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psychoanalysis in the context ofother debille. InIhophilosophy
of psycholollY')Neu, J. ( ed .) (1992) The Comhritlll"
CO"'I'/II,I,,,, It'Freud, Cambridge: C~mbridsc lJlllvenlly
Prn'"(Philosophical essllys on Froud nnd
fllychonnilly.sis.)Wollhcim,R, (1984) 'TI'f 71",'"d u[ f'fl',
C.unhrlduo,MA: Hllrvllrd lJnlvortlty 1'111'"(llh In.II~lIlclll
1I11l1psyehonnlllytic IIpprl1l1chIn Iho CIIIICOrllII'Ihe 111'0of II
pcr~on,)- (1991) f",'"d, t ll lulnn: 1 'l1l1l l1nl l, 1nl ll ldn, (
I,ucll lalld flhIlClll'hlclilly Inflllll1,l1 1I0l:lIunlof
Froull'swOlk),
(11)'/,1) 'flIP Mind"".! 11,1rfJll,.,Cnmbrldge:,M,\.
1IIIIvilltllJnlvmlty (lrm. (Plychl1l1nlllyllcallyIn(ormod
rhIlOlIl,,/)k~J fUlly' on .he mind,)Wol ih el ll l, I t n nd I
lopklnl , J. (1982) Phllosol'hii'al":UIIYS ,''' "'''''111, Oimbril
ll lc: C
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ill~IIII-"II" 1111111 I , Inri'
nnd,likeCicero,he'"1111t1l11I'"'1t1111111ty11111Uluallty of love
andInl",,'l (II I'Qrt~''I rrl.nd.hlp.Conlmry to
Aristotle.hlllA,1-;But more needs SII}ing .Our particu la ri ty
cannot'exist. or be understood, independently of .our"common
humanity. Hence, car ing for someone"-imp li es s ee in g the ir p
ar ti cu la ri ty a s a d ist in ct i, :eexpress ion of common asp
irat ions and needs . Con-.v er sc ly , j ust ic e imp li es g
iving due weigh t to, t he .particu la r express ions of people' s
commonali tieS .'Scnsi ti \i ty to these aspec ts requires both jus
tice andcan:. Jus tice and care a re thus mutua lly dependent:and
equally important in friendsh ip . Indeed, in sofa ras justice
depends on perceptiveness and imaginativee ffort, and the rightfu l
expec ta tion of these isgrea~er",ithin friendship, friendship
intl!1ISiftesthe c la ims ofjustice.See also:
:-'IORALITYANDEMOTIONS;SEXUALtTY,'';'PHILOSOPHYOF;TRUST "References
and further reading.Aelred of RiC\'3ulx (1148) De spiritali
amicitia, trans. g"
E. Laker. Spiritual Frimdship, Kalamazoo,'MI:Cis te rc ian
Publica tions. 1974. (The origina l t it le
s hows the inl lu en ce o f C ic ero' s De amicitia onAelred. In
a true friendship, which is necessa ri lys pi ri tu al , t he f ri
ends arc w il li ng to die for e achother, love each other
unconditionally and never-endingly, and hold all posscs.sions in
common, Theonly a lterna tive to true fricndship is s in fu l
friend-hip.).Aquinas , T , (d259-65) Summa 'OMra Kmt il l!
s(Synopsis [ofChristian Doctrine( Directed AguinstUnbelievers),
trans. Y.J,Bourke, Notre Dame, IN:UniversityofNotrc Dame Press,
1975,111.1.3, ,19.(Exp res se s the v iew tha t our ' ul ti nmtc
end' i s t obecome more like God.).- (1266-73) Summa th~oloKla~
(Synopsis ofTheology), trans . Fathers of the English Domini.can
Province. G1cncoc . MN: McGraw-Hili , 1947.(lallac.26-8 discuss
loveas an emotion; lallae.26.4distinguishes friendship based on
friendship-love(friendship proper) from friendships based on loveof
concupiso::na: or desire (friendships of plo=ureand utility).
lIallac.13-46 discuss charity as friend.ship with God.).AristotJe
(c. mid4th cx:ntury Be) .vicomach~an Ethics,trans. WD. Ross. miscd
by J.D. Urmson. in J.Barnes (ed.) T'1u!Comp/~t.. Ilorks of
Aristotl.., vol.2. Princeton, NJ: Prine.:lon Unh'Crsity Press.
1984.( In a dd it io n to the i ss ue s d isc uss ed in thi s en
try,books VIII-IX on fr iendship al so discuss thejustification of
friendship, conllicts among friends,when friendships should be
dissol\'Cd, ci\ic friend-ship, and other topics.).Augustine
(397-401) Confl!uionum libri trededm,tnns. FJ. Shccd. Confessions.
Indianapolis, IN:Hacket t Publ is hing Company, 1993, IV,
4-12.(Descr ibes August ine's gri ef on t he death of afriend, and
his later renection that he hadmistakenly 10\'Cdhis friend as an
end in hirnsel().- (396-426) ~ doctrina Christiana (On ChristianDoc
trine), t rans .. D.W. Robertson , J r. New York:Lil>cra l Arts
Press . 1958. (See book I: SCCIion iv,passage 4 and xxii. 20-!. for
the view that alleanhly loves. induding neighbour-Iovc, arc
instru-menta l or u ti li ly IO\ 'CS,and love of God a lone anend
IO\'Cto be enjO)'Cdfor itsown sake.). Blum. L. (1980) Fr imd sh ip,
Altru is m, a nd '\(or ality,London: RoutJcdge & Kegan Paul.
(The first bookon friendship sine.: Aclred's De spirirali
amidtia,and probably the besl-kno""l1 single contemporarywork on
the topic. Argues that sympathy, compas-s ioQ and concern arc
cogniti \'C emotions tha t a reint ent io nal ly d iv er te d a t o
the rs ' good and sinc ef ri endshi p i s a locu. s o f t hese
emoti ons. i t i s anintrinsically moral phenomenon.).Cicero, M.T.
(mid-44 BC) Laelius . De amidt ia(La el iu s: On F ri ends hip) ,
Lat in t ext w ith t ra ns.
~~.FRIENDSHIP
a nd noles by J.G.F. Powel l, Wannin. st er : A ri s &Phi ll
ip s, 1 990 . (A somewha t unsy st emat ic , bu th is to rica lly
inl luen tial , d ia logue on fricndsh. ip .Gaius Laclius (186
ac-?), who studied philosophyunder the Sto ics, is the main
speaker.).Kant, I . ( 1785) Gnmdlegung :ur MeraphysikderSillen, t
ra ns . M.J. G regor , Groundwork of theMetaphysics of Morals, i!!,
Practical Philosophy,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1993.
esp.389-401 ,401 note. (Presen tS Kant' s sharp d ichot-omy betwccn
the moral-rat iona l and the natural-emolional realms, and his view
that emotionallovcIs Instrumental self.lovc.).- (1797) Metap"ysl
sch~ Anfangsgr ii ruk der Tugm-II/rim!, tmns. M.J. Gregor,
T'1u!Doctrine of Virtue,in Prarrlral Phllo"oph.v,Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993,469-73. (Contains the onlyextcnded
di.!cus.,ion of friendship in Kant's de\el-oped philosophical
works.).Kierkegaard, S.A, (184 7) Klnlighl!d~1U Gjerningl!r,t en ns
. H . Hong and E , Hong, !lorks of La.'l!, NewYork: Harper &
Row, 1962, (Kierkegaard followsLuther in rega rd ing f ri ends hip
as e sse nt ia ll yim:concilable with aga~, and echoes Kant
indeclaring that friendship-IO\'C and l!ros 'containno e th ica l'
t ask ', b oth b ec aus e they a re fonns o fself.love, and
bcc:1usc. as natural iodinations, theycannot be wil led or , ther
efore, commanded byGod's law.).MilSi s, P . (1988) EpiCl!rus' -Ethi
ca l Theor y: Thl!Pleasur~s of Invulnerabilit)., I thaca, NY: Corne
llUni\'Crsi ty Press .. ch. 3 . (Expands on Epicurus'interpretat
ion of friendship. particu la rly h is con-ception of nMlamonia as
im-ulncrable.).Pla to (c.380-367 ac) Lysis, tnns. S. lombardo,
inComplett! Works. ed. J.M. Coo'pcr. Indiana,polis,IN: Hacke tl
Publish ing Company . 1997. (The onlyPlatonic dialogue devoted
entirely to friendship.)Railton, P.(1984) 'Alienation.
Consequential ism, andthe Demands of Morality' . Philosophy and
PublicAffairs 13(2): 134--71 ;repr. in N.K. Badhwar (ed
.)Friendship: A Philosophical &ader, Ithaca, 1'. 'Y:Corne ll
Univers ity Press . 1993. (E. ,pands _on theide a tha t c ommi tmen
t to u ti li tar ia ni sm o r c on se -quentia lism is psycholog
ical ly compatible " ,i thpersonal commitments.).Telfer, E.
(197011) 'Friendship ', P ro ct! ~d in gs o f t heAristotelian
Society, supplementa ry volume:223-41. (Examines the nature. duties
and valuesof friendship, a rguing tha t friendship is
valuablebecause it isuseful, plcasunble and life-
