,theyfeltbackedintoacorner,unabletobudgetinadvancefortheeventbutneedingtoprovidetheirchildrenwiththesamepackedlunch/extrafundsastheirbetter-offpeersenjoy.Theinflexibilityofschoolswithregardtofeesandback-to-schoolexpensesalsorankledwithparents.Schoolsweredescribedasinflexibleaboutpayingfees,didnottendtoworkwiththeparentsortaketheircircumstancesintoaccount,andagainfailedtogivesufficientnoticeforparticularpayments.Inaddition,somepaymentswereseenasextravagant,forexample¤70forphotocopyingor¤20forabustrip,whenthebusissuppliedfree.

“Mylittleonewasgoingonatripandyou’dwanttoseethelengthofthelist–foursandwiches,threedrinks,goodies.Ifeltlikegoingoverthereandsayingtotheteacher,willyousitdownandexplaintoyourselfwhattherecessionis”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

“Backtoschoolisahugeexpenseandtheallowancedoesnotcoverhalfofit”.Loneparent,Clonmel

'Freeloaders'orchildrenwhoeatfoodfromyourhouseholdwithouttheirparentseverfeedingyourchildreninreturn,wereanothersourceofpressureonthehouseholdbudgetthatmothersperceivedashardtobear.Estatelivingthrowsthisintosharpreliefwhencertainfamiliesare'scroungingoff'othersandnotcontributingorsharingequally.Therewasrealangeraboutbeingtakenadvantageofbytheparentsoftheirchildren’sfriends.Holidaytimewasaparticularlydifficulttimewhenchildrenwerefree,playingoutdoorswitheachotherandinandoutofthehousewiththeirfriends,raidingthesupplyofsnacksandthecontentsofthefridgeonaregularbasis,oftenwithoutreciprocationfromotherhouseholds.

“ThemoreIbuy,themoretheyeat.Especiallyteenagers.Theybringtheirfriendsaround,theygointothefridge,theytakeandthey’regonetotheroomwithitandyoulookinthefridgeandit’sempty”.Two-parentfamily,Manorhamilton

“Threedifferenticecreamvanscometomyhouse.Onecomesinthemorning,onecomesintheeveningandonecomesatnight-time.It’sjustteasingthem,isn’tit?ButIdofeelbadthenwhenI’moutandthenthepoorlittlekidsdobelookingatmeandIendupbuyingsomethingforeveryone.AndthentheirmaswillgetanextrabottleatthebarbecauseI’mafterpaying”.Loneparent,Coolock

“Mysister-in-lawdoesn’tletthekidssnack,butthenshegoesaroundtoyourhouseandeatsallthebiscuits.Ifyouaregoingtoeatthem,buythem”.Two-parentfamily,Clondalkin

58 59

Healthy eating

Healthyeatingdidnotfiguretoanyextent,otherthantheoccasionalreferencetotheidea.Themainfocus,particularlyforthosewithchildren,wasonfoodasfuel,withtheprimaryconcerntosatisfyhunger,ratherthantocatertonutritionalneeds.Foodwasalsousedtomeetotherneedstates,suchasmoodmanagementandsocialinclusion,butstillinaveryfunctionalcapacityandwithaveryimmediatehorizon,ratherthanconsiderationofthelong-termimplicationsoffoodchoices.

Iftheydidhaveanyconceptsofhealthyeating,thesetendedtobepushedverymuchtoonesideandrelegatedtowhencircumstancesmightdictatethattheyneedtochangetheirhabits.Thetypicaltriggerstheyexpectedwhichmightcompelthemtochangewereweightlossandhealthconcerns,especiallyiftheywitnessedbyvicariousexperienceproblemssuchasheartdiseaseordiabetes.Justafewhadmadechangestotheirdietinanefforttoeathealthier,butthiswasusuallyinresponsetomedicaladviceorashort-termweightlossinitiative.Importantly,therewerealsoafewwhoadmittedthattheyhadneglectedtochangetheireatinghabitsdespitereceivingmedicaladvicetomakehealthierchoices.

“Atthisstage,eatingjunkfood,youwouldn’tbethinkingaboutit,butasyougetolder,Isupposeyouwouldstartthinkingaboutitmore”.Singlemale,Tralee

Thelackoffocusonhealthyeatingwasalsolikelytostemfromtheirdeficiencyincookingskills,areportedlackofdesiretoacquiresuchskillsandtheheavyrelianceonconvenienceandprocessedfoods.Thereseemedtobearealreluctancetochangehabitsandasensethatitwastoolatetodoanythingasthedamagewasdone.

However,somehopewasexpressedthateveniftheythemselveshadnotinstilledhealthyeatinghabitsintheirchildren,thechildrenthemselveswouldlearnabouthealthyeatingatschoolorinsportandwouldultimatelydevelopbetterhabits.Thedangerofthis,ofcourse,wasthatitmaybeaself-perpetuatingmyth,withthehabitsthisgenerationofchildrenlearnsnowathomeverypossiblybeingcontinuedintothefuture.

Themainfocus,particularlyfor

thosewithchildren,wasonfood

asfuel,withtheprimaryconcern

tosatisfyhunger,ratherthanto

catertonutritionalneeds.

4 Findings

The recession in ROI

Onthewhole,thesecohortsseemedtobeuntouchedbythepervasiveangeroverthelostopportunityoftheCelticTiger.4Manyacknowledgedthattimeswerealittlebettertwoyearsagoandtheydidnothavetothinkorfocussomuchonmoneyastheydidnow.Theyreportedthattheyhadbeenmorecarelessthenwithmoneythantheycouldbenowandhadenjoyedmoreluxuries,suchasnightsout,clothesandspecialoccasionparties(e.g.Communions,birthdays,etc.)thatwerebiggerandorganisedoutofhomeratherthaninhome.

Nonetheless,theirbasicstandardoflivingdidnotappeartohavetakenasignificantdiveasaresultoftherecessionandintermsoftheirfoodpurchasingbehaviour,ahighlevelofroutinepurchasingmeantthattherehadbeennodegradationoftheirdiet.Infact,ifanything,theyarebenefitingfromthepricewarsnowoccurringamongsupermarketsasaresultofthedownturnintheeconomyandpricedeflationhashadapositiveimpactontheirday-to-dayexpenditure.

Insteadofanger,manyfeltasenseofprideatbeingthepioneersof'savvyshopping'andthriftinessinpracticessuchasbuyingcross-border(Manorhamilton/Clondalkin)andgrowingyourown(Leitrim,Cavan,Cushendall).Fromtheirperspective,manyofthemoneysavingbehavioursthathadalwaysbeennormalforthemhadbecomenewlyfashionableastherestofthecountrytighteneditsbelts.Theyappearedtoderivesomecomfortfromthefactthatmore

4 AphenomenontheMillwardBrown

Lansdowneresearchershaveencounteredin

researchwithmoremiddleclassparticipants

inmanyprojectsforcommercialclientsover

thepasttwoyears.

peoplenowfinditchallengingtomakeendsmeetandtheyarenolongertheminority.

“Ialwaysshoppedattheendoftheaisle;asfarbackasIcanremember.Nowyouhavetowaitinaqueueandwaityourturn”.Two-parentfamily,Belfast

Life narrative

Forthemajorityoftheparticipantsinthegroups,itwasveryclearthatlifehadacertainconsistency,withlittlechangefromthepastandverylittleprospectofchangeinthefuture.Thisapparentstateofstasiswaslargelydictatedbysocio-economicfactors.Allofthesegroups,eithersingleorhousehold,werecomprisedofpeoplelivingonalimitedbudgetwhichrestrictedchoiceandimposedarigorousroutineonday-to-daylife.Therefore,thetendencywastomaintaintheparticularpatternsofbehaviourthathavebeenworkedouttocopewiththeircircumstancesandkeepthefocusontheday-to-day.Theytypicallyleftthemselveslittleopportunitytoplanforthefutureortoexpandbeyondtheirrelativelynarrowhorizons,andwithlittleexpectationofimprovingtheircircumstances,varyingtheroutinewouldrisklosingcontrolovertheirbudgetandexpenditures.

60

4 Findings

Context and scene setting

Inreviewingthefindingsofthisresearchitisimportanttobearinmindthefollowingpointswhich'setthescene'withrespecttoplaceandtime.ThereareimportantjurisdictionaldifferencesbetweentheNorthofIrelandandtheRepublicofIrelandthatarereflectedin,andcantosomeextentexplain,theresearchfindings.Forexample,therelativegenerosityofthewelfaresysteminROIincontrasttotheUK(whichwasmadeparticularlyevidentinthefocusgroupsconductedinBelfast);thedifferencesinschoollunchprogrammesinNIandROI;thedifferentstoresetsforfoodshoppinginROIandNI.ThepresenceofASDAalonemakesthecompetitivesetforfoodshoppinginNIverydifferenttothatinROI.

TheglobaleconomicrecessionhasbroughtincreasinglevelsofjoblossandincomereductionacrosstheislandofIreland.Joblossandloweredexpectationsforemploymentwereexplicitlyafactorformanyinourgroups.Yetthesegroupsdidnotreportbeingasheavilyimpactedintermsofchangestotheircircumstancesandtheaccompanyingsenseofoutragewehaveseeninthegeneralpopulace.Thefollowingfactorsmayexplainthis:nearlyallhadavailedofsocialwelfaresupportpriortoaswellasduringtherecession.Asaresult,despitecutstowelfareprogrammes,theirincomeshaveremainedlargelyfixedandproportionalincomereductionshavebeenminorcomparedtothosewholostrelativelywell-paidemployment.

Also,duringtherecession,theConsumerPriceIndexfellinbothNIandROI,leadingparticipantsinbothjurisdictionstonotethatfoodpriceshaveloweredoverthepasttwoyears.

61

Joblossandloweredexpectations

foremploymentwereexplicitlya

factorformanyinourgroups.

Discussion

5

62

Conclusions

Common to the majority across household

types

• Conservatismregardingfoodchoices,limitedrepertoireandfearofintroducingnewfoods.

• Bothgenderstendedtoviewfoodshoppingaswomen’sdomain.

• Weakself-regulationregardingfoodchoicesandcooking.

• Ahighdegreeofhabitualstrategicshoppingandfoodmanagementwasapparent.Withconstrainedbudgets,cleverplanningisessentialandstrongself-regulationwasevidentineffortsmadetoavoidtemptationandmoderateemotionalimpulses,motivatedbytheneedtoavoidoverspending.

• Deviationfromroutineinstoreandproductchoicewasnegligibleduetobudgetconstraintsandfearofwastage

• Participantsreferredtotheday(orperiod)beforebenefitspaymentswerereceivedas'WaitingDay'becausetheyhadtodeferallspendinguntiltheyhadmoneyagain.The'WaitingDay'impactwasfeltbyallandmanyhaddevelopedcopingstrategiestomanagemore'leantimes.'Acycleofstockpilingand'raidingthefreezer'wasaverycommoncopingmechanismforensuringyouhadenoughfoodsuppliestoseeyouthroughuntilfinancialresourceswerereplenished.

• Astrongthemeoflivinginthepresentwasapparent.Foodmanagementwasaboutsurvivalandkeepinggrounded.Thefuturewasrarelyreferenced.Instead,stayingfocusedonthehereandnowwasthenorm.

Common barriers to healthy eating

• Thewaytheythinkaboutfood:– Themajoritydidn’tassociatefoodwith

health.Thepurposeoffoodisnottoachievebetterhealth;foodwasforfuelorthesatisfactionofimmediateneedstates(hunger,energylevels,moodmanagement,socialinclusion,etc).

– Eatingbadlywasofteninexpensive–participantsfeltthatmostofthemoney-savingpromotionsinshopsandsupermarketswereforprocessedfoodsthattheythoughtofas'badforyou.'

– Eatingbadlywasalsoconsideredfillingandtasty.

63

Conclusionsandrecommendations

6

64 65

Cohort specific findings: lone parent families

• Overall,thedietofthelone-parentfamilywashighlyprocessed.Ittendedtolackvarietyandwasusuallymadeupofconveniencefoods.

• Thetypicaldietforthemajoritywasfairlyrestrictedtoknownfavourites.Littleornoexperimentationoccurred.

• Timeshadchangedand,insomeinstances,notforthebetterdiet-wise.Childrenwerereportedtohavetoomuchinputandsayoverwhattheyate.Intheirownchildhoodfoodwasmorescarcebut'betterforyou.'Thegeneralconsensuswasthatthereistoomuchchoicenowandnotenoughcontrol.

• Foodpreparationandcookingskillstendedtobelimited.Speedandeasewerekeywhendecidingwhetherornottopreparefood.Motherswithseveralchildrenoftencomplainedthattheyneededtopreparedifferentdinnersforeachofthem.This'platespinning'routineincreasedtheirrelianceonconveniencefoods.

• Mothersweregoingwithouttoensurethattheirchildrenwerenothungry.Typicallythisdidnotmeangoingwithoutfoodaltogether,itmeantthatmotherstendedtoeatwhateverthechildrenwerehaving,ratherthanbuyingfoodtomeettheirownneeds.

• Summertimeandholidayswerehardertomanageandprovedmorechallengingformothersonalimitedbudgetbecausetheirchildrenwereathomemore.

• Ifmoremoneybecameavailableitwouldbespentonfoodandclothes.However,therewaslittleevidenceofthisresultinginachangeinthetypesoffoodspurchased.

• Beingthesolecarerandresponsibleadultwaskeenlyfeltandcouldbefrustratinganddifficult.Singlemothersrelatedexperienceswhen,despitefeelingthattheywerebeingpushedpastbreakingpoint,theyhadtomoderatetheirbehaviourandemotionsinordertomaintaincalmandorderinthehousehold,aswellasageneralfatiguefromalmostneverhavingrespitefromtheirresponsibilities.

• Childrenlabelled'fussyeaters'werecommonandwereacauseforanxietyandfrustration.

• Therewasareasonablelevelofawarenessregardingthehealthconsequencesofapoordiet,butlittlehopeofactinguponthis.Commonbarrierstohealthyeatingincludedaperceptionthatitistooexpensiveandtimeconsuming,andachild’stasteswouldbetoodifficulttochange.

– Eatingbadlyfacilitatedthedesiretoavoidcookingbecauseittypicallyrequiredminimalfoodpreparation.Mostdidnotseeenougheconomicadvantagetobuyingfreshfoodandcookingfromscratchtoovercomeallthesebarriers.

• Lackofroutineandregularitysurroundingmealtimeswithmealsomittedorreplacedwithsnackingandgrazingonready-to-eatpackagedfoodssuchasbiscuits,chocolatebarsandcrispswhenappetiteandmotivationtopreparefoodarelow.– Infamilyhouseholds,thiswasfurther

expressedbytherarityofpreparingasingledinnersharedbyall,whichhadbeenreplacedbyaroutineoffeedingdifferenthouseholdmembersdifferentfoods,oftenatdifferenttimes,tosuitindividualtastes,appetitesandschedules.

• Self-acknowledgedpoortimemanagementand'laziness'(theirword)withrespecttopreparingmealsalsocontributedtothetendencytoavoidfoodpreparationasmuchaspossible.

• Non-perishablefoods,especiallyprocessed,frozen,tinnedandpackagedfoods,lendthemselvestoacycleofstockpilingandscavengingthatmanyemployedtoensuretheyalwayshadenoughsuppliestoseethemthroughleantimes.

• Themajorityhadveryweakcookingskills,andfreelyadmittedthattheyseldomdidmorethan'heatfoodup'inanoven,microwave,ordeepfatfryer.

• Individualdifferences–somepersonalitytypeswerelowinsensationseekingandopennesstoexperience.

Common facilitators to healthy eating

• Anegativehealthexperience(directexperiencemoreeffective,thanvicarious)resultedinanincreaseintheirintakeoffruitwhentheyfeltsickandmanytalkedaboutcuttingoutperceived'bad'foodsiftheydevelopedahealthcondition.

• Adesiretoloseweightmotivatedpeopletotemporarilylimitoreliminateperceived‘bad’foodsandincreaseconsumptionoffreshfruitandvegetables.

• Companioneating;anudgetoupyourgame–likelytotakemorecareinwhatyouservetoacompanion.

• Supermarketspresentvariety(however,manyactivelyignoredoptionsoutsidetheirnormalrepertoirevialists&routine).

• Wordofmouthdirectlyfrompeerscanovercomeneophobiaandfacilitateexperimentationwithdifferentfoodsthanthosenormallypurchased.Strengthofrecommendation/testimonialsinthisarenaisvital.

• Informationandsupportdeliveredthroughcommunitygroupsandlocalbusinesses,particularlyintheareasofhealthyeating,growingyourownfood,cookerytraining/demonstrations,andexercise.Withsomuchriskattachedtovaryingtheroutine,supportforinitiativestotrynewthingsisessential.Mostwouldnotattemptsuchchangesontheirown.

Commonbarrierstohealthyeating

includedaperceptionthatitistoo

expensiveandtimeconsuming,

andachild'stastewouldbetoo

difficulttochange.

Anegativehealthexperience

promptedtheeliminationof

perceived'bad'foods.

6 ConclusionsandRecommendations

66 67

• Therewasamoderatelevelofanxietyandconcernregardingmodernfoodproductionandretailingpractices.

Cohort specific findings: single older people

• Relativetoothercohorts,thisgrouptendedtohaveahealthybalanceddietconsistingofmoretraditionaldinners,withmoreuseoffreshwholefoodsandlessconsumptionofprocessedfood.

• Bothgendersviewedshoppingaswomen’sdomain.

• Singleolderwomenturnedshoppingintoapastimeandtookprideintheirbargain-huntingskills.

• Singleoldermen,ontheotherhand,restrictedthemselvestoasmallnumberoffamiliarlocalstoresinordertoavoidbeingoverwhelmedwithtemptationtooverspend.

• Thiscohortalsopossessedmasteryoverfoodpreparation,withthesingleolderwomenespeciallyusingavarietyofcookingandbakingtechniques.

• Cookingfromscratchwasaregularactivity,butwithgenderdifferences:– Women,freedfromtheobligationtomake

dinnersforafamily,limitedcookingtothreetofivedaysaweek.

– Men,duetolongtermbachelor-hood,hadaregular'simple'cookinghabit.

• Genderdifferencewasfurtherdemonstratedinhowoftentheyateout,withwomenmorelikelythanmentoindulgeinthis.

• Themajoritywereawareofthehealthconsequencesofdietthoughtheymaynotalwaysactonthem.

• Mealskippingwasevidentbutwasduemoretolackofappetiteandnegativemoodsurroundingsolitarymealsthanalackofresources.

• Olderpeopletendedtoshopmorefrequentlyandbuymorefoodfor‘dayofconsumption’thanothers,withmorefreshfoodintheirday-to-daydietrelativetoothercohorts.

• Singleolderpeopleweremoderately'offer'conscious,butshoppingforonedidnotnecessitatethesamepricescrutinyasshoppingforafamily.Similarly,theywerelessfinanciallyconstrainedthanothercohortsduetoreducedexpenseslaterinlifeandtheirsolostatus.

• Thekeyemotionsgoverningfoodrelatedattitudesandhabitswerethelonelinessofsolitaryeatingandtheboredomofapredictablediet.

• Therewasahighlevelofanxietyandconcernregardingmodernfoodproductionandretailingpractices.

Summary of conclusions

Anumberofcommonissues,barriersandfacilitatorstohealthyeatingwerefoundacrossallgroups.However,itisevidentthattherearespecificissuesuniquetoeachhouseholdtype.

Conservatismandthelackofvarietyinmealchoiceswerekeyissuesamongallhouseholds.Thetypicaldietformanywasnarrowandrestrictedtoknownfavourites.Littleornoexperimentationoccurredforfearofwastage.Participantsclaimedtoknowaboutahealthydietbuttheysawthebarriers(cost,convenience,tasteetc)toeatinghealthilyasinsurmountable.Theywerenotsufficientlyengagedbycurrentpublichealthstrategiestoadopthealthiereatinghabits.Therewasastrongsensefromallofthegroupsthattheyliveinthehereandnowandthattheirpriorityis

Singleolderpeopletendedtohave

ahealthybalanceddietconsisting

ofmoretraditionaldinners.

6 ConclusionsandRecommendations

Cohort specific findings: two-parent families

• Eating,cookingandshoppinghabitswereverysimilartothoseofloneparentfamilies.

• Foodchoicewasdictatedprimarilybythemoneyavailabletospendonfoodandchildren’spreferences.Thefocuswasonchildrenbeingfedandthis,ratherthantheactualcontentorqualityofwhattheywerebeingfed,wasparamount.Processedandconveniencefoodsfacilitatedthemintheirefforttocaterforallindividualsseparatelyratherthanpreparingasinglemealforthefamilyasaunit.

• Whiletheinfluenceoftheirchildrenandpartnerprovidedamotiveforpreparingregularmeals,itwastime-consuming.Mothersweresopreoccupiedwithjugglingeveryoneelse’sneedsthattheysacrificedtheirown.Therewasahighincidenceofsnackingonunhealthyfoodsthroughoutthedaytomaintainenergylevels,suggestingthatmanymotherscouldbeclassifiedas'grazers'.

• Shoppingwashighlyhabitual;themissionwasmainlyto'getthefivedinners'and'whatthechildrenwilleat'.

• Similartoone-parentfamilies,thechildrenwerethepace-setters.However,inthetwoparenthouseholdsfood'pesterpower'wassomewhatabatedbythepresenceofthepartner/husbandtoactasabackup,helpingsettherulesandreclaimorder.Thoughthepartner/husbandmayfeaturelittleonaday-to-daybasis,theydiddemonstrateapositiveinfluencewhendealingwiththechildren.

• Strong'weekendeffects'arepresentinthiscohort.Aroutinewouldbefollowedthroughweekdays,buttendedtobedroppedattheweekend.Therewasastrongdesiretoescapefrombeingthe'headchef'andtoindulgeinlittleaffordableluxuries.Takeawaysreplacedthecookedmeal.

• Aswithloneparents,therewasareasonablelevelofawarenessregardingthehealthconsequencesofapoordiet,butlittleevidenceofactinguponit.

Cohort specific findings: single males

• Unbalanceddietsandtheconsumptionofunhealthyfoodswereprevalentinthiscohort.Processedfoods(frozen,packaged,tinned)dominatedformost.

• Therewasastrongaversiontocooking,andmealpreparationconsistedmainlyof'heatingup'ratherthanpreparingfromscratch.Therewereafew,however,whofoundcookingpleasurableandeventherapeutic.

• Mostactivelydislikedfoodshopping,andregardeditasanactivityforwomenandfamilies.Thislimitedtheirsensitivitytooffersandtheirinterestintargetedshopping.However,extremepricesensitivity(evidentinBelfast)didprovidetheincentiveforinvestingmoretimeandeffortinsourcingthecheapestpossiblefood.

• Solitarylifeandtherationalisationthat'it’sjustme'oftenrobbedsinglemalesandsingleolderpeopleofthemotivationtomakearobustefforttopreparemeals.Forsome,thismotivationreturnedontheoccasionswhentheywerefeedingothersaswellasthemselves(e.g.childrenorgirlfriends).

• Mealskippingwasfairlycommon.Althoughtypicallyattributedtolackofappetiteormotivationtoprepareameal,skippingmealsalsofacilitatedconservinglimitedfoodsupplies.

• Themajoreffectsoffinancialpressurewereanincreasedrelianceonotherstofeedthemandthecurtailingofday-to-dayactivities(e.g.mobilephoneusage,bususage,socialising).

• Singlemalestendedtoprioritisesocialisingoverprivatefoodconsumption.

• Therewasareasonablelevelofawarenessregardingthehealthconsequencesofpoordiet,butinvariablythiswasnotfollowedthroughandthiscohortappeared'adviceresistant.'

• AstrongjurisdictionaleffectwasevidentwithmuchhigherlevelsoffoodpovertyanddeprivationintheBelfastgroup.

6968

tomakethemostofthelimitedbudgetonwhichtheyarelivingdaybyday.Theresearchshowedthatallgroupsusedspecificstrategieswhenshoppingsoasnottodeviatefromtheirbudgetandthatformanytheirapproachtoshoppingwasstrictandregulated.Formosttheprioritywastoputfoodonthetableandthenutritionalcontentofthefooddidnotcomeintoquestion.

Forfamilieswithchildren,thestronginfluenceofchildren’spreferencesand'pesterpower'thelackoftimedevotedtofoodpreparationandarelianceonconveniencefoodswereevident.Therewereusuallyseveraltypesofmealspreparedatvaryingtimesfordifferentfamilymembersthroughouttheeveningand,asaresult,convenienceandprocessedfoodsprevailed.Intwo-parenthouseholds,this'pesterpower'wassomewhatmodifiedbythepresenceofapartnerorhusband.Theresponsibilityofbeingsolecarerandprovideroffoodandmealswasanaddedpressureforloneparents.Meal-skippingamongmotherswasalsoevidentinbothfamilygroups,withmanyprioritisingfeedingtheirchildrenoverfeedingthemselves.Oftentheywouldn’tprepareamealforthemselvesbutinsteadsnackedonthemealstheypreparedfortheirchildren.Amongsinglemales,therewasanactivedislikeofshoppingforandpreparingfood.This,alongwithasolitarylife,hadastrongnegativeimpactoneatinghabitsandasaresultmealskippingwasacommonfeature.Forolderindividuals,traditionaleatingpatternswerestrongandthemajoritywereconfidentintheircookingskills.Thelonelinessofsolitaryeatingandtheboredomofapredictabledietwerethepredominantemotionsgoverningfoodrelatedattitudesandhabitsamongtheseindividuals.Olderfemalesappearedtohavebettercopingstrategies,whichincludedmaintainingsocialinteractionrelatedtofood.

Thisresearchprovidesadeepunderstandingofthemeaningandroleoffoodinfoursubgroupsoflow-incomehouseholdsontheIOIattheendofthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury.Ithashighlightedthatthesocialenvironmentwithinwhichlow-incomehouseholdslivehasanimpactontheirexperiencesaroundfoodandthatfoodchoicesareclearlynotmadeinavacuum.

Recommendations

Thefactorsthatinfluencepeople’sdietarybehaviourarecomplex.Recommendationswhichhaveevolvedfromtheresearcharedividedintothreelevels:policy,communityandevidencebaseandeachisaddressedseparatelybelow.

Policy

1. Aconcertedcross-sectoralapproachshouldbeadoptedtotacklefoodpovertyonIOI.Thisapproachmustinvolvebothpublicpolicyandcommunityaction.

2. Engagementwiththefoodindustryisrequiredtoinfluencemanufacturing,retailandcateringpracticestocreateahealthiersupportivefoodenvironment.

3. Anychangesinpublicpolicythataffectsthoseinlowincomegroupsshouldconsidertheaffordabilityofahealthydiet.

Community

1. Peer-ledcommunityprojectsthatfocusondevelopingcopingskillsforeatingonabudgetshouldcontinuetobesupportedandexpanded.

2. Thedesignanddeliveryofhealthyeatingprogrammesshouldspecificallyaddressthevaryingissuesexperiencedbydifferentlow-incomehouseholds.

3. Communityfoodinitiativesthatmakeavailablefreshhealthyproduce(gardens,cafésetc)inlow-incomecommunitiesshouldbesupported.

4. Communityfoodinitiativesthatprovideculturallyappropriatehealthyeatinginformationandfoodskillstrainingshouldbefurthermainstreamed.

Evidence base

1. Continuetoincludeaqualitativeaspectinfutureresearchonfoodpovertytounderstandreallifeexperiences.

2. Furtherresearchisnecessarytostudythefoodexperienceoflowincomegroupsinrelationtowiderenvironmentalissues(housing,localcommunity,relationships,educationetc).

3. Ongoingresearchonthecurrentandchangingcostofa'healthydiet'isneeded.

Therewasastrongsensefromallof

thegroupsthattheyliveinthehere

andnowandthattheirpriorityisto

makethemostofthelimitedbudget

onwhichtheyareliving.

6 ConclusionsandRecommendations

70 71

Appendix1

Members of the Research Advisory Committee

GeorginaBuffiniHealthyFoodforAll

DrAnneCoakleyCarlowInstituteofTechnology

DrMarianFaughnansafefood

LizGriffinClondalkinPartnership

ChristineGurnettHealthServiceExecutiveWest

SarahHargadenMillwardBrownLansdowne

MarnaHarmeyMillwardBrownLansdowne

MaritaHennessysafefood

ClaireHolmesWesternHealthandSocialCareTrust

SineadKeenanHealthyFoodforAll

DrKenMcKenzieSchoolofPublicHealthandPopulationScienceUCD

DrDeirdreO’ConnorSchoolofBiologicalSciencesUCD/HealthyFoodforAllManagementCommittee

NaomiStaffMillwardBrownLansdowne

JimWalshOfficeofSocialInclusionDSFA/HealthyFoodforAllManagementCommittee

6 ConclusionsandRecommendations

73

Food(15minutes)

• Whatwouldyoueatonatypicalday,fromwhenyouwakeupuntilyougotosleep?Givemesometypicalexamplesofwhatyouwouldhave,whenyou’dhaveit,where,andsoforth.

• Foreachmeal/snackconsumed,ask:Whatdoyouthinkarethemainreasonsyoueatthatratherthansomethingelse?

• Ifnotmentioned,probefor:– Cooking/Foodprep:time,ease,skills,

equipment– Whatwillbeeaten:socialandcultural

effects– Affordability– Access/availability– Habit– Emotionalimpulsesandeffects– Doctor’sadvice

• Whendoyoutendtoeatduringtheday?Howofteninadaywouldyoubeeating?

• Foreachoccasion,ask:– Wherewouldyoueatatthattime?(at

homeoraway?Whichroominthehome?)– Wouldyoubeeatingaloneorwith

others?Who?

• (Whatdoesyourspouse/partnereatonatypicalday?)– (Whendotheytendtoeat?Where?With

whom?)

• (Whatdoyourchildreneatonatypicalday?)– (Whendotheytendtoeat?Where?With

whom?)– (Doeseveryoneeatmainmealstogether

inyourhouseholdorwouldpeopleeatatdifferenttimes,e.g.separatemealsforchildren/adults,shiftworkers?)

– (Doeseveryoneeatthesamethingfortheirmainmeal,orwouldpeopleeatdifferentthings,e.g.children/adults)

Foodshoppingoptions(10minutes)

• Whatarethefoodshoppingoptionsinyourarea?Listonflipchart.

• Wheredoyoubuyfood?Typesofstores?Streetmarkets?Anygrowingfood?Anygettingfoodthroughfoodco-opsorfarmboxes?– Whydoyoubuyfoodthere?Probe:

convenience,transport,price,productrange/variety,availabilityofspecificitems,productquality,etc.

– Ifanystoresonflipchartnotmentioned,askwhythesearen’tused

• Doyoutendtodoallyourshoppinginoneoutletordoyoushoparound?Howcome?

• Anybuyingfoodoutsideyourimmediatearea–eithertravellingsomeplacetobuyfoodorbuyingfoodduringtripsyouwouldbemakinganyway?Where,why,whenandhowoften?

• Whereelsedoyoubuyfood?Restaurants/cafés/take-away?Frequencyofeatingout?Occasions?Places?Eatingaloneorwithothers–who?– Conveniencevs.cost?

• Arethereanycommunityorlocalprogrammesthatprovidefood,likecommunitycafés,(schoolbreakfastclubs),churchgroups,(mealsonwheels)etc?Doyouuseanyofthose?Howoften?

• (Whatfoodisavailabletoyourchildrenintheirschools?)– (Howdoyoufeelaboutthefoodavailable

toyourchildrenintheirschools?Likes?Dislikes?)

• Ofthestoresavailabletoyounow,whichdoyourelyonmostforfoodshopping?Whicharemostimportanttoyou–theonesyou’dhatetoseecloseupshop?Why?– Ifyoucouldpickonestorethat

you’dmostliketoseeopeninyourneighbourhoodtoimprovethefoodshoppingoptionsavailabletoyou,whichonewoulditbeandwhy?

Appendix2

Appendix2

Topic guide

Fourhouseholdtypesresearchtopicguide–41109632

June/July2010

NOTES:

• Questionsthatarenotappropriateforallhouseholdgroupsareshowninparentheses.

• Thistopicguideoutlinestheoverallshapeofthediscussion,butthediscussionandwordingofspecificquestionswillbesubjecttochangeandamendedasneededdependingonhowopenalltheparticipantsare.Asaresult,notalldiscussionswillhaveexactlythesamecontent,ascertainlinesofquestioningmaybemoreproductiveinsomegroupsthanothers.Ourhighlyskilledandexperiencedmoderatorswillensurethateachgroupcontributeslearningstowardsfulfillingtheoverallinformationobjectivesforthisresearch.

Introductionandrelaxationofparticipants(15minutes).

• WearetalkingtopeoplealloverIrelandtofindoutwhatpeopleeatnowadaysandwhy.

• Explanationofgroupprocedure–moderatorwillensurewecoveralltopicsandgetoutontime,2ndmoderatorandrecordertocapturewhatissaidforourreport,confidentiality,everyonetoparticipate,onevoiceatatime,norightorwronganswers,oktodisagreewitheachother–we’reinterestedinhearingdifferentperspectives

• Thediscussionwillrunfor90minutes.Groupdecision:Wouldyouliketotakeabreakhalfwaythroughforsmokers,etc.,ordoyouprefertogostraightthrough?

• Name• Householdcomposition(partner,

housemates,no.childrenandages)• Workin/outsidethehome(differentiate

betweenfull-time/part-timemothers)• Didyouhavefartocometogetheretoday?• FavouriteTVprogrammeorfavouritething

todo

72

74 75

Managingbudget(15minutes)

• Thinkingaboutyourhousekeepingmoney–andyoudon’thavetotellmehowmuchitis–wheredoesitallgo?Whatwaydoesitgetdividedup?– Doyoudealwithitweekbyweekor

monthbymonth?

• Ifnotmentioned,probefor:– Food– CleaningProducts– Toiletries– Tobacco– Alcohol

• Doyouplanwhattobuy/spendeachtimeyougoshopping?Weekly/Monthly?

• Ifyou’retryingtostretchyourhousekeepingmoney,whatarethingsyoucancutout?Whatarethetradeoffsyoucanmake?Whatarethethingsyouwon’torcan’tsacrifice?– Whendoesthattendtohappen?Whatare

thetimeswhenyoureallyhavetostretchyourmoney,ifever?Whatelseputspressureonyourbudget?

• Whatarethethingsyouwillspendmoreonwhenyouhavealittleextramoney?Whendoesthattendtohappen,ifever?

• Doyoueverfindyouthrowfoodout?Whataresomeofthethingsyouendupthrowingout?Howdoesthataffectwhatyoubuynexttime(ifatall)?

• Doyoueverfindyourunoutofcertainfooditems?Whataresomeexamplesofthingsyou’relikelytorunoutof?Howdoesthataffectwhatyoubuynexttime(ifatall)?

• Doyoufindthatmanagingyourbudgetandthefoodshoppingtakesalotoutofyou?Whenisiteasiest?Whenisitmostdifficult?

• Howeasyordifficultisittoputenoughfoodonthetableeachday?Whatarethethingsthatmakethiseasierforyou?Whatarethethingsthatmakethismoredifficult?

• Aretheretimesoftheyearthatputmorestressonyouthanothers?ProbeforthingslikeChristmas,backtoschool,Confirmationsandotherevents

• Areyoupartofanyfood-relatedgroups,programmesorclubs?Whyorwhynot?

• ProbeChristmasclubs.Partofanygroupsorplanstohelpyoumanagespending?Whyorwhynot?

• Whatwouldmakeiteasiertoputenoughfoodonthetableeachday?

Lifechangesandimpactonfoodconsumption

patterns(5minutes)

• Doyouthinktherehaveeverbeenanymajorchangestowhatyoueat?

• Whataresomeexamplesoftimesoreventsinyourlifethatchangedwhatyouateandhowyoushoppedforfood?

• Whattriggeredthechange?• Whatdifferencedidthatmakeinwhatyou

ateorhowyoushoppedforfood?• Wasthisapermanentchange?Ifnot,how

longdiditlast?

Appendix2

Foodshoppingpatterns(20minutes)

• Howoftendoyoumakefoodshoppingtrips?Doesthisvary?– Whendoyoudoyourmainfoodshopping

trips–dayofweek,partofmonth?– Howoftendoyoudotop-upfood

shoppingtrips?– Howdoyougettoandfromfoodstores?

Doyouhaveacaroruseofacar?– Howmuchdoyoubuyatatime?– Doyouusuallyshopforfoodaloneor

withotherpeople–relatives,friendsandchildren?

– Doesanyoneeverdoyourshoppingforyou?Inwhatsituations?Howoften?Whatimpactdoesthathaveonwheretheshoppingisdoneandwhatisbought?

– Doyoushopforanyoneotherthanyourselforpeopleinyourhousehold?Who?Howoften?Whatimpactdoesthathaveonwheretheshoppingisdoneandwhatisbought?

• Whataresomeofthefooditemsyoubuyallthetime?– Aretherefooditemsyoufeellikeyou

alwayshavetohaveinyourhome?Whatarethey?

– Whataresomeofthefooditemsyoubuyjustoccasionally?

• Whatthingsdoyoulookoutforwhenyou’redecidingwhattobuy?Whatelsegoesthroughyourmindwhenyou’redoingyourfoodshopping?Listonflipchart• Ifnotmentioned,probefor:– Cooking/Foodprep:time,ease,skills,

equipment– Whatwillbeeaten:socialandcultural

effects,emotionaleffects– Affordability:price,– Brandnamesvs.ownlabelsandbrands

thataren’twelladvertised,– Promotions–whattypesdoyoulike/

dislike?(BOGOF,bulkbuying/multi-packsavingsvs.limitedmoneytospend)

– Transportandwhatyoucancarry– Storage/perishability– Habit– Allergiesorsensitivitiestocertainfoods– Doctor’sadvice– Whichofthesearemostimportantand

why(useasaspringboardfordebateaswellasrecordingpriotisation)?

• Whatkindofmooddoesfoodshoppingputyouin?Why?

76 77

Recruitment questionnaires (ROI & NI)

FourhouseholdgroupsresearchROIrecruitmentquestionnaireMillwardBrownLansdowne:June/July2010

41109632

Goodmorning/afternoon/evening.IamfromMillwardBrownLansdowne.WeareconductingsomeresearchongeneralfoodhabitsinfourdifferenttypesofhouseholdsandIwouldbegratefulforyourhelpinansweringsomequestions.

1 Whatagewereyouonyourlastbirthday?

Under20 1Close20-24 2Close

--------------------------------------------------------

25-29 2Continue30-34 2Continue35-39 2Continue40-44 2Continue45-49 2Continue50-54 2Continue55-59 2Continue60-65 2ContinueOver65 2Groups

5&6only

2 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribeyourlivingarrangments?(Pleaseensurethatnonelivewithparents)

Livingwithparents 1Close

--------------------------------------------------------

Livingalone 2Gps3,4,5&6Livingwithspouse/partnerandchildren 3Gps1&2Livingwithchildrenbutnospouseorpartner 4Gps7&8Livingwithothers(notrelations) 5Gps3&4

3 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesyourroleinthefoodshoppingforyourhousehold?

Idoallormostofthefoodshoppinginmyhousehold 1ContinueIdoatleasthalfofthefoodshoppinginmyhousehold 2ContinueIdoallormostofmyownfoodshopping,butdon’tshopforothersinmyhousehold 3Gps3&

4only

--------------------------------------------------------

Someoneelsedoesmostofthefoodshoppingforme/myhousehold 4CLOSE

Appendix3

Appendix2

Healthyeating(5minutes)

• Everwatchfood/dietrelatedprogrammesonTV?ProbeTVShowssuchasOperationTransformationonTV?OrTheBiggestLoser?YouAreWhatYouEat?CelebrityFitClub?Whatdoyouthinkoftheseshows?– Doyoueverwanttochangeyourdietor

exercisehabitsafterseeingtheseshows?Why?Whatreallygetsyouinterestedindoingthis?

– Howeasyordifficultwoulditbeforyoutodo?Barriers?Facilitators?

• Howimportantishealthyeatingtoyouoverall,inrelationtootherthings?

• Whydoyouthinkhealthprofessionalsemphasisehealthyeatingsomuch?Isthatbelievabletoyou?Compelling?Realistic?Why/whynot?

Wrap-up(5minutes)

• IsthereanythingelseyouwouldliketosaythatyouthinkisimportantandthatIhaven’taskedyouabout?

78 79

2 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribeyourlivingarrangments?(Pleaseensurethatnonelivewithparents)

Livingwithparents 1Close

--------------------------------------------------------

Livingalone 2Gps10&11Livingwithspouse/partnerandchildren 3Gp9onlyLivingwithchildrenbutnospouseorpartner 4Gp12onlyLivingwithothers(notrelations) 5Gp10only

3 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesyourroleinthefoodshoppingforyourhousehold?

Idoallormostofthefoodshoppinginmyhousehold 1ContinueIdoatleasthalfofthefoodshoppinginmyhousehold 2ContinueIdoallormostofmyownfoodshopping,butdon’tshopforothersinmyhousehold 3Gp10only

--------------------------------------------------------

Someoneelsedoesmostofthefoodshoppingforme/myhousehold 4CLOSE

4 Howoftendoyoucookorpreparemealsforyourselforothersathome?

sevenplustimesaweek 1ContinueAtleastthreetimesaweek 2Continue

--------------------------------------------------------

Lessthanthreetimesaweek 3CLOSE

5 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribedyourinvolvementwiththecommunitycentrewherethefocusgroupwillbeheld?

Eachgroupshouldbenomorethanhalfpeopleareorhavebeeninvolvedwithfood-relatedgroupsorprogramsatthecentre.Ifnecessary,usereferralstofindpeopleinthecommunitysimilarintermsofdemographics,householdcompositionandlivingconditionsbutnotaffiliatedwiththecentre.

Iamcurrentlyinvolvedinafood-relatedgrouporprogrammeatthiscentre 1Ihavebeeninvolvedinfood-relatedgroupsorprogrammesatthiscentreinthepast,butamnotcurrently 2

--------------------------------------------------------

Ihaveneverbeeninvolvedinanyfood-relatedgrouporprogramatthiscentre 3

6 Whatnationalityareyou?

Includeonetotwoforeign-nationalsinsomegroupsifpossible

Irish 1

--------------------------------------------------------

ForeignNational 2

Note:Wearerecruitingagrouponfoodhabitsat in

Thegroupwilllast1½hours.Alongwith2ofourresearchers,sevenotherpeoplefromyourcommunitywillbethereandwewillbediscussingfoodhabits–typicalmeals,shopping,foodpreparation,etc.

Areyoufreetocomealong?Recruiter–typeofincentivewillvarybygroup–pleaserefertobriefingnotesforeachgroup(TBC)

Appendix3

4 Howoftendoyoucookorpreparemealsforyourselforothersathome?

sevenplustimesaweek 1ContinueAtleastthreetimesaweek 2Continue

--------------------------------------------------------

Lessthanthreetimesaweek 3CLOSE

5 Whichofthefollowingbestdescribedyourinvolvementwiththecommunitycentrewherethefocusgroupwillbeheld?

Eachgroupshouldbenomorethanhalfpeopleareorhavebeeninvolvedwithfood-relatedgroupsorprogramsatthecentre.Ifnecessary,usereferralstofindpeopleinthecommunitysimilarintermsofdemographics,householdcompositionandlivingconditionsbutnotaffiliatedwiththecentre.

Iamcurrentlyinvolvedinafood-relatedgrouporprogrammeatthiscentre 1Ihavebeeninvolvedinfood-relatedgroupsorprogrammesatthiscentreinthepast,butamnotcurrently 2

--------------------------------------------------------

Ihaveneverbeeninvolvedinanyfood-relatedgrouporprogramatthiscentre 3

6 Whatnationalityareyou?

Include1-2foreign-nationalsinsomegroupsifpossible

Irish 1

--------------------------------------------------------

ForeignNational 2

Note:Wearerecruitingagrouponfoodhabitsat in

Thegroupwilllast1½hours.Alongwithtwoofourresearchers,sevenotherpeoplefromyourcommunitywillbethereandwewillbediscussingfoodhabits–typicalmeals,shopping,foodpreparation,etc.

Areyoufreetocomealong?Recruiter–typeofincentivewillvarybygroup–pleaserefertobriefingnotesforeachgroup(TBC)

FourhouseholdgroupsresearchNIrecruitmentquestionnaireMillwardBrownUlster:July2010

41109632

Goodmorning/afternoon/evening.IamfromMillwardBrownUlster.WeareconductingsomeresearchongeneralfoodhabitsinfourdifferenttypesofhouseholdsandIwouldbegratefulforyourhelpinansweringsomequestions.

1 Whatagewereyouonyourlastbirthday?

Under20 1Close20-24 2Close

--------------------------------------------------------

25-29 2Continue30-34 2Continue35-39 2Continue40-44 2Continue45-49 2Continue50-54 2Continue55-59 2Continue60-65 2ContinueOver65 2Groups

5&6only

80 81

Exit questionnaires

Weinviteyoutoanswerthefollowingquestionstohelpusbuildabetterpictureofyoursituation.Youranswerswillbekeptconfidentialandyouwillnotbeidentifiedinanymaterialsthatarisefromthisproject.Youdonothavetoansweranyquestionsyoudonotwantto.Ifyouneedanyhelpwithanyofthequestions,pleaseletthegroupfacilitatorknow.Thankyoufortakingthetimetohelpuswiththiswork.

Pleasetickalltheboxesthatapplytoyou✓Whatagewereyouonyourlastbirthday?

Are you?

Male

Female

What is your marital status?

Single

Married/livingwithpartner

Separated/divorce/widowed

Household composition

Howmanypeopleliveinyourhousehold?

Do you have children?

Yes

No

Appendix4

Appendix3

Other criteria

• Recruit10participantstoensureashowofsixtoeightpergroup.

• Eachgroupparticipantmustbethemainfoodshopperand‘fridgekeeper’forthehousehold

• Nomorethanhalfofeachgroupshouldbe(orhavebeen)involvedinfood-relatedgroupsorprogrammesatthecentre.• Usereferralsinrecruitmentsothat

someoftheparticipantsineachgrouparenotpartofthecommunitygroup/programmewherethefocusgroupisbeingheld–i.e.,askeachpersonrecruitedfromthegrouptobringafriendwhoisnotinvolvedinthegroupbutissimilartothemselvesintermsofhouseholdcompositionandincome.

• Wewouldliketoincludeonetotwoforeignnationalsinsomeofthegroups,ifpossible.ThesepeopleshouldbefluentEnglishspeakersandcomfortableinteractinginagroupwheretheyaretheonlyoroneofonlytwoforeignnationalsrepresented.

• Donotrecruitmorethanonepersonwhogrewupinthesamehousehold(i.e.,nosiblingsinthesamegroup)becausepeoplewhogrewupinthesamehouseholdlikelywouldnotbeabletogiveusthevariationinviewsandhabitswehopetoobtaininthisresearch.

• Allparticipantsshouldbecomfortableexpressingtheirviewsinagroupsettingandwillingtoparticipateintheresearchprocess.

• Note:Ifappropriateparticipantswithdisabilitiesareidentifiedaccordingtotherecruitmentcriteria,pleaseinvitethemtoattendaswewillensurealllocationsarefullyequippedforwheelchair/disabilityaccess.

82 83

How much of your weekly household income do you spend on food?

What is the highest level of education you have completed so far? (Tick one box only)

Someprimary(notcomplete)

Primaryorequivalent

Intermediate/Junior/GroupCertificateorequivalent

LeavingCertificateorequivalent

Apprenticeship/TradeCertificate/FÁStraining

Diploma/Certificate

Other

Ifother,pleasespecify:

HOUSEHOLD RESPONSIBILITY:

Who in your household is mainly responsible for day-to-day shopping and looking after the home?

Myself

Otherperson

Do you have a car or access to a car?

Yes

No

Appendix4

If yes, please indicate number of children you have in the following age brackets:

0-12years

13-17years

18yearsorover

What is your current work status?

Fulltime(30hoursormore)

Parttime(29hoursorless)

Selfemployed

Homemaker(fulltime)

Fulltime/parttimestudent

Notatworkduetoillness/disability

Unemployed

Retired

Which member of your household would you say is the Chief Income Earner – that is the person

with the largest income whether from employment, pensions, state benefits, or any other

source? If "equal income" relate to oldest:

Occupation of the chief income earner in your household (based on previous employment if not

currently working)

Is your household in receipt of any social welfare payments?

Yes

No

Roughly, what is your weekly household income from all sources – combination of all wages,

salary, social welfare payments and any other benefits received?

Under¤250

Morethan¤250butlessthan¤500

Morethan¤500butlessthan¤750

Morethan¤750butlessthan¤1000

¤1000ormore

84 85

Unemployed

Retired

What is your own occupation? (based on previous employment if not currently working)

What is the occupation of the chief income earner in the household? (based on previous

employment if not currently working)

Is your household in receipt of any social welfare payments?

Yes

No

Roughly, what is your weekly household income from all sources – combination of all wages,

salary, social welfare payments and any other benefits received?

Under£150

Morethan£150butlessthan£250

Morethan£250butlessthan£500

Morethan£500butlessthan£750

£750ormore

How much do you spend on food per week?

What is the highest level of education you have completed so far? (Tick one box only)

Someprimary(notcomplete)

Primaryorequivalent

GCSEor‘O’Level

'A'Level

Apprenticeship/TradeCertificate

Diploma/Certificate

University

Other

Ifother,pleasespecify:

Appendix4

Weinviteyoutoanswerthefollowingquestionstohelpusbuildabetterpictureofyoursituation.Youranswerswillbekeptconfidentialandyouwillnotbeidentifiedinanymaterialsthatarisefromthisproject.Youdonothavetoansweranyquestionsyoudonotwantto.Ifyouneedanyhelpwithanyofthequestions,pleaseletthegroupfacilitatorknow.Thankyoufortakingthetimetohelpuswiththiswork.

Pleasetickalltheboxesthatapplytoyou✓Whatagewereyouonyourlastbirthday?

Are you?

Male

Female

What is your marital status?

Single

Married/livingwithpartner

Separated/divorce/widowed

Household composition

Howmanypeopleliveinyourhousehold?

Do you have children living at home with you?

Yes

No

If yes, please indicate number of children you have in the following age brackets:

0-12years

13-17years

18yearsorover

What is your current work status?

Fulltime(30hoursormore)

Parttime(29hoursorless)

Selfemployed

Homemaker(fulltime)

Fulltime/parttimestudent

Notatworkduetoillness/disability

86 87

Exit questionnaire data – Income and food spending

Two-parenthousehold

Loneparenthousehold

Singlemalehousehold

Singleolderpersonhousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

Weeklyhouseholdincome5 ¤422 £282 ¤328 £175 ¤1886 £146 ¤240 £178

Foodspending ¤180 £86 ¤150 £84 ¤82 £31 ¤87 £51

Foodspendingasapercent(%)ofincome7

43 31 46 48 44 21 36 29

Inreceiptofanysocialwelfarepayments(%)

76 75 81 100 89 100 67 228

Notinreceiptofanysocialwelfarepayments(%)

18 25 19 0 11 0 11 78

Notansweringre:socialwelfare(%)

6 0 0 0 0 0 22 0

Haveacaroraccesstoacar(%)

71 63 63 38 72 43 44 89

Participantage(mean) 37 31 33 31 38 52 70 76

5 Incomefromallsources–combinationofallwages,salary,socialwelfarepaymentsandanyotherbenefitsor

paymentsreceived.Incomewasaskedintermsofpre-definedrangestoincreaseparticipantco-operation.Mean

incomewascalculatedbasedonthemid-pointsofeachrange.SeparaterangeswereusedforROIandNI(seeappendix)

Appendix5

Appendix4

Household responsibility:

Who in your household is mainly responsible for day-to-day shopping and looking after the home?

Myself

Otherperson

Do you have a car or access to a car?

Yes

No

88 89

12 OnewomanintheBallymenafocusgroupidentifiedherselfas“single”onthequestionnairebuthadbeenrecruitedto

participateinthetwo-parentgroupanddidnotmentionthatshewasaloneparentduringthediscussion.

13 OneparticipantintheBelfastgroupmentionedhehadahomehealthassistantwhodidhisshoppingforhim.

14 OneTraleeparticipantsaidherdaughterwascurrentlyhelpingherwithshoppingandhousekeepingwhileshe

recoveredfromaheartattackandwrotein“mydaughter”nextto“otherperson”onthequestionnaire.One

Drumshanboparticipantalsomarkedthisbox,butnoreferencewasmadetosomeonehelpinghimduringthe

discussion.FourDrumshanboparticipantsleftthisquestionblank.

Exit questionnaire data – children’s ages as a percentage (%)

Two-parenthousehold

Loneparenthousehold

Singlemalehousehold

Singleolderpersonhousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

None 0 0 615 0 78 57 56 100

Any 100 100 94 100 2216 4317 44 0

Age0-12only 35 69 56 63 17 14 0 0

Age13-17only 6 6 13 0 0 0 0 0

Age18+only 0 0 0 0 0 29 44 0

Age0-12,13-17and18+ 29 0 6 0 0 0 0 0

Age0-12and13-17 18 19 6 25 6 0 0 0

Age13-17and18+ 12 6 6 13 0 0 0 0

Age0-12and18+ 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0

15 OneClonmelparticipanthasnochildrenofherown,butliveswithherboyfriendandhis6yearoldson.

16 FouroftheCavanparticipantshavechildren,howevernoneofthemhavefullcustodyoftheirchildren–theparticipant

whohasmostvisitationtimewithhischildrenhasthemtwodaysaweek.

17 ThreeBelfastparticipantshavechildren,howevernoneofthemhavetheirchildrenlivingwiththem.Ofthesethree,

onlyonehasachildunder18yearsold.

Appendix5

6 Thisfigureexcludestworespondentswhoreportedtheirweeklyincomeas“¤1000ormore”.Includingthese

respondents,theaverageforthisgroupwouldbe¤360.Webelievethesetworespondentsmisinterpretedthe

questionnaire,asonlyoneparticipantinthegroupwasemployedfulltimeandhedescribedhisoccupationmerely

as“factory”.

7 Asincomeiscalculatedbasedonmid-pointsofranges,thisisinexact,butprovidedforillustrativepurposes.

8 Thisproportionseemslow,particularlycomparedtoothergroups,butasthequestionnairewasself-administered

andnoqueriesregardinghowtheyshouldinterpretthisquestionwereraised,wehavenoinformationtoexplain

whytheyansweredthisway.Ifparticipantsdidnotconsider“pension”asincludedinthedefinitionof“socialwelfare

payments”thiscouldexplainthediscrepancy,butthisisonlyspeculationbasedontheageandemploymentstatusof

theparticipants.

Exit questionnaire data – Household size and marital status

Two-parenthousehold

Loneparenthousehold

Singlemalehousehold

Singleolderpersonhousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

Householdsize(mean) 4.8 4.3 3.3 3.4 2.39 1.0 1.610 1.0

Single(%) 6 6 64 87 78 100 50 0

Married/livingwithpartner(%)

8811 9412 0 0 0 0 11 0percent

Separated/divorced/widowed(%)

6 0p 36 13 22 0 39100percent

Myself(%) 100 100 100 100 100 8613 6714100percent

Otherperson(%) 0 0 0 0 0 14 11 0percent

Blank(%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0percent

9 Somesinglesmales,particularlyinTralee,sharedhousingwithroommates.Accordingtogroupdiscussions,nonehave

partnersorchildrenlivingwiththem,althoughafewhavegirlfriendsorchildrenwhovisitthemregularly(typicallyon

weekends).

10 OnewomaninTraleeandonemaninDrumshanboweremarriedanddespitenotfittingthebriefforthegroup(living

alone)shewasallowedtostayandparticipateinthediscussion.

11 OnewomaninManorhamiltonidentifiedherselfasrecentlyseparatedduringthefocusgroupintroductions.One

womanintheClondalkinfocusgroupidentifiedherselfas“single”onthequestionnaire,buthadbeenrecruitedto

participateinthetwo-parentgroupanddidnotmentionthatshewasaloneparentduringthediscussion.

90 91

Exit questionnaire data – Participant’s current work status

Two-ParentHousehold

LoneParentHousehold

SingleMaleHousehold

SingleOlderPersonHousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

Unemployed(%) 6 19 25 38 61 29 6 0

Retired(%) 0 0 0 0 0 43 72 100

Homemaker(fulltime)(%) 59 38 25 25 6 0 0 0

Parttime(29hoursorless)(%)

29 19 25 25 6 0 0 0

Fulltime(30hoursormore)(%)

0 13 6 0 17 0 11 0

Notatworkduetoillnessordisability(%)

6 13 0 13 6 29 6 0

Fulltimeorparttimestudent(%)

0 0 19 0 6 0 0 0

Selfemployed(%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0

Appendix5

Exit questionnaire data – education

Two-parenthousehold

Loneparenthousehold

Singlemalehousehold

Singleolderpersonhousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

Someprimary(notcomplete)(%)

0 0 0 0 0 0 33 0

Primaryorequivalent 12 13 13 13 0 57 6 0

Intermediate,Junior,GroupCertorequivalent(ROI)(%)

41 25 11 11

GCSEorOLevel(%) 44 25 14 11

LeavingCertorequivalent(ROI)(%)

35 13 33 11

ALevel(%) 6 0 0 44

Apprenticeship,TradeCertificate,FÁSTraining(%)

6 0 13 25 17 0 0 11

Diploma,Certificate(%) 6 13 31 13 33 29 6 33

Other(%) 0 19 6 25 6 0 0 0

Blank(%) 0 6 0 0 0 0 33 0

92 93

Pen portraits

Anumberofpenportraitswerecreatedbytheresearcherstoprovideatruesenseoftherespondents'personalities,backgroundandthelifestylewithineachhouseholdtype.Pleasenotethatthesearecompositeprofilesanddonotreflectspecificindividuals,toprotectpersonalprivacyandforreasonsofincompletenessofinformationonanindividuallevel.

Suzanne: Two-parent households with

children

Suzanneis36yearsoldandlivesinahousingestatewithherhusbandandthreechildrenagedthreethroughfifteen.Shehasalwaysbeenastay-at-homemother,althoughsheoncetookacoursetobecomeabeautician.Herhusbandisworkingbutonlypart-timeandwithverylittlepay,somoneyistight.SheswearsthattheywouldnotbeabletoheatthehouseandkeepfoodinthecupboardifitwerenotfortheChildren’sAllowance.Herparentslivenearby–closeenoughthatthekidscanwalkovertotheirgranny’sunaccompanied,butnotsoclosethatsheseesthemeveryday.Shelikestoreadandgoesthroughanoveleveryweekortwo.Shealsowatchestelly–dramasandcrimeprogrammesifshegetsherchoice,althoughtheretendstobealotofcompetitionoverthetellyinthefamily.Theonlythingstheyallagreeonare'X-Factor'

andrealityTVshows.Shegoesoutwalkingwithafewfriendsthreeorfourtimesaweekandtriestolimit'badfoods'thatarehighinfatandsugarinanongoingstruggletokeepherweightdown.

Suzannefeelslikeshespends'halfherlife'inthekitchenpreparingfoodforvariousfamilymembersbut,despitethis,sherarelysitsdownforamealherself.Inthemorningsheusuallymakesherselfacupofteathatshesupsfromasshefixesthekids’breakfasts.Thetwoyoungeroneshavebowlsofcerealeverymorningbutthe15yearoldhasstartedsayingsheisn’thungryinthemorningsandcanrarelybepersuadedtoeatanythingbeforeschool.Suzanneusuallytriestogethertobringabananaorcerealbartoschoolwithherincaseshegetshungrylater.OnceshedropsthekidstoschoolSuzannemightstopandhaveanothercupofteawithacoupleofbiscuitsorapieceoftoast,butmanydaysshe'doesn’tbother.'

Mostdaysshefeelslikeshe’sconstantlyonthego,betweendroppingthekidsoffplacesandpickingthemup,doingthehousekeeping,shopping,andgenerallymakingsureeverythingthathastobedoneforthehouseholdtokeepgoinggetsdone.Shetriestodoallhershoppingwhilethekidsareinschoolsothattheyarenotpesteringhertobuymorethanthefamilycanafford.Shefeelslikeshe’sconstantlymulti-taskingandjugglingtosuiteveryone’sneeds

Appendix6

Appendix5

Exit questionnaire data – social class18

Two-ParentHousehold

LoneParentHousehold

SingleMaleHousehold

SingleOlderPersonHousehold

ROI(n=17)

NI(n=16)

ROI(n=16)

NI(n=8)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=7)

ROI(n=18)

NI(n=9)

Ab(whitecollar,professional)(%)

0 6 0 0 0 14 0 22

C1(whitecollar,clerical)(%) 18 19 31 13 6 0 0 33

C2(bluecollar,skilled)(%) 12 19 19 13 6 14 28 0

D(bluecollar,unskilled)(%) 29 19 19 38 6 14 11 0

E(inreceiptofsocialwelfare)(%)

12 6 25 25 44 29 0 22

F(farming)(%) 6 0 0 0 6 0 6 0

Notstated(%) 24 31 6 13 28 29 56 22

18 Definedbycurrentoccupationofchiefincomeearner,ormostrecentoccupationofchiefincomeearnerifcurrently

retiredornotemployed.

94 95

whenthekidsareoffschool.Shealsoendsupatthelocalshopbuyingafewitemsnearlyeverydayassherunsoutofthings–mostoftenbread,milkandcigarettes.Onceortwiceamonthsherestocksthechestfreezerandthetreatcupboardascheaplyasshecan,althoughshealsotopsthemupweeklywheneversherunsoutofsomethingorhasthegoodfortunetogetabargain.Shealsogoestoadiscountstorefairlyfrequently,especiallyfortoiletries,whichherkids'runthroughatanalarmingrate'andwhich'costtheearth.'Shefindsdiscountstoresarealsogoodforsweetsandchocolatebars.

Withlimitedfundsandmanymouthstofeed,Suzannehastowatchpricesandshopstrategically.Shesharesinformationaboutpricesandspecialoffersatvariousstoreswithhermother,hersisters,herfriendsandothermothersatherkids’school.Shewilltrysomethingnew(astoreorproduct)basedonwordofmouthrecommendation,butotherwiseshetendstosticktowhatsheknowswillbeeatenandshopatthestoreswhereshealwaysshops,becausethismakesherfeelmoresecurethatshewon’tbecaughtoutbywhatitcosts.ShehastakenlongershoppingtripswithfriendstoplaceslikeASDAthatarenotnearhomebutarerumouredtohavegreatprices,butfoundthatsheendeduploadingupontheitemswithreallystunningpricedifferences–especiallytoiletries,medicinesandalcohol–andthendidnothaveasmuchmoneylefttobuyfoodasshenormallywould.Theseexperimentshavetaughthertostickwithfamiliarstoreswherehershoppingbillismorepredictable.

Laura: Lone parent households with children

Lauraisa33year-oldsinglemotherwithtwochildrenagesevenandten.Shehasapart-timejobinachipshopfrom9amto3pmthreedaysaweek,butsheexplainsshe’snot'formallyemployed'becausesheneedstostayontheliveregisterinorderto'haveenoughmoneycomingin.'Sheisveryclosetohersisterandherparents,

wholivecloseby.Herkidsspendalotoftimewiththeircousins,eitheratherhouse,hersister’sortheirparents’.

HerdailyeatinghabitsandshoppinghabitsareverymuchlikeSuzanne’s,withafewexceptions.OnebigexceptionisthatLauracannotaffordtakeawayslikeSuzanne–sheclaimsshedoesn’trememberthelasttimesheboughtatakeaway.Instead,shehastobuyandprepareallthedinnersandlunchesforthefamilythemajorityofthetime.LikeSuzanne,Lauratendstomakedifferentthingsforeachkid,usuallyconveniencefoodslikepizzas,chickenfingers,fishfingers,potatowaffles,beans,chips,andpotnoodles.Sheherselfeatsalittleofwhateachkidishaving.LauraalsoleansonherfamilyabitmorethanSuzanne,bringingherkidsovertoherparentsorhersister’sfordinnerafewtimesaweek.SheandherkidsalsohavetheirSundaydinneratherparents’everyweek.

LauraandsinglemotherpeersspendmoretimethanSuzanneandthemothersfromtwo-parenthouseholdstalkingaboutthethingstheyhavetodowithoutforthesakeoflookingaftertheirkidsandthehousehold.Newclothesforthemselvesandgoingoutaretoponthelistofsacrificessinglemothersfeeltheyhavetotakeintheirstrideinordertopaythebillsandmakesuretheirkidshaveeverythingtheyneed.Incontrast,Suzanneandherpeersmentionthattheydoenjoyanightoutwithfriendsonceeverymonthortwoandturnuptothegroupswearingrecentfashions.

Michael: Younger single males living alone

Michaelis28yearsoldandlivesalone.Hehasagirlfriend,butshelivesabouttwoandahalfhoursawayandtheyalternatevisitingeachotheratweekendsabouttwiceamonth.Heisnotworkingatthemomentbuthasworkedinshops,factoriesandasadriveratvariouspointsinhislife.Helivesjustdowntheroadfromthe

Appendix6

andschedules.Mostdaysthepressureofthisleaveshertoopreoccupiedtothinkabouteatinglunch,butshenibblesoutofthesnackcupboardwhenevershefeelsherenergyorconcentrationdrop–'alittlesomething'sweetorcrunchywillusuallybeenoughtokeephergoing,withouthavingtostopwhateversheisdoing.

Sheputsondinnersforvarioushouseholdmembersforhourseveryevening,withtwoorthreedifferentsittingsanight,startingfromwhenthefirstkidcomeshomefromschooluntilthelastpersonarriveshomeforthenight(eitherherhusbandorheroldestdaughter).Eachkidhasdifferentrequirementsintermsofwhattheylikeandwhattheyrefusetoeat,sofixingonedinnerthatsuitseveryoneinthefamilyseemsimpossible.Whenshewasgrowingup,hermotherpreparedonedinnerforthefamilyeachdayandpresenteditwitha'takeitorleaveit'attitude,presumingthatifthekidswerereallyhungryandneededtoeat,theywouldeatwhatwasontheirplate,whethertheylikeditornot.Suzannerecallsnoteatingherdinneronthedaysthathermothermadesomethingshedidn’tlike(likeliver)andisafraidthatifherkidsdidnoteattheirdinnerstheywouldgetsickornotgrowproperly.Eventhoughitcomplicatesherlife,Suzannefeelsitisworththehassleofcateringdifferentdinnersforeachkidbecauseit’simportanttoherthateachofthemeatsatleastonesolidmealeveryday.Suzanneusuallydoesnotfixherselfadinnerbecauseaftercateringforeveryoneelse,she'can’tbebothered'fixingonemoremeal.Instead,shefindsiteasierjusttopickatwhat’sleftoveronotherpeople’splatesortake'tastes'ofvariousfoodsasshepreparesthem.Sometimesshegetshungrylater,afterthekidshavegonetobed,andgetsatakeawaywithherhusband.

Mostofthetime,thedinnersSuzannepreparesarefrozenfoodscookedintheovenordeepfryer,oroccasionallynoodlesinsaucethatcanbemicro-wavedorboiledonthestove.Withso

manydifferentthingstoprepareeachdinner-time,shesaysshewouldnothavetimetocookthemherself.Shealsothinksitwouldbefoolishtobuyalltheingredientsandputthetimeintocookingthefoodsherchildrenlikesfromscratchwhentheyareactuallycheaperready-to-cookinthebox–especiallyiftheyareonoffer.TheonlydayshecooksamealfromscratchistheSundayroast,whichshesaysistheonemealaweekwhereeveryoneinherfamilysitsdownandeatstogether.Eventhen,notallofthechildreneateverything,butthereisenoughvarietyforeveryoneandshemakessurethedinnerincludesarangeofdishesbasedonwhateachonewilleat.

AcoupleoftimesaweekSuzannegetsabreakfromcookingdinners.OnThursdaysthekidsgototheirgranny’sfordinner,whichmeansSuzannecanrelaxandhaveabitoftimetoherself.Sometimesshegoesovertoherparents’withthekidsandhasherowndinnerthereaswell.HerparentswouldusuallydotheSundayroastforherfamilyaboutonceamonthaswellandtheyalwayshaveChristmasdinnerandEasterdinnerateitherherparents’orherhusband’sparents.Ifoneofthekidsissickorifsheisfeelingillherself,shecanalsosendthekidsovertohermother’sfortheirbreakfast,orforthedayatweekends.MostSaturdaynights,iftheycanaffordit,sheandherhusbandbuyatakeawaydinnerforthehousehold–Saturdayisher'dayoff'fromcooking.

Withfivepeopletofeed,Suzannedoesalotofshopping.Shegoestoasupermarketandadiscounterforherbigshopatleastonceaweek,sometimestwice.Sheusuallysplitshershoppingbetweenthem;buyingmostofherstaplesandfoodforthemainmealsatthesupermarket,wherethereismorechoice,butbuyingownbrand/offbrandbiscuits,chocolatebars,crisps,andcleaningsuppliesatthediscounters.Shefindssheusuallyneedstostockupmorefrequentlyduringthesummersandholidays

96 97

groupsandprojectswheneverheisasked.

Heusuallystartsthedaywitheitherporridgeortoastandtea.Heseldomhasenoughappetitetofixhimselfalunchnowthatheisnotworking,althoughherecallsbeingalmostconditionedtobehungryatlunch-timeandbreaktimeswhenhewasworking.Ifhedoesfeelpeckish,hemightfixhimselfasandwichandifheisintownhemightbetemptedtogetacurryorfishandchips.Sometimeshehasapieceoffruitinthemiddleofthedaybut,ifhefeelsatallstressed,hemightgooutandbuyachocolatebarinstead.Mosteveningshecookshimselfadinner.Sometimesthisisverytraditional–achickenbreastorchopwithboiledpotatoesandvegetablesandasalad,apotofstew–buthealsomakeshimselfcurriesandstirfries–oftenimprovisingtherecipesbasedonwhateverhehastohand.Healsohasastockoffrozenconveniencefoods,buttriesnottoeatthosetoooften–nomorethantwiceaweekifhecanhelpit.HeusuallyeatshisdinnerinfrontoftheTVunlesshischildrenarevisiting,inwhichcasetheyeatatthetable.EveningscanbelongandboringforhimandifhespendsthewholeeveningwatchingTVheusuallyendsupmunchingonsnackfoodsoutofboredom.Hetriestokeephimselfdistractedbyreading,listeningtomusicorspendingtimewithfriendssohedoesnotfallintothistraptoooften.

Heismorehealth-consciousaboutwhatheeatsthanMichaelandmakesanefforttohaveatleastonebalancedmealmostdays,andtriestolimittheamountofprocessedfoodsandtakeawaysheeatstonomorethanthreeoccasionsperweek.Healsowatcheshowmuchsugar,saltandfatheconsumes.Herecallsfirstthinkingabouteatinghealthierwhenhisfirstchildwasbornandhelearnedaboutnotgivingbabiestoomuchsalt,amongotherrules–allofwhichmadehimreflectonwhatheatehimselfandwhetheritwasgoodforhim.Hegainedadditionalmotivationtoeatamorehealthydietashegotolderandsawhis

parentsandsiblingsdevelopingchronichealthproblemsthatcouldbepartiallycontrolledwithdiet.Whenhestoppedworkingduetoinjury,hefelthehad'noexcuse'nottotakecontrolofhiseatinghabits,giventhathehad'nothingbutfreetime.'Hehastaughthimselftocookusingbooks,cookingshowsandonlinerecipesites,andnowmakeshimselfadinnerfromscratchafewtimesaweek.Heisproudthathecancooka'proper'balanceddinnerforhischildrenwhentheyarevisitingandnotjustfeedthem'junkfood.'

Learningtocookhasledhimtobuymorefreshfoodsandheisveryparticularaboutthequalityoffreshingredients.Hepreferstogethismeatfromabutcherandhisfruitandvegfromafarmer’smarketorfruitandvegstore,feelingsmallerretailerstendtohavefresherstockthatislesslikelytobetreatedwithpesticides,preservatives,hormones,etc.Heismorelikelytoeconomisebybuyingownbrandsonpackagedgoodslikecoffee,pasta,cleaningsuppliesandtoiletries,whichhebuysatalargersupermarket.

Althoughmoneyistightandhecontrolshisspendingcarefully,hedoesnotthinkthatgoingoutofhiswaytoshoparoundforthelowestpriceswillhelphimsavemoney.Hisexperienceisthatwhenhehasmadetheefforttoshopatstoresthatarerumouredtohavethelowestprices,hisprioritiesshiftedfromwhatheneededandwouldusetowhathecouldsavemostmoneyon.Asaresult,hecamehomehavingspentmorethanheplanned,purchasedthingshedidnotendupusingandhadtogobacktoanotherstoretopickupthingshehadforgottentobuy.Hedismissesstoresthatmarketaroundthelow-pricepropositionas'afalseeconomy'unlessyouareverydisciplinedinyourshopping.

Frances: Single older females living alone

Francesisawidowwithfourgrownchildren.Oneofherdaughterslivesinthesametownwithherownyoungfamily;theotherthreechildrenare

Appendix6

homewherehegrewupandisafrequentvisitortobothhismother’sandhissister’shomes.Thebiggestactivityinhislifeisfootball–duringtheseasonhetrainsthreeorfourdaysaweekaswellasplayinggamestwoorthreetimesamonthandevenintheoff-seasonhetrainsinformallytostayincondition.

Hetendstowakeupbetweenteninthemorningandnoon,sometimesnotuntil1pm,soheusuallydoesnoteatbreakfast,althoughhemighthavesomecigarettesandcoffeebeforehisfirstmealoftheday.Duringtheafternoonhemightmakehimselfasandwichathome,butheisjustaslikelytopopouttotheshopforapacketofcrispsorasausageroll(ifhe’shungry)andacoke.Heisfairlyactiveinthelateafternoon/earlyeveningonweekdays,trainingforfootballorjustkeepinghimselfinconditionwithrunningorinformalgamesintheoff-season.Atweekendsheusuallygoesoutdrinkingwithfriendsandthentakesiteasythenextdayunlesshehasamatchon.

Hismainmealisalwaysintheevening,andthisiswhenheconsumesmostofhisfoodfortheday.Ifheiscateringforhimself,hisdinnertendstobesomethinghecanthrowintheovenandhavewithinthehour–frozenpizzas,chickengoujons,potatowedges,etc.Whenhisgirlfriendisup,orifafriendcomesover,hemightputabitmoreeffortintocookingandmakesomethinglike'spagbol'orastirfry,butforhimselfhealmostexclusivelycooksconveniencefood.Sometimes,ifheisreallyhungryandcannotwaitforhisfoodtocookintheoven,hegetsatakeawayinstead–acurryorfishandchips,butacknowledgesthathecannotaffordtodothisallthetime.Twiceaweek–SundayafternoonsandWednesdayevenings–hegoeshometohismother’sforameal,whichisthetypeoffarehehimselfdescribesas'aproperdinner'–meat,potatoesandtwoveg,withasaladorfruitstarter.Sometimesshegiveshimapacketofbiscuits,loafofbreadorjarofcoffeetotakehomewithhim.

Heknowshisdietisnotverywellbalanced(exceptforthemealshismotherpreparesforhim)andfeelsheshouldbeeatingmorefruitandvegetables,butcomplainsthatwhenhemakestheefforttobuythem,theyendupgoingoffbeforeheeatsthem.Hedoesmakeanefforttoincreasehisintakeoffruitifhefeelsillbecausehebelieveseatingfruitincreaseshisresistance,andhealsoeatsabananaadayforenergyduringthefootballseason.

Michaelhatesshoppingforfoodsohedoesmostofhisshoppinginthelocalshoponanas-neededbasis–pickingupafewthingsnearlyeveryday.Aboutonceaweekoronceeverytwoweekshegoestothesupermarket,buthemakesanefforttogointheeveningswhenitisnotcrowdedandwhenheisleastlikelytorunintopeopleheknows.Aboveeverything,hehatesmeetingupwith'alltheaul’women'whoknowhisfamilyandinsistonstoppingtochatwithhim.Helikestogetabargain,butallthingsconsidered,doesnotthinkitisworthhiswhiletoshoparound,comparepricesandgotodiscounterslikeAldiorLidlfortheamountheisbuying.Healsosayshewouldrathershopinthelocalstoresandsupportthelocaleconomythangivehismoneyto'thebigchains.'

Jack: Middle-aged single males living alone

Jackisinhislate40s.Hehasbeenlivingalonesincehismarriagebrokeupaboutsixyearsago,buthehastwochildrenagesnineand11whostaywithhimfourorfivedaysamonth.Heusedtoworkinafactorybuthasoldinjuriestohisbackandwriststhatlimitthekindsofjobshecantakeandasaresulthasbeenmostlyoutofworkforseveralyears.Hetriestokeephimselfoccupiedwith'somethingproductive'mostdaysforfearthatotherwisehewouldbecomeoverwhelmedwithboredomanddepression.Hereadsthepapers,followslocalsports,usestheInternetatthelibraryorlocalcommunitycentre,andalthoughhedoesnotvolunteeronaregularbasishewillusuallyhelpoutwithvariouscommunity

98 99

findsgoodpricesandqualityformoreobscurefoodproductslikemangetoutorspecialityflours.

Unlikemanyotherlow-incomeshoppers,shehastheexpertiseanddisciplinetoresisttemptationandthisallowshertobrowse,comparisonshopandcherry-pick.Shetendstohavealookallaroundeachstoreeventhoughsheoftenonlybuysafewitemsatatime.Shehasacarandcandrivebutpreferstodomostofhershoppingclosetohomeorusepublictransport.Whenshebuysmorethanshecancarry,sheislikelytohavehershoppingdelivered,providedshespendsenoughtoqualifyforfreedelivery.Forbigstock-upshoppingtripslikebeforeChristmas,hersontakesher,notjusttodrivebutalsotohelpcarryandputawaythegroceries.

John: Single older males living alone

Johnisa67yearoldretiredlabourerwholivesaloneonthefamilyfarmsinLeitrim.Weassumeheisalifelongbacheloronthebasisthatheneverreferstoanypartnerorchildren,pastorpresent,throughoutthewholeofourdiscussion.Wealsonotethathemakesnoreferencetosiblingsornieces/nephews,andsoassumethatanysurvivingmembersofhisbirthfamilymovedawaylongago.

Johnleadsaquietandsolitarylife,butkeepsactivewithchoresaroundhishomeandproperty.Althoughhehasneverfarmedhislandforcashcrops,hehasalwayshadavegetablegardenandkeptacow,apigandsomechickensforhisownuse.Healsodoesagoodbitoffishingandsomehuntinginseason,andheknowsthebestplacestogathermushroomsandvariousberriesinthesurroundingwoodsandfields.

LikeFrances,Johnhasaprettywellbalanceddietcomprisedofmostlywholefoodscookedfromscratch.BreakfastisusuallyporridgeoraboiledeggwithtoastandcoffeeonweekdaysandafryonSaturday.Thismealoftenkeepshimgoing

untilneardinnertime,soheoftenskipslunch.Hesayshenolongerhasasmuchappetiteashedidwhenhewasworking.Healsoobservesthatonceheisoccupiedathome,heseldomthinksofstoppingtoeatashedidwhenhehadascheduledworkdaylunchbreak.Ondayswhenheisdoingerrandsintown,however,heisoftentemptedtostopforahotlunchinthesupermarketdeliorchipper–maybetwoorthreetimesaweek.

Johncookshisowndinnersnearlyeveryday,unlesshemakesastew(whichmightdohimfortwoorthreedaysinarow).Helikesverytraditionaldinnerssuchasbaconandcabbage,steakwithmushroom,onionsandpotatoes,andchickenbreast,pork/lambchopsorfishwithtwovegandpotatoes.Mostofhiscookingisdoneonthestove-toporintheoven–hedoesnotownadeepfatfryeroramicrowave.Hegenerallybuystheingredientsforhisdinnerearlierthesameday–atmosttheywouldbeboughttwoorthreedaysinadvance.Fixinghisdinnertakeshimbetweenoneandtwohourseverydaybuthedoesnotmindthetimeittakesbecausecookingforhimselfmeansheissuretogethisdinnerexactlythewayhelikesit.Ondayswhenhehaslunchintown,hemightmakejustameatandcheesesandwichforhisdinnerinsteadofcookingafullmeal.

HetendstoeathisdinnerinfrontoftheTVintheeveningsandoftensnacksonbiscuitsorchocolatebarsinfrontofitlaterintheeveningaswell.Otherthanthat,herarelyeatsbetweenmeals,exceptforapieceofwholefruitoranoddbiscuitwithacupofteamid-morningormid-afternoon.Thereareveryfewprocessedfoodsinhisdietandheconsumesagoodbalanceoffoodgroupseveryday.Theonlywayinwhichhisdietislackingisthathisrepertoireisquitenarrow,whichmeansthatthevarietyoffoods(especiallyfruitsandvegetables)heconsumesislimited.

Appendix6

settledelsewhereinIrelandandvariousEnglishspeakingcountriesabroad.Francesformerlyworkedasabankclerkbuthasbeenretiredfor12years.Shecontinuestoliveinthehomewheresheraisedherfamilybuthaslivedalonesinceherhusbanddiedeightyearsago.

Franceshasmadeaconsciousefforttostaveoffsocialisolationbykeepingbusywithavarietyofactivitiesthatgetheroutofthehouseonadailybasis.Shebelongstoawalkinggroup,goestoaregularlunchtimemeetingatthecommunitycentreeveryWednesday,meetsfriendsforlunchordinneracoupleoftimesaweek,mindstwoofhergrandchildrenafterschoolonceaweek,andisaregularchurch-goer.Sheoftenhostsherdaughter’sfamilyforSundaydinnerandalsoputsonaholidaydinnerforherextendedfamilyonceortwiceayear.Sherarelyspendsawholedayathomeunlesssheisunwell.

Franceshasaprettywellbalanceddietcomprisedmostlyoffreshwholefoodscookedfromscratch.Breakfastisusuallyeitherporridgeorcerealandapieceoffruitwithteafirstthinginthemorning,sometimesfollowedbyasconeorsometoastwithmoreteaaround11amifsheishungry.Unlesssheismeetingfriendstoeatout,lunchisafairlycasualaffair.Ifsheishungry,shemightputtogetherasandwich,heatupsomesoup,orboilaneggforherlunch,butmanydaysshedoesn’thaveenoughappetitetomotivatehertopreparelunch.Dinnerishermainmealandshetendstoeatitaround5or6pm.Sherarelyeatsordrinksanythingafterdinner,buttypicallysnacksonpiecesofwholefruitonceortwiceaday,andsometimeshasabiscuitortwowithacupofteabetweenmeals.

Shecooksdinnerforherselfthreeorfourtimesaweek.Shealsobakesherownbreadandsconeseveryweek.Hermostfrequentlyprepareddishesincludevegetablesoup,stew,stirfrieswithrice,pastadishes,andchickenbreasts,porkchopsorbakedfishwithpotatoesandvegetables.However,

shehasawiderepertoireofrecipesandvarieshermenuseveryweektokeepfromgettingbored.Comparedtothedayswhenshewasraisingafamilyandcooking/bakingeveryday,herfoodpreparationhabitsaremuchsimplifiedandlesslabourintensive.Shedoesnotseethepointininvestingthetimeandeffortintopreparingaroastdinnerforjustoneperson,forinstance.However,theknowledgeandexperienceshehasaccumulatedduringtheyearswhenshewasactivelycateringforafullhouseholdremainevidentinthewiderepertoireoffoodsshebuysandconsumes,aswellasherrangeofcookeryskills.

Shecravesvarietyandasaresulthaslittleappetiteforleftovers.Shecantoleratethesamedishtwodaysinarowifshepushesherself,butshepreferstohavesomethingdifferentfordinnereachday.Onewayshemanagesthisistofreezeherleftoversandusethemthenextweek.Shealsobuysandeatsacoupleofsingleservereadymealsmostweekstosatisfyherdesireforvarietywithouttheworkofcookingadifferentmealeveryday.Sheeatsoutregularlyandiscarefulenoughwithherspendingthatshecanaffordthisindulgence.Herregularout-goingsareverymodestnow,somostofthetimeitiseasyenoughforhertoaffordtoeatout–sheonlyhastocutbackonthisluxuryoccasionally,intheeventofabigandunexpectedhomerepairexpense.Meetingfriendsformealsoutisimportanttoherbecauseitrelievessolitarylivingandespeciallyeatingalone,theboredomofeatingone’sowncooking,andgivesherareasontogetoutofthehouse.ShehateseatingaloneandtakesmostofhermealsathomeinfrontoftheTVforcompany.

Shealsokeepsherselfbusywithbargain-hunting.Francesgoesoutshoppingseveraltimesaweek;herdesireforvarietymotivatesFrancestopatronisearangeofdifferentstoresratherthanrelyingonjustone.Sheisnothappywithjustthestandardassortmentandwilltravelonuntilshe

100 101

Appendix6

Johndoesnotgooutalot,butusuallygoestowatchamatchinthepubaboutonceaweekorsobecausehepreferstheatmosphereandsharingcasualbanterwithothersportsfanstowatchingamatchonTVathome.Whenhegoesoutfordinner,whichhemightdoonceortwiceamonthonaSunday,hetendstoorderthesametypesofhome-cookedmeals–steakorturkeyandhamwithpotatoesandvegetables.

UnlikeFrances,Johndoesnotconsiderhimselfagoodshopperandconfineshimselftojustafewstoresforallhisfoodshopping.Hebuysnearlyeverythinginthelocalsupermarket(Gala)which,althoughsmallincomparisontomultipleslikeTescoorDunnes,hasacomprehensiveassortmentincludingabutcher,bakery,deliandoff-licenseaswellastinnedandpackagedfoods,dairyproductsandsomefrozenfoods.Johnfeelsthatalthoughthepricesperitemmightbeslightlyloweratlargersupermarketsinbiggertowns,itiseasierforhimtocontrolhisspendingathissmallerlocalsupermarketbecausethemerchandisingandofferstempthimtobuythingsonimpulsehedoesnotneed.Hefeelsthelocalshopprovideseverythingheneedsandlargersupermarketsanddiscountersaremoreforhousewivesandmothers.UnlikeFrances,heiscontentbuyingthesamethingsoverandoveranddoesnotcomplainaboutgettingboredorwantingstimulation,sohehasnomotivationtoexploreothershoppingoptions.

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