Fuel Cells

• Fuel Cells

https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion

1 Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines



1 Some types of fuel cells work with hydrocarbon fuels, while all can be operated on pure hydrogen. In the event that fuel cells become price-

competitive with internal combustion engines and turbines, large gas-fired

power plants could adopt this technology.



1 Hydrogen gas must be distinguished as "technical-grade" (five times pure), which

is suitable for applications such as fuel cells, and "commercial-grade", which has carbon- and sulfur-containing impurities, but which can be produced by the much cheaper steam-reformation process. Fuel

cells require high-purity hydrogen because the impurities would quickly degrade the life of the fuel cell stack.



1 If a practical method of hydrogen storage is introduced, and fuel cells

become cheaper, they can be economically viable to power hybrid fuel cell/battery vehicles, or purely

fuel cell-driven ones



1 Other fuel cell technologies based on the exchange of metal ions (e.g. zinc-

air fuel cells) are typically more efficient at energy conversion than

hydrogen fuel cells, but the widespread use of any electrical

energy → chemical energy → electrical energy systems would

necessitate the production of electricity.


Hydrogen economy - The electrical grid plus synthetic methanol fuel cells

1 Longer term energy storage (meaning the energy is used weeks

or months after capture) may be better done with synthetic methane

or alcohols, which can be stored indefinitely at relatively low cost, and

even used directly in some type of fuel cells, for electric vehicles


Nafion - Proton exchange membrane (PEM) for fuel cells

1 Fuel cells are expected to find strong use in the transportation

industry.


Nafion - Modified Nafion for PEM fuel cells

1 Normal Nafion will dehydrate (thus lose proton conductivity) when temperature is above ~80 °C. This limitation troubles the

design of fuel cells, because higher temperatures are desirable for a better

efficiency and CO tolerance of the platinum catalyst. Silica and zirconium phosphate can be incorporated into Nafion water channels

through in situ chemical reactions to increase the working temperature to above

100 °C.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design

1 Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner.

They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the

interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel

is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created,

which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.



1 At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the

fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron



1 The most important design features in a fuel cell are:



1 The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel

cell.



1 The fuel that is used. The most common fuel

is hydrogen.



1 The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The

anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.



1 The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water

or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-

based catalyst.



1 A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load.

Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:



1 Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)



1 Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).



1 To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and

parallel circuits to yield higher voltage, and parallel-channel of configurations allow a

higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger

current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be distributed

uniformly over all of the cells to maximize the power output.


Fuel cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

1 In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a

proton-conducting polymer membrane (the electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode

sides. (PEMFC) efficient frontier This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell"

(SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well-understood.

(Notice that the synonyms "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange

mechanism" result in the same acronym.)



1 On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later

dissociates into protons and electrons



1 In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and

indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste

products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.



1 The materials used for different parts of the fuel

cells differ by type


Fuel cell vehicle - Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles

1 Different types of fuel cells include PEMFC|polymer electrolyte

membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, DMFC|direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, SOFC|solid oxide fuel cells, and

Regenerative Fuel Cells.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/h

ydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html Types of Fuel Cells],

U.Shttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Fuel cell vehicle - Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles

1 and produced over 60% of the carbon monoxide emissions and about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States.

[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/

transportation.html Fuel Cells for Transportation], U.S


Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design

1 * The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel

cell.



1 * The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.



1 * The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up of

very fine platinum powder.



1 * The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water

or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-

based catalyst.



1 * Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)



1 * Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).



1 To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and

parallel circuits to yield higher voltage, and parallel-channel of configurations allow a

higher Electric current|current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger Electric current|current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be

distributed uniformly over all of the cells to maximize the power output.


Fuel-cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

1 In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a proton-conducting polymer

membrane (the electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode

sides.Anne-Claire Dupuis, Progress in Materials Science, Volume 56, Issue

3, March 2011, pp



1 In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel fuel|diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel

cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste

products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.



1 fuel cell, Fuel Cells 2008, 08(1): 45–51 The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type


Auxiliary power unit - Fuel cells

1 In recent years, truck and fuel cell manufacturers have teamed up to create, test and demonstrate a fuel cell APU that eliminates nearly all

emissions and uses diesel fuel more efficiently


Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells

1 *Direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC)



1 *Direct-ethanol fuel cell (DEFC)



1 *Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)



1 *Electro-galvanic fuel cell (EGFC)



1 *Formic acid fuel cell (FAFC)



1 *Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)



1 *Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC)



1 *Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell (PCFC)


Microfluidics - Fuel cells

1 Microfluidic fuel cells can use laminar flow to separate the fuel and its oxidant to control the interaction of the two fluids without a physical barrier as would be required in conventional

fuel cells.[http://microfluidics.stanford.edu/fuel_cells

.htm Water Management in PEM Fuel Cells] [http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/2005

05/fuel.cfm Building a Better Fuel Cell Using Microfluidics][http://www.me.mtu.edu/mnit/ Fuel Cell Initiative at MnIT Microfluidics Laboratory]


Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development - Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative

1 The next program will be Horizon 2020, the new framework for Research and Development for the period 2014–2020.[http://www.hyer.eu/news/eu-

policy-news/public-consultation-on-the-preparation-of-the-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-joint-technology-initiative-under-horizon-2020-is-now-open Public

consultation on the preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative under Horizon

2020 is now open][http://ec.europa.eu/research/consultations/fch_h2020/consultation_en.htm Consultation on the preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint

Technology Initiative under Horizon 2020]https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Steam reforming - Advantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells

1 Steam reforming of gaseous hydrocarbons is seen as a potential way to provide fuel for

fuel cells


Steam reforming - Disadvantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells

1 The reformer-fuel-cell system is still being researched but in the near

term, systems would continue to run on existing fuels, such as natural gas

or gasoline or diesel


Steam reforming - Disadvantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells

1 The cost of hydrogen production by reforming fossil fuels depends on the scale at which it is done, the

capital cost of the reformer and the efficiency of the unit, so that whilst it may cost only a few dollars per kilogram of hydrogen at industrial scale, it could be more expensive at the smaller scale needed for fuel cells.[http://198.173.87.9/PDF/Doty_H2Price.pdf A

realistic look at hydrogen price projections] Recently, a Polish company Bioleux Polska has been advertising

renewable hydrogen (RH2) plasma reformers, producing RH2 at under $2 per kilogram , and

available for lightweight Mobile Applications using vegetable oil or glycerol as feedstock.


Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells

1 * The reforming reaction takes place at high temperatures, making it slow to start up and requiring costly high

temperature materials.



1 * Sulfur compounds in the fuel will poison certain catalysts, making it difficult to run this type of system from ordinary gasoline. Some new technologies have overcome this

challenge with sulfur-tolerant catalysts.



1 * Low temperature polymer fuel cell membranes can be poisoned by the carbon monoxide (CO) produced by the reactor, making it necessary to

include complex CO-removal systems. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) do not have this problem, but

operate at higher temperatures, slowing start-up time, and requiring

costly materials and bulky insulation.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html


1 * The thermodynamic efficiency of the process is between 70% and 85%

(Lower heating value|LHV basis) depending on the purity of the

hydrogen product.



1 A recent development that employs a new combination of gold and iron

oxide can reduce carbon monoxide levels to 20 parts per million in the presence of hydrogen and produce byproducts of carbon dioxide and

water at much lower temperatures than conventional methods.


Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells

1 The two motivations for the research and development of fuel cells were

because of the energy policy and the industrial policy.



1 ** Create/Find a new source of renewable energy



1 *** Many countries are seeing how efficient Fuel Cells are which is

why Japan seeks to expand their investments in the Fuel Cell industry



1 * Environmental Issues



1 *** Japan, like the rest of the world, seeks to reduce green house

gas emissions by using safer forms of energy



1 ** Maintain a competitive economy through advanced

technology



1 *** Fuel cells are profitable, being well invested in such and industry

will give Japan an advantage economically speaking


Membraneless Fuel Cells

1 In Laminar Flow Fuel Cells (LFFC) this is achieved by exploiting the

phenomenon of non-mixing laminar flows where the interface between the two flows works as a proton/ion

conductor


Membraneless Fuel Cells

1 The efficiency of these cells is generally much higher than modern electricity

producing sources. For example, a Fossil fuel power station|fossil fuel power plant system

can achieve a 40% electrical conversion efficiency while a nuclear power plant is

slightly lower at 32%. Fuel cell systems are capable of reaching efficiencies in the range of 55%–70%. However, as with any process, fuel cells also experience inherent losses due to their design and manufacturing processes.


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Overview

1 Hydrogen for fuel cells can be produced in many ways


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Overview

1 Direct methanol fuel cell|Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC's), for

example, use methanol as the reactant instead of first using

reformation to produce hydrogen


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Membraneless Fuel Cells and Operating Principles

1 Membraneless fuel cells offer a solution to these problems.


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion

1 Diffusion across the interface is extremely important and can

severely affect fuel cell performance. The protons need to be able to

diffuse across both the fuel and the oxidizing agent. The diffusion

coefficient, a term which describes the ease of diffusion of an element in another medium, can be combined with Fick's laws of diffusion which

addresses the effects of a concentration gradient and distance

over which diffusion occurs:



1 * J is the diffusion flux in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length−2

time−1], example (\tfrac). J measures the amount of substance that will flow through a small area

during a small time interval.



1 * \, D is the 'diffusion coefficient' or 'mass diffusivity|diffusivity' in

dimensions of [length2 time−1], example (\tfrac)



1 * \, \phi (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration in dimensions of

[(amount of substance) length−3], example (\tfrac\mathrm)



1 * \, x is the diffusion length i.e. the distance

over which diffusion occurs



1 In order to increase the diffusion flux, the diffusivity and/or concentration

need to be increased while the length needs to be decreased



1 In many hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, the diffusion of oxygen at the

cathode is rate limiting since the diffusivity of oxygen in water is much lower than that of hydrogen.Fukada,

Satoshi


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Research and Development

1 Nanoporous Separator and Low Fuel Concentration to Minimize Crossover in Direct Methanol Laminar Flow Fuel

Cells


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Research and Development

1 Date: January 2010: Researchers developed a novel method of

inducing self-pumping in a membraneless fuel cell


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Scaling Issues

1 Transport Phenomena and Interfacial Kinetics in Planar Microfluidic Membraneless Fuel Cells



1 For example, laminar flow is a necessary condition for these cells.

Without laminar flow, crossover would occur and a physical

electrolytic membrane would be needed. Maintaining laminar flow is achievable on the macro scale but

maintaining a steady Reynolds number is difficult due to variations in pumping. This variation causes

fluctuations at the reactant interfaces which can disrupt laminar

flow and affect diffusion and crossover.



1 For micro fuel cells, this pumping requirement requires high

voltageshttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html


1 However, self-pumping mechanisms can be difficult and expensive to

produce on the macro-scale. In order to take advantage of hydrophobic effects, the surfaces need to be

smooth to control the contact angle of water. To produce these surfaces

on a large scale, the cost will significantly increase due to the

close tolerances which are needed. Also, it is not evident whether using a

carbon-dioxide based pumping system on the large scale is viable.


Membraneless Fuel Cells - Potential Applications of LFFCs

1 However, for portable devices such as cell phones and laptops, macro

fuel cells are often inefficient due to their space requirements lower run

times


Glossary of fuel cell terms - Molten-carbonate fuel cells

1 : Molten-carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)

are high-temperature fuel

cellshttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Enzymatic Biofuel Cells

1 An 'Enzymatic biofuel cell' is a specific type of fuel cell that uses

enzymes as a catalyst to oxidize its fuel, rather than precious metals.

Enzymatic biofuel cells, while currently confined to research

facilities, are widely prized for the promise they hold in terms of their relatively inexpensive components

and fuels, as well as a potential power source for bionic implants.


Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - Operation

1 Because sugars and other biofuels can be grown and harvested on a

massive scale, the fuel for enzymatic biofuel cells is extremely cheap and can be found in nearly any part of

the world, thus making it an extraordinarily attractive option from a logistics standpoint, and even more

so for those concerned with the adoption of renewable energy

sourceshttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - Operation

1 Finally, completely processing the complex fuels used in enzymatic biofuel cells requires a series of

different enzymes for each step of the ‘metabolism’ process; producing some of the required enzymes and maintaining them at the required

levels can pose problems.


Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - History

1 Research on the subject did not begin again until the 1980s after it

was realized that the metallic-catalyst method was not going to be able to deliver the qualities desired

in a biofuel cell, and since then work on enzymatic biofuel cells has

revolved around the resolution of the various problems that plagued earlier

efforts at producing a successful enzymatic biofuel cell



1 However, many of these problems were resolved in

1998



1 One research team took advantage of the extreme selectivity of the

enzymes to completely remove the barrier between anode and cathode, which is an absolute requirement in fuel cells not of the enzymatic type



1 While enzymatic biofuel cells are not currently in use outside of the

laboratory, as the technology has advanced over the past decade non-academic organizations have shown an increasing amount of interest in

practical applications for the devices


UTC Power - Fuel cells for buildings

1 UTC Power’s stationary phosphoric acid fuel cell product is the PureCell

System|PureCell Model 400 System.http://www.jsonline.com/business/112222154.html This stationary

fuel cell system provides 400 kilowatts of electricity and 1.7 million

Btu/hour of heat


UTC Power - Fuel cells for buildings

1 UTC Power has designed, manufactured and installed more

than 300 stationary fuel cells in 19 countries on six continents


UTC Power - Fuel cells for buses

1 The PureMotion Model 120 System is UTC Power’s zero-emission proton

exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell for transit

buses.http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/07/utc-power-transit-bus-

fuel-cell-system-sets-durability-record.html UTC Power’s PureMotion Model 120 system is powering a fleet of transit buses in Connecticut and

California.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

UTC Power - Fuel cells for buses

1 On Friday, March 16, 2012, UTC Power participated in an event hosted by Richard Blumenthal|

Senator Richard Blumenthal (D-CT) to highlight U.S


UTC Power - Fuel cells for automobiles

1 UTC Power develops and manufactures PEM fuel cells for

automobiles.http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/03/25/utc-power-fuel-

cell-part-of-new-hybrid-electric-vehicle-on-display-in-munich/ The company has worked with BMW,

Hyundai and Nissan as well as the U.S. Department of Energy on

development and demonstration programs.


Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative

1 The European 'Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology

Initiative[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/m/events_det

ail.html?event_id=4573past=true Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint

Technology Initiative 3rd FCH JU Stakeholders General Assembly]

[http://www.coag.gov.au/reports/docs/hydrogen_technology_roadmap.pdf Hydrogen technology roadmap]' is a

Public-private partnership|public-private venture to deliver 'fit-for-use'

hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies developed to the point

of commercial take-off..


Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative

1 The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative is a component of the Joint Technology Initiatives of the Seventh Framework Programme

of the European Commission.


Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History

1 In May 2003, a European Commission High Level Group presented a report on Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells —

a vision of our future that recommended the formation of a

technology partnership between the Commission and private enterprise

for the development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The report also recommended the establishment of a

pilot programme, with European Commission funding, to make

hydrogen and fuel cell technologies commercially viable.



1 In November of the same year, the EC adopted its European Initiative for Growth program that established a

Hydrogen economy quick-start project with a budget of 2.8 billion Euros for the decade 2004 through

2015. The initiative allowed for possible funding from structural

funds and from the EC's 'Research, Technological development and

Demonstration Framework Programmes'. The initiative placed an emphasis on long-term research

and cooperation with advisory boards.



1 In December 2003, the Commission facilitated the establishment of a 'European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell

Technology Platform' that sought to bring together interested partners in

a joint venture that would further what the High Level Group had

envisioned seven months earlier.



1 In March 2005, the 'European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology

Platform' adopted a research agenda for accelerating the development

and market introduction of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies within the

European Community. This agenda called for funding by the EC and

organisations from the public- and private sectors.



1 On 19 December 2006, the agenda of the Technology Platform were adopted by the Council Decision

2006/975/EC within the EC's Seventh Framework Programme. The prospect

of further financing from the European Investment Bank (in

particular through its Risk-Sharing Finance Facility) had been

established in an earlier decision (2006/971/EC).



1 The other proposal was the establishment up of the 'Fuel Cells

and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative' as called for by the

Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform..



1 The Joint Technology Initiative on Fuel Cells and Hydrogen would

accordingly receive appropriations in the general budget of the European

Union allocated to those programmes



1 The 'Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative' was launched

on 14 October 2008. during the General Assembly of Fuel Cells and

Hydrogen Stakeholders. A press release from the European Hydrogen

and Fuel Cell Technology Platform reiterates an estimate that the

activities of the JTI will reduce time to market for hydrogen and fuel cell technologies by between 2 and 5

years..


Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Membership and structure

1 The Public-private partnership|public-private joint initiative operates under

the auspices of the Directorate-General for Research (European Commission)|DG Research of the

European Commission, representing the European Communities, and

industry..



1 Governance of the 'Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative' (FCH JTI) lies with the 'Fuel Cells and

Hydrogen Joint Undertaking'. Members of that body are the

European Community and the 'JTI Industry Grouping', with the latter being a not-for-profit organisation which brings the sector's industrial

key players and which is open to any private legal entity sharing the

objectives of the FCH JTI..



1 As of December 2008, the chairman of the governing board is Gijs van

Breda Vriesman of Royal Dutch Shell|Shell Hydrogen.



1 The next program will be Horizon 2020, the new framework for Research and Development for the period 2014-2020.[http://www.hyer.eu/news/eu-

policy-news/public-consultation-on-the-preparation-of-the-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-joint-technology-initiative-under-horizon-2020-is-now-open Public

consultation on the preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative under Horizon

2020 is now open][http://ec.europa.eu/research/consultations/fch_h2020/consultation_en.htm Consultation on the preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint

Technology Initiative under Horizon 2020]https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Publications

1 The Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform publishes a

quarterly newsletter, back-issues of which used to be available online.


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Reactions

1 In an AAEMFC, the fuel, hydrogen or methanol, is supplied at the anode and

oxygen through air, and water are supplied at cathode. Fuel is oxidized at anode and

oxygen is reduced at cathode. At cathode, oxygen reduction produces hydroxides ions

(OH-) that migrate through the elctrolyte towards the anode. At anode, hydroxide ions

react with the fuel to produce water and electrons. Electrons go through the circuit

producing current.


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Reactions

1 Electrochemical reactions when hydrogen is the fuel


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Comparison with traditional alkaline fuel cell

1 The alkaline fuel cell used by NASA in 1960s for Apollo program|Apollo and

Space Shuttle program generated electricity at nearly 70% efficiency

using aqueous solution of KOH as an electrolyte


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Advantages

1 The most significant advantage of AAEMFCs is that under alkaline conditions, electrode reaction kinetics are much more facile,

allowing use of inexpensive, non-noble metal catalysts such as nickel for the fuel electrode and silver, iron

phthalocyanines etc


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Challenges

1 The biggest challenge in developing AAEMFCs is the anion exchange membrane (AEM)


Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Challenges

1 Another challenge is achieving OH- ion conductivity comparable to H+ conductivity observed in PEMFCs.

Since the diffusion coefficient of OH- ions is twice less than that of H+ (in bulk water), a higher concentration

of OH- ions is needed to achieve similar results, which in turn needs higher ion exchange capacity of the

polymer. However, high ion exchange capacity leads to excessive swelling of polymer on hydration and

concomitant loss of mechanical properties.


Ballard Power Systems - Retreat from automotive fuel cells

1 However, in late 2007, Ballard pulled out of the hydrogen vehicle sector of its business to focus on fuel cells for

forklifts and stationary electrical generation


Microbial Fuel Cells

1 Electricity generation using membrane and salt bridge microbial

fuel cells, Water Research, 39 (9), pp1675–86 Since the turn of the 21st century MFCs have started to find a commercial use in the treatment of

wastewater.


Microbial Fuel Cells - History

1 In 1931, however, Barnet Cohen drew more attention to the area when he created a number of

microbial half fuel cells that, when connected in series, were capable of producing over 35 volts, though only with a current of 2 milliamps.Cohen,

B



1 More work on the subject came with a

study by DelDuca et al



1 His work, starting in the early 1980s, helped build an understanding of

how fuel cells operate, and until his retirement, he was seen by many as

the foremost authority on the subject.



1 It is now known that electricity can be produced directly from the

degradation of organic matter in a microbial fuel cell. Like a normal fuel cell, an MFC has both an anode and a cathode chamber. The :wikt:anoxic|anoxic anode chamber is connected

internally to the cathode chamber via an ion exchange membrane with the

circuit completed by an external wire.



1 In May 2007, the University of Queensland, Australia completed its

prototype MFC as a cooperative effort with Foster's Group|Foster's

Brewing


Microbial Fuel Cells - Definition

1 A microbial fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy to

electrical energy by the catalytic reaction of microorganisms.



1 A typical microbial fuel cell consists of anode and cathode compartments

separated by a cation (positively charged ion) specific semipermeable

membrane|membrane



1 More broadly, there are two types of microbial fuel cell: mediator and mediator-less microbial fuel cells.


Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator microbial fuel cell

1 Most of the microbial cells are electrochemically inactive. The electron

transfer from microbial cells to the electrode is facilitated by mediators such as thionine, methyl viologen, methyl blue, humic acid,

neutral red and so on.Lithgow, A.M., Romero, L., Sanchez, I.C., Souto, F.A., and Vega, C.A.

(1986). Interception of electron-transport chain in bacteria with hydrophilic redox mediators. J.

Chem. Research, (S):178–179. Most of the mediators available are expensive and toxic.


Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator-free microbial fuel cell

1 Mediator-free microbial fuel cells do not require a mediator but use

electrochemically active bacteria to transfer electrons to the electrode (electrons are carried directly from the bacterial respiratory enzyme to

the electrode)


Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator-free microbial fuel cell

1 Mediator-less microbial fuel cells can, besides running on wastewater, also derive energy directly from certain

plants


Microbial Fuel Cells - Microbial electrolysis cell

1 A variation of the mediator-less MFC is the microbial electrolysis cells (MEC)


Microbial Fuel Cells - Soil-based microbial fuel cell

1 Soil-based microbial fuel cells adhere to the same basic MFC principles as described above, whereby soil acts as the nutrient-rich anodic media,

the inoculum, and the proton-exchange membrane (PEM). The anode is placed at a certain depth within the soil, while the cathode

rests on top the soil and is exposed to the oxygen in the air above it.


Microbial Fuel Cells - Soil-based microbial fuel cell

1 Soils are naturally teeming with a diverse consortium of microbes,

including the electrogenic microbes needed for MFCs, and are full of

complex sugars and other nutrients that have accumulated over millions of years of plant and animal material

decay


Microbial Fuel Cells - Phototrophic biofilm microbial fuel cell

1 Phototrophic biofilm MFCs (PBMFCs) are the ones that make use of anode

with a phototrophic biofilm containing photosynthetic

microorganism like chlorophyta, cyanophyta etc., since they could carry out photosynthesis and thus

they act as both producers of organic metabolites and also as electron

donors.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html


1 A study conducted by Strik et al. reveals that PBMFCs yield one of the

highest Power density|power densities and, therefore, show

promise in practical applications. Researchers face difficulties in

increasing their power density and long-term performance so as to

obtain a cost-effective MFC.



1 The sub-category of phototrophic microbial fuel cells that use purely

oxygenic photosynthetic material at the anode are sometimes called

biological photovoltaics|biological photovoltaic systems.


Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process

1 When micro-organisms consume a substance such as sugar in aerobic

conditions, they produce carbon dioxide and water. However, when

oxygen is not present, they produce carbon dioxide, protons, and

electrons, as described below:



1 Microbial fuel cells use inorganic mediators to tap into the electron

transport chain of cells and channel electrons produced. The mediator

crosses the outer cell lipid membranes and bacterial outer

membrane; then, it begins to liberate electrons from the electron transport chain that normally would be taken

up by oxygen or other intermediates.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html


1 The now-reduced mediator exits the cell laden with electrons that it

transfers to an electrode where it deposits them; this electrode

becomes the electro-generic anode (negatively charged electrode)



1 In a microbial fuel cell operation, the anode is the terminal electron

acceptor recognized by bacteria in the anodic chamber



1 A number of mediators have been suggested for use in microbial fuel

cells. These include natural red, methylene blue, thionine, or

resorufin.



1 This is the principle behind generating a flow of electrons from

most micro-organisms (the organisms capable of producing an

electric current are termed exoelectrogens). In order to turn this

into a usable supply of electricity, this process has to be

accommodated in a fuel cell. In order to generate a useful current it is necessary to create a complete

circuit, and not just transfer electrons to a single point.



1 The mediator and micro-organism, in this case yeast, are mixed together

in a solution to which is added a suitable substrate such as glucose. This mixture is placed in a sealed chamber to stop oxygen entering, thus forcing the micro-organism to

use anaerobic respiration. An electrode is placed in the solution

that will act as the anode as described previously.



1 In the second chamber of the MFC is another solution and

electrode



1 Connecting the two electrodes is a wire (or other electrically conductive

path, which may include some electrically powered device such as a light bulb) and completing the circuit and connecting the two chambers is

a salt bridge or ion-exchange membrane. This last feature allows the protons produced, as described

in Eqt. 1 to pass from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber.



1 The reduced mediator carries electrons from the cell to the

electrode. Here the mediator is oxidized as it deposits the electrons. These then flow across the wire to

the second electrode, which acts as an electron sink. From here they pass

to an oxidising material.


Microbial Fuel Cells - Education

1 Soil-based microbial fuel cells are popular educational tools, as they

employ a range of scientific disciplines (microbiology,

geochemistry, electrical engineering, etc.), and can be made using

commonly available materials, such as soils and items from the

refrigerator


Microbial Fuel Cells - Current research practices

1 Some researchersMenicucci, Joseph Anthony Jr., Haluk Beyenal, Enrico Marsili, Raaja Raajan Angathevar Veluchamy, Goksel Demir, and Zbigniew Lewandowski, Sustainable Power

Measurement for a Microbial Fuel Cell, AIChE Annual Meeting 2005, Cincinnati, USA point out

some undesirable practices, such as recording the maximum current obtained by the cell when

connecting it to a electrical resistance|resistance as an indication of its performance, instead of the

steady-state current that is often a degree of magnitude lower


Fuel cells

1 Fuel cells are different from battery (electricity)|batteries in that they

require a constant source of fuel and oxygen/air to sustain the chemical reaction; however, fuel cells can

produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.


Fuel cells

1 Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial,

industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas


Fuel cells

1 How Stuff Works, accessed 4 August 2011 In addition to electricity, fuel

cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide

and other emissions


Fuel cells

1 The fuel cell market is growing, and Pike Research has estimated that the stationary fuel cell market will reach

50 GW by 2020.


Fuel cells - History

1 In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838

edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of

Science, Welsh physicist and barrister William Robert Grove|William Grove wrote about the

development of his first crude fuel cells



1 In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5kW

stationary fuel cell



1 UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large,

stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals,

universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of

fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied fuel cells for the Apollo

missions, and the Space Shuttle program, and is developing fuel cells for cell phone

towers and other applications.


Fuel cells - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

1 In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a proton-conducting polymer

membrane (the electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode

sides.Anne-Claire Dupuis, Progress in Materials Science, Volume 56, Issue

3, March 2011, pp


Fuel cells - Forklifts

1 A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a fuel cell forklift) is a

fuel cell powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport

materials. Most fuel cells used for material handling purposes are

powered by PEMFC|PEM fuel cells.



1 In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling

in the USA,[http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/Fu

elCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground] of which

only 500 received funding from United States Department of Energy|

DOE (2012).[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fct

p_overview_oct12.pdf Fuel cell technologies program overview]

[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/economic_impacts_of_arra_fc.pdf Economic Impact of Fuel Cell Deployment in Forklifts and

for Backup Power under the American Recovery and

Reinvestment Act] Fuel cell fleets are operated by a large number of

companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans,

Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.

[http://fchea.org/core/import/PDFs/Materials%20Handling%20Fact

%20Sheet.pdf Fact Sheet: Materials Handling and Fuel Cells] Europe

demonstrated 30 Fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with

HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units,[http://www.hylift-projects.eu/ Hylift] with other projects in France [http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/news-events/news-archive/2013/may/first-hydrogen-station-for-fuel-cell-forklift-

trucks-in-france,-for-ikea First hydrogen station for fuel cell forklift

trucks in France, for IKEA][http://www.horizonhydrogeneenergie.com/pile-a-combustible-pour-

chariot-elevateur.html HyPulsion] and Austria.[http://www.fuelcelltoday.com

/news-events/news-archive/2013/october/hygear-delivers-hydrogen-system-for-fuel-cell-based-forklift-trucks HyGear delivers hydrogen system for fuel cell based forklift

trucks] Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel-cell-powered forklifts will be

the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by

2020.[http://www.environmentalleader.com/2011/07/20/hydrogen-fueling-stations-could-reach-5200-by-2020/

Hydrogen Fueling Stations Could Reach 5,200 by 2020]



1 PEM fuel-cell-powered forklifts provide significant benefits over both

petroleum and battery powered forklifts as they produce no local

emissions, can work for a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can be refueled in 3 minutes and

have a lifetime of 8–10 years


Fuel cells - Boats

1 Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary

power in its boats


Fuel cells - Submarines

1 The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel

cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.


Fuel cells - Submarines

1 The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30kW and 50kW each


Fuel cells - Research and development

1 *'August 2005': Georgia Institute of Technology researchers use triazole

to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100°C to

over 125°C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of

the hydrogen fuel.



1 *'2008' Monash University, Melbourne uses Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)|PEDOT as a

cathode.



1 *'2009' Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, show that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel

cells.[http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22074/?a=f Cheaper fuel

cells]



1 *'2009': tunable nanoporous carbon|Y-Carbon began to develop a carbide-derived-carbon-based ultracapacitor, which they hoped would lead to fuel

cells with higher energy density.Lane, K



1 *'2009': A nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells is

demonstrated.[http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/News/2009/December/03120902.asp Bio-inspired catalyst

design could rival platinum]



1 *'2013': British firm [http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/ ACAL Energy] develops a fuel cell that it says

runs for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions.[http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/news/release/acal-energy-system-breaks-the-10000-hour-

endurance-barrier/en ACAL Energy System Breaks The 10,000 Hour Endurance Barrier] It asserts that the cost of fuel cell construction can be

reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).[http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/assets/common/081

6_ACAL_Poster_1_Costs_v5.pdf ACAL poster on Fuel Cell costs and efficiency]


Hydrazine - Fuel cells

1 The Italian catalyst manufacturer Acta (chemical company)|Acta has

proposed using hydrazine as an alternative to hydrogen in fuel cells


Hydrazine - Fuel cells

1 Hydrazine was used in fuel cells manufactured by Allis-Chalmers|Allis-Chalmers Corp., including some that

provided electric power in space satellites in the 1960s.


Bismuth(III) oxide - Use in Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)

1 Interest has centred on δ- Bi2O3 as it is principally an

ionic conductor


Bismuth(III) oxide - Use in Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)

1 Bi2O3 easily forms solid solutions with many other

metal oxides


Lithium titanate - Molten carbonate fuel cells

1 Lithium titanate is used as a cathode in layer one of a double layer cathode for molten

carbonate fuel cells. These fuel cells have two material layers, layer 1 and layer 2, which allow

for the production of high power molten carbonate fuel cells that work more efficiently.

EPO: European Patent http://www.wipo.int/patentscope/search/en/detai

l.jsf?docId=WO1996015561recNum=1maxRec=office=prevFilter=sortOption=queryString=tab=PCT

+Biblio (accessed April 13, 2012).


COMSOL Multiphysics - Batteries Fuel Cells Module

1 Electrochemical, heat, and flow simulation of electrochemical cells. User interfaces available for lithium-ion battery, lead–acid battery, and generic batteries. Simulations can include primary, secondary, and

tertiary-current influence. A common application for the module is for

detailed electrochemical analysis and subsequent thermal runaway.


Malcolm Bricklin - Electric vehicles, fuel cells and hybrid vehicles

1 In the 1990s, Bricklin turned his attention to the idea of producing environmentally friendly vehicles. He studied battery technology and went on to form an electric vehicle

company, marketing an electric bicycle known as the 'EV Warrior'.

The company went bankrupt in 1997.



1 In 1998 Bricklin started EVX, Inc., with the stated desire to

demonstrate the first commercially viable fuel cell vehicle system in the United States. Bricklin was also Chief

Executive Officer of a company called Fuel Cell Companies, Inc.,

which also started in 1998. Fuel Cell Companies, Inc. was acquired by

TechSys Inc. of New Jersey for stock with the declared value of

$1,021,800 in 2001.



1 In September 2007 Malcolm Bricklin announced that Visionary Vehicles is developing a new range of vehicles

that will go on sale in 2010. The plug-in hybrid sedan called the

Bricklin EXV-LS will have a range of 850 miles and will be priced at

$35,000.[http://www.calcars.org/carmakers.html How Carmakers Are Responding to the Plug-In Hybrid

Opportunity]https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html

Water gas shift reaction - Fuel cells

1 With the high demand for clean fuel and the critical role of the water gas shift reaction in hydrogen fuel cells, the development of water gas shift catalysts for the application in fuel

cell technology is an area of current research interest.


Water gas shift reaction - Fuel cells

1 Catalysts for fuel cell application would need to operate at low temperatures


Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells

1 Siemens AG|Siemens has developed a 30-50 kilowatt

Fuel cells|fuel cell unit



1 After the success of Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG's in its export activities, several builders have

developed their own fuel-cell auxiliary units for submarines but as

of 2008 no other shipyard has a contract for a submarine so

equipped.



1 The AIP implemented on the S-80 class of the Spanish Navy is based on a bioethanol-processor (provided by

Hynergreen from Abengoa, SA) consisting of a reaction chamber and

several intermediate Coprox reactors, that will transform the

BioEtOH into high purity hydrogen. The output feeds a series of fuel cells from UTC Power company (which also

supplied fuel cells for the Space Shuttle).



1 The reformator is fed with bioethanol as fuel, and oxygen (stored as a

liquid in a high pressure cryogenic tank), generating hydrogen as a sub-product. The produced hydrogen and more oxygen is fed to the fuel cells.



1 [http://www.armada.mde.es/ArmadaPortal/page/Portal/

armadaEspannola/buques_unidades/01_Submarino-S-

80--05_capacidades_es Spanish Armed Forces web portal page for S-

80 submarine]



1 In November 2014 it was reported that India has developed a new Fuel cell based AIP system which will be

tested in March 2015.


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