fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo ... · international foundation for development alternat~ves fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo fondation

international foundation for development a l ternat~ves

fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo

fondat ion internat ionale pour un autre developpement

I FDA DOSS

CONTENTS

I NTRODUCT

ER 24 JULY/AUGUST 1981

RY NOTE: Ano ther development i n Grenada

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS / MATERIAUX . Self-management as a development a l t e r n a t i v e : R e f l e c t i o n s

on the Peruv ian exper ience ( M a r t i n J. Scurrah and Mar io Padron)

Les en jeux de l a v i e a s s o c i a t i v e en France (Solange P a s s a r i s )

. Co-op t ing F r e i r e : A c r i t i c a l e d u c a t i o n (Ross K i d d and K r

. Land reforms i n West Bengal

. L 'economie a l g e r i e n n e e n t r e l (Abdel l a t i f Benachenhou)

a n a l y s i s o f pseudo-Fre i rean a d u l t , ishna Kumar)

( D . Bandyopadhyay)

'autonomie e t l a d6pendance

MARKINGS . OPEC and t h e T h i r d Wor ld ( I b r a h i m S h i h a t a )

I N T E R A C T I O N S . Wor ld conference on t h e t r a d e un ion r o l e i n development . Arms, t h e economy, and employment (M ike George) . Economics, development and t h e censumer (Khor Kok Peng) . Gree t ings and comments ( A n i l K . Gupta) . A new w o r l d employment p l a n (Theo R u y t e r ) . 'No woman no c r y ' (Ann R. M a t t i s )

M A T E R I A L S R E C E I V E D

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

Pages -

2

An I r D A d e l e g a t i o n visited Grenada i n May a t t h e i n v i t a t i o n of Prime b l i n i s t e r > laur ice Bishop .

Grenada i s a small c o u n t r y o f t h e E a s t e r n Car ibbean - i t h a s Ll0,OOO i n h a b i t a n t s on some 340 km?, a n d , f o r w h a t e v e r it means, a g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t of GS$460 p e r c a p i t a . I n s p i t e o f a v e r y f e r t i l e v o l c a n i c s o i l , lt i m p o r t s , a t i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s , a i a r q e p a r t o f what it e a t s , a n d , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , t h e problem o f m a l n u t r i t i o n was i g n o r e d . I t e x p o r t s , a t d e c r e a s i n g p r i c e s , n u t - megs, cocoa and b a n a n a s . I t h a s no i n d u s t r y . I t s m i n i - a i r p o r t i s u n f i t f o r e i t h e r n i g h t l a n d i n g o r r e g u l a r - s i z e p l a n e s , which means t h a t i t s t o u r i s t i c p o t e n t i a l remains u n d e r u t i l i z e d . Unem- ployment i s w i d e s p r e a d . U n t i l two y e a r s a g o , it had 17 d o c t o r s , no d e n t i s t , and 3 s t u d e n t s on Government s c h o l a r s h i p s i n Univer- s i t i e s a b r o a d .

T h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f 29 y e a r s o f t y r a n n y , b e f o r e and a f t e r i n d e - pendence ( 1 9 7 4 ) . The s i t u a t i o n was s o bad t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n - t h e New Jewel blovement - c o u l d e a s i l y t a k e o v e r , i n a b lood . less r e v o l u t i o n , on l3 >larch 1 9 7 9 .

S l n c e t h e n , t h e c o u n t r y h a s s e t i n motion a p r o c e s s o f f a r - r e a c h i n g s o c i a l change , m a t e r l a l a s w e l l a s political.

The economy - which r e s t s 011 t h r e e s e c t o r s , s t a t e , p r i v a t e , co- o p e r a t i v e L i s now g e a r e d t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f fuhdamenta l numan n e e d s . 1dl.e l a n d i s b e i n g p u t i n t o p r o d u c t i o n , and f i s h i n g modern ized . Loca l p r o c e s s i n g o f f r u i t s and f i s h e s h a s s t a r t e d . Young c h i l d r e n g e t m i l k , and p r i m a r y s c h o o l f e e d i n g p r o g r a m e s r e a c ? t h e whole c o u n t r y . 2 ,500 j o b s have been c r e a t e d . The num- b e r of d o c t o r s h a s d o u b l e d ; d e n t a l c l i n i c s , h e a l t h c e n t r e s and s t a t i o n s have been opened . E d u c a t i o n i s h i g h on t h e p r i o r i t y l i s t , b o t h i n and o u t s i d e f o r m a l s c h o o l s ; an a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n campaign i s underway a s w e l l a s t r a i n i n g and r e c y c l i n g programmes f o r young p e a s a n t s , t e a c h e r s , c i v i l s e r v a n t s and o t h e r s . There a r e 2 2 0 s t u d e n t s a b r o a d . A new, l a r q e r a i r p o r t i s b e i n g b u i l t .

The s t a t e r e c u r r e n t budge t i s LS$ 2 8 m i l l i o n , and l o c a l income b a l a n c e s e x p e n d i t u r e s . I t s i n v e s t e m e n t budge t amounts f o r i t s p a r t t o US$35 m i l l i o n , of which one t h i r d e a c h f o r t h e a i r - p o r t and f o r food proc?uct ion ( t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e , i n 1978 , was US$3 m i l l i o n ) .

S t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a r e t a k i n q p l a c e i n t h e s o c i a l s p h e r e a s w e l l . A mass-based s y s t e m o f p a r t i c i p a t o r v democracv i s b e i n q e s t a b l i s h e d , f rom t h e l o k a l s p a c e - u p . ~ l l i t a i t p e o p l e l ~ o r g a n i - - z a t i o n s - women, y o u t h , p e a s a n t s , w o r k e r s - c o n t r i b u t e t o g i v e c o n t e n t t o t h e new democracy. v:omen p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e i n a l l f i e l d s of deve lopment .

( c o n t . on page 96)

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

SELF-NANAGEYENT AS A DEVEL!2?PlEYT ALTERNATIVE : REFLECT1 ONS OY THE PERUVIAR EXPERIENCE by M a r t i n J . Scur rah and Mar io Padron ~ E S C O AV . S a l a v e r r y 1945 Lima 14, ~ e i u

O r i g i n a l language : Engl i sh

L A AUTOGESTION COMO A L T E R N A T I V A DE OTRO DESARROLLO: R E F L E X I O N E S

SOBRE L A E X P E R I E N C I A PERUANA

Resumen: Despues d e l a toma d e l pnde r p o r 10s m i l i t a r e s d i r i g i d o s p n r e l g e n e r a l V e l a s c o e n ~ e r G en 1968 , un programa d e t r a n s f o r r n a c i o n e s e s t r u c t u r a ~ e s f u e p u e s t n e n marcha. El n b j e t i v o e r a l l e g a r a u n a d e m o c r a c i a s o c i a l a m p l i a - mente p a r t i c i p a t i v a , b a s a d a e n l a d e m n c r a c i a i n d u s t r i a l y en l a a u t o g e s t i o n , y a una d e m n c r a c i a pnl : t ica apoyandnse ex1 a l g u n a s o r g a n i z a c i o n e s e s p e c i f i c a s r e s - p a l d a d a s p n r e l E s t a d n .

S i n embargo, e s t e p r o y e c t o t e n c a t e n d e n c i a a d e s c o n n c e r I n s i n t e r e s e s a d q u i r i - d o s d e c i e r ~ a s o r g a n i z a c i o n e s y a e x i s t e n t e s , a s i como l a s c n n t r a d i c c i n n e s i n v n l u c r a d a s e n l a c r e a c i n n , d e s d e a r r i b a , d e n r g a n i z a c i n r ~ e s p n p u l a r e s . En 1974, e l p r n c e s n i n s t i t u c i n n a l c u l m i n c con La c r e a c i n n de un Cnnse jn Nacic111~31 de P r o p i e d a d S o c i a l y de un Fondo N a c i n n a l de P r n p i e d a d S n c i a l . F e r o l a s d i f i c u l t a d e s economicas y p o l ? t i c a s , b c s i c a m e n t e de o r i g e n e x t r a n j e r o , o l - i g i n a r n n e l f i n d e l p r o y e c t o V e l a s c n .

A l a l u z de 10s hechns d e s c r i t n s en e s t e i n f o r m e , 10s a u t n r e s p l an t ea11 a lguno?. p rob l emas con r e s p e c t o a 1 a l c a n c e d e l a a u t n g e s t i n n , a 10s p rob l emas de implementation, a l a s r e a c c i n n e s d e 'egncsrnos de g r u p n ' y ~3 l a p r o h l e ~ i ! a t i ~ , d cl,e l a p a r t i c i p a c i n n ( ~ u i e : p a r t i c i p a , p n r quG, cnmo?) .

La h l t i m a secc in ; d e l a r t ~ c u l n s e r e f i e r e a l a s p e r s p e c t i v a s d e l f u t u r o .

Resum&: A p r s s l a p r i s e d u p n u v o i r p a r l e s m i l i t a i r e s d i r i g 6 s pzlr l e gGnc.,ral V e l a s c o a u PGrnu e n 1968 , un programme d e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s s t r u c t u r e l l e s 'I G t c ; mis e n n e u v r e . L ' n b j e c t i f e n 6 t a i t une d e n l n c r a t i e s n c i a l e p l e inemen t p.~i-t i -

c i p a t i v e f o n d & s u r l a d 6 m n c r a t i e i n d u s t r i e l l e elle-ni6me b d s & s u r d i f fGrc> : ! t~ ,b fo rmes d ' a u t n g e s t i n n n u v r i s r e , e t l a d@mc1cr~2t ie p n l i t i q u e bc~sGc, s t i r un cCr t , i i 1 l nombre d ' o r g a n i s a t i n n s s p 6 c i f i q u e s e n c n u r a g e e s p a r l q L t a t .

Ce p r o j e t a c e p e n d a n t n e g l i g e l e s i n t g r z t s a c q u i s d e c e r t a i n e s c > r R ~ l n i s ; ~ t i c > ~ i s p r g e x i s t a n t e s d e mGme que l e s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i11116re11tes 2 l a c r > : ~ t i c ~ : i p . ~ r L~~

( s u i t e p . 1 2 ( 1 4 ) .

X a r t l n J. S c u r r a h and Mario Padron T'

SELF-MANAGEMENT AS A DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVE: REFLECTIONS ON

THE P E R U V I A N EXPERIENCE

I n P e r u one o u t o f e v e r y f o u r employed workers i s a member o f a worker-run e n t e r p r i s e . Each day o v e r 700,000 workers have t o con- f r o n t and d e a l w i t h t h e problems f a c i n g o v e r 7,000 worker - run f i r m s i n an enx~i ronment c h a r a c t e r i z e d by economic and p o l i t i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y . To what e x t e n t do t h e s e f i r m s and t h e i r w o r k e r s r e p r e s e n t an a l t e r n a t i v e development model w i t h i n P e r u ' s " p l u r a - l i s t " economy?

What a r e some o f t h e l e s s o n s t h a t have been l e a r n e d d u r i n g t h e p a s t decade t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f v a r i o u s forms o f worker p a r t i c i p a t i o n and self-management? What a r e some o f t h e i s s u e s and dilemmas t h a t have been and a r e b e i n g r a i s e d and f a c e d and t h a t may be o f r e l e v a n c e f o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s e x p l o r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e development p o s s i b i l i t i e s ?

Self-management a s a form o f w o r k e r s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n no l o n g e r e n j o y s t h e deqree of s u p p o r t t h a t P e r u ' s m i l i t a r y government gave i t i n fo rmer y e a r s . S i n c e 1974 t h e workers have e x p e r i e n c e d a d e c l i n e i n t h e i r l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s most s e r i o u s economic c r i s i s t h i s c e n t u r y and t h i s h a s a f f e c t e d t h e v i a b i l i t y and even t h r e a t e n e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f many o f t h e i r f i r m s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f a t r a n s i t i o n from m i l i t a r y t o c i v i l i a n r u l e ; o f new forms ( o r , r a t h e r , t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f o l d fo rms) o f p o l i t i c a l a r t i c u l a t i o n f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e u rban b o u r g e o i s i e ; and o f an improvinq e x p o r t income which promises t o r e s t o r e r e a l i n - come l e v e l s t o t h e i r e a r l y s e v e n t i e s l e v e l s by t h e m i d - e i g h t i e s , se l f -managed e n t e r p r i s e s and t h e i r worker-owners f a c e new c h a l - l e n g e s and o p ~ o r t u n i t i e s .

The Peruvian e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f i e l d o f self-management o f f e r s ample m a t e r i a l f o r a n a l y z i n q which e l e m e n t s of t h a t e x p e r i e n c e have proved v a l u a b l e ; t h e l i ~ n i t a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i o n s e n c o u n t e r e d ; t h e k e y q u e s t i o n s i n any a t t e m p t t o i n t r o d u c e forms o f s e l f - manaqement i n a cor l t ex t o f dependent c a p i t a l i s m ; t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f self-management; t h e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t cou ld prove t o b e v a l i d f o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; and , c o n c r e t e l y , tile p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r self-management i n P e r u under p r e s e n t c o n d i - t l o n s and g i v e n t h e s p e c i f i c problems t h a t t h e p o o r e r and marqi- n a l l z e d s e c t o r s f a c e .

;'c/ :l.lr i I J c ~ d r ~ > ~ i , Centro de Estudios y Promotion del Desarrollo (DESCO) , - ~

, \ v . Saldverry 1 9 4 5 , 1, lma 14, Peru.

I n t h e f a c e o f a d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e s u p p o r t f o r c i v i l i a n P r e s i - d e n t Be launde , a n economic c r i s i s and growing ( b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y unmanageable) p o l i t i c a l c h a o s , t h e armed f o r c e s , l e d by Genera l Juan V e l a s c o , took o v e r t h e government i n a b l o o d l e s coup d ' e t a t i n l a t e 1968. A f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s i t became c l e a r t h a t a t e n o u s l y predominant s e c t o r o f t h e armed f o r c e s grouped a round P r e s i d e n t Velasco was i n t e n t on implement ing a number o f " s t r u c t u r a l " changes zimed a t t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e n a t u r e o f P e r u v i a n s o c i e t y .

A s t h e s e r e f o r m s began t o t a k e shape and began t o be i n t e l l e c t u a l - l y a r t i c u l a t e d by c i v i l i a n a l l i e s w i t h i n t h e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y a v i s i o n emerged o f a f u t u r e f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l democracy c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e b a s e s o f an i n d u s t r i a l democracy c o n s i s t i n g o f v a r i o u s forms o f worker-managed e n t e r p r i s e s and a p o l i t i c a l demo- c r a c y b a s e d on newly c r e a t e d , government s p o n s o r e d , i n t e r e s t o r g a - n i z a t i o n s . As we s h a l l l a t e r s e e , t h i s i d e a l i s t i c - even u t o p i a n - v e r s i o n t e n d e d t o o v e r l o o k t h e i n t e r e s t o f and d i f f i c u l t i e s posed by e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , u n i o n s , c o o ~ e r a t i v e s and o t h e r worker o r g a r i i z a t i o n s and t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r e a - t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i z a t i o n s by top-down, a u t h o - r i t a r i a n methods and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The p r e v i o u s c i v i l i a n government had p a s s e d i n 1964 a G e n e r a l C o o p e r a t i v e s Law which , t o g e t h e r w i t h a number o f f i s c a l and o t h e r i n c e n t i v e s , had promoted t h e r a p i d growth of a wide r a n g e o f c o o p e r a t i v e s . However, t h e s e were main ly s e r v i c e c o o p e r a t i v e s , i n c l u d i n g b u i l d i n g s o c i e t i e s , s a v i n g s and l o a n s c o o p e r a t i v e s , consumer c o o p e r a t i v e s and m a r k e t i n g c o o p e r a t i v e s , w i t h v e r y few p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s b e i n g formed. Weakly a r t i c u l a t e d i n t e r - n a l l y , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement t e n d e d t o s e r v e a s a b a s i s o f economic s u p p o r t f o r t h e p redominant c a p i t a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e s and a s a b a s i s o f p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e APF'A p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . Under t h e Velasco Government (1968-1975) , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement. l o s t t h e f i s c a l and o t h e r i n c e n t i v e s i t had e n j o y e d and t e n d e d t o l a n g u i s h i n a s t a t e o f r e l a t i v e s t a g n a t i o n due t o t h e u n f a v o u r a b l e economic and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i t c o n f r o n t e d .

D e s p i t e i t s g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e towards p r e - e x i s t i n g co- o p e r a t i v e s , t h e f i r s t major p i e c e o f r e f o r m l e g i s l a t i o n - t h e A g r a r i a n Reform Law o f 1969 - s o u g h t t o e x p r o p r i a t e h a c i e n d a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y and c o n v e r t them i n t o a g r a r i a n p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s , r a t h e r t h a n d i v i d e and d i s t r i b u t e t h e l a n d t o f o r - mer fa rm l a b o u r e r s and s u r r o u n d i n g p e a s a n t communi t ies . I n f a c t , two forms of c o o p e r a t i v e s were c r e a t e d : t h e a g r a r i a n p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s (CAPS) composed o f farm l a b o u r e r s who had worked on t h e e s t a t e s b e f o r e e x p r o p r i a t i o n and who became t h e new owners and managers and t h e a g r a r i a n s o c i a l i n t e r e s t s o c i e t i e s ( S A I S ) , formed on t h e b a s i s o f s h e e p r a n c h e s i n t h e h i g h g r a s s l a n d s ( p u n a ) o f t h e Andes, where ownersh ip and c o n t r o l was s h a r e d between r a n c h s h e p h e r d s and n e i g h b o u r i n g p e a s a n t communit ies . Both weze, o f c o u r s e , p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s b u t l i t t l e a t t e m p t was made t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement. However, second l e v e l coopera- t i v e s ( c a l l e d c e n t r a l e s ) t o p r o v i d e common s e r v i c e s such a s p u r - c h a s i n g , m a r k e t i n g , a c c o u n t i n g , e t c . were s p o n s o r e d . Except f o r

c e n t r a l e s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e e x p o r t of s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t s such a s wool , c o f f e e and s u g a r , t h e performance o f t h e c e n t r a l e s h a s i n g e n e r a l been d i s a p p o i n t i n g .

To complement t h e s e new forms o f economic o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e r u r a l s e c t o r based on self-managed f o r m s , t h e Government, t h r o u q h i t s q u a s i - p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n SINAMOS (Sis tema Nac iona l de Apoyo a l a M o v i l i z a c i o n S o c i a l : N a t i o n a l System t o S u o p o r t S o c i a l M o b i l i z a t i o n ) , o r g a n i z e d t h e Confederac ion Nac iona l A g r a r i a ( C N A : N a t i o n a l A g r a r i a n C o n f e d e r a t i o n ) on t h e b a s i s of l o c a l d i s t r i c t a g r a r i a n l e a g u e s and d e p a r t m e n t a l a g r a r i a n f e d e r a t i o n s a s a means f o r g i v i n g p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e a g r a r i a n s e c t o r . D e s p i t e s h o r t c o m i n g s , t h e CNA was c l e a r l y t h e most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and autonomous o f a l l t h e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c r e a t e d by t h e Velasco Government.

I n l970 an I n d u s t r i a l Community Law was o a s s e d whereby a l l f i r m s w i t h more t h a n f i v e workers o r more t h a n S / .1 ,000 ,000 i n a n n u a l s a l e s ( a b o u t US$ 22,000 a t 1970 exchange r a t e s ) were r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h a n i n d u s t r i a l community composed o f a l l workers i n t h e f i r m , from g e n e r a l manager t o d o o r k e e p e r . T h i s community was t o r e c e i v e 25% o f t h e f i r m ' s a n n u a l p r o f i t s , 1 0 % t o be d i s t r i b u t e d i n c a s h amongst t h e community members and 15% i n t h e form o f company s h a r e s , e i t h e r t h r o u q h t h e i s s u e o f new s h a r e s o r by buying o u t e x i s t i n g s h a r e h o l d e r s . Whether h o l d i n g s h a r e s o r n o t , t h e community was t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s h a r e h o l d e r s ' mee t ings and have a minimum o f one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s . Through t h i s mechanism it was i n t e n d e d t h a t o v e r a p e r i o d of y e a r s t h e workers t h r o u g h t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l community would a c h i e v e a 50% s h a r e i n t h e ownersh ip and c o n t r o l o f t h e company. I t was n e v e r made c l e a r what would happen when t .h i s 50 - 50 s i t u a t i o n was r e a c h e d , n o r how p o t e n t i a l impasses would be r e s o l v e d , though rumours c i r c u l a t e d t h a t once a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f f i r m s a c h i e v e d t h i s s t a t u s t h e y would b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s . L a t e r laws c r e a t e d s i m i l a r communit ies i n t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , mining and f i s h m o a l f i r m s , w i t h t h e added t w i s t t h a t i n t h e l a s t two s e c t o r s compensat ion communit ies were a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t o r e d i s t r i b u t e s h a r e s and c a s h b e n e f i t s from t h e more p r o f i t a b l e t o t h e l e s s p r o f i t a b l e f i r m s .

A s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e a g r a r i a n s e c t o r , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , CONACI ( C o n f e d e r a c i o n N a c i o n a l de Comunidades Indus- t r i a l e s : N a t i o n a l C o n f e d e r a t i o n o f I n d u s t r i a l Communities) was o r g a n i z e d . However, i n i t s founding c o n f e r e n c e i n 1973 d i s p u t e s between SINAMOS and t h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y a s t o who would c o n t r o l ( o r " o r i e n t " ) t h e n a s c e n t C o n f e d e r a t i o n l e d t o l a t e r d i v i - s i o n i s t movements, f a t a l l y weakening i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s a n a t i o - n a l spokesman f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l communit ies . T h i s was f u r t h e r compounded by o p p o s i t i o n o r , a t b e s t , s u s p i c i o n by u n i o n s and t h e i r n a t i o n a l c o n f e d e r a t i o n s w h o viewed t h e c r e a t i o n o f CONACI as an a t t e m p t t o undermine t h e i r power and i n f l u e n c e and wide- s p r e a d c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l employers and employer o r g a n i z a - t i o n s who viewed t h e i n d u s t r i a l communit ies a s a t h r e a t t o t h e i r p i - c r o f j a t i v e s " and e v e n t u a l e x i s t e n c e .

F i n a l l y , i n 1974 t h e S o c i a l P r o p e r t y Law was p a s s e d . Under t h i s law worker self-manaqed f i r m s would be c r e a t e d ( a l t h o u g h a number of p r e - e x i s t i n g , bankrupt f i r m s t a k e n o v e r by t h e i r workers were a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d ) and i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a s e c t o r where a l l t h e f i r m s would be owned by a l l t h e workers i n t h e s e c t o r . These f i r m s c o u l d be c r e a t e d i n any economic s e c t o r and would r e c e i v e t o p government p r i o r i t y w i t h t h e g o a l t h a t t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r would e v e n t u a l l y become t h e predominant s e c t o r i n t h e economy and t h e p r i n c i p a l b a s i s of t h e e v e n t u a l o a r t i c i p a t o r y dernocra- c y . A new government agency , CONAPS ( C o n s e j o Nac iona l de P r o p i e d a d S o c i a l : N a t i o n a l S o c i a l P r o p e r t y C o u n c i l ) , was e s t a b l i s h e d t o govern and promote t h e new s e c t o r i n i t s i n i t i a l s t a g e s and a f i n a n c i a l agency , FONAPS (Fondo Nac iona l de P r o p i e d a d S o c i a l : N a t i o n a l S o c i a l P r o p e r t y F u n d ) , c r e a t e d t o p r o v i d e i n i t i a l f i n a n - c i a l s u p p o r t and a mechanism f o r s o c i a l c a p i t a l accumula t ion a t t h e s e c t o r i a l l e v e l . When a s u f f i c i e n t number of f i r m s had been c r e a t e d t h e y would be grouped i n t o r e g i o n a l u n i t s f o r p l a n n i n g and c o o r d i n a t i o n p u r p o s e s and an assembly r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l t h e f i r m s i n t h e s e c t o r would be formed f o r p l a n n i n g and p o l i c y rnakinq pur - p o s e s .

T h i s new law and t h e self-management model c o n t a i n e d i n i t r e f l e c - t e d t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of f i v e y e a r s of e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and r e f l e c t i o n o v e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e form of se l f -managed e n t e r p r i s e i n Peru . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d a swan song f o r t h e Velasco Government. By 1974 t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e wor ld economic c r i s i s were b e i n g f e l t i n Peru making t h e c r e a t i o n o f any new f i r m - w h a t e v e r i t s d e s i g n - an i n c r e a s i n g l y h a z a r d o u s and d i f f i c u l t t a s k . P o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s on a number o f f r o n t s w i t h powerfu l s e c - t o r s o f s o c i e t y were t a k i n g t h e i r t o l l i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g p o l i t i - c i z a t i o n and d i s u n i t y w i t h i n t h e armed f o r c e s . A s i m p o r t a n t s e c - t o r s o f t h e s o c i e t y p a s s e d from e s t r a n g e m e n t t o a c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n , newly emerg ing s e c t o r s o f t h e r u r a l and urban working c l a s s were i n s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d and o r g a n i z e d and l a c k e d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e Government 's program was s u f f i c i e n t l y c o h e r e n t t o w a r r a n t t h e i r t o t a l s u p p o r t . F i n a l l y , t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s f a i l i n g h e a l t h s e r i o u s l y l i m i t e d h i s a b i l i t y t o r e c o n c i l e c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n t h e armed f o r c e s and m a i n t a i n t h e heqemony of t h e f r a g i l e m i l i t a r y - c i v i l i a n - b u r e a u c r a t i c c o a l i t i o n which had been t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d t h e r e f o r m s .

I f t h e V e l a s c o Government h a d a r e f o r m i s t ( o r " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " ) m i s s i o n whose d e t a i l e d o u t l i n e s o n l y became c l e a r towards t h e end o f i t s t e r m , t h e Morales Bermudez Government, which assumed power i n a n o t h e r b l o o d l e s s coup i n Augus t , 1975 , saw i t s m i s s i o n a s one of c o p i n g w i t h what was p e r c e i v e d a s a growing p o l i t i c a l and economic c r i s i s . Although c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e p o l i c i e s and programs o f t h e p r e v i o u s government was o r o m i s e d , w i t h i n a y e a r i t was c l e a r t h a t t h i s was n o t t o b e t h e c a s e . A d r a m a t i c dec l i -ne i n e x p o r t income, rampant i n f l a t i o n , a c r i p p l i n g o v e r s e a s d e b t burden and l a c k o f o r g a n i z e d p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t l e d him t o seek a r e c o n c i - l i a t i o n w i t h t h o s e s e c t o r s o f s o c i e t y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e u rban bour - g e o i s i e , which had been i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Velasco Government. These new a l l i a n c e s and t h e changed economic p o l i c i e s d e v i s e d a s a

way o u t o f t h e economic c r i s i s r e n d e r e d t h e V e l a s c o "model" , and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s c r e a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f i t , i n c r e a s i n g l y i r r e l e - v a n t t o t h e new s t r a t e g y and p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t s t o i t s implementa- t i o n .

However, t h e s e changes d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t any n o t i c e a b l e r e l i e f f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e movement. Though a c t i v e h a r a s s m e n t c e a s e d , "ben ign n e g l e c t " was n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r it t o r e c o v e r i t s former dynamism and towards t h e end of t h e Mora les Bermudez Govern- ment t h e y looked w i t h i n c r e a s i n g opt imism towards a c i v i l i a n government , e s p e c i a l l y i f i t were APRA - domina ted .

The Morales Bermudez Government was p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e a g r a r i a n r e f o r m a s a f a i t accompl i and devoted i t s e f f o r t s t o m a i n t a i n i n g government c o n t r o l o v e r t h e CAPS and SAIS, d e f e n d i n g them a g a i n s t t h r e a t s o f i n v a s i o n s from s u r r o u n d i n g p e a s a n t communit ies and s e a s o n a l workers a n d , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a p o l i c y more i n c l i n e d t o g i v e l i p s e r v i c e t o a g r i c u l t u r e a s t h e c o u n t r y ' s f i r s t p r i o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n a r e a l t r a n s f e r o f r e s o u r c e s , s e e k i n g t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e e n t e r p r i s e s t h r o u g h such measures a s condoning t h e a g r a r i a n d e b t .

S i n c e t h e i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e was one o f t h e key e l e m e n t s i n t h e new p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e and i n t h e economic r e c o v e r y program t h e i n d u s t r i a l community had l i t t l e chance o f s u r v i v i n g i n i t s o r g i n a l fo rm. I n 1976 t h e l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n o f a s m a l l b u s i n e s s was changed s o t h a t f i r m s w i t h s a l e s o f up t o S / .32 ,000 ,000 a t t h a t d a t e would be c o n s i d e r e d " s m a l l " and f o r t h a t r e a s o n exempt from t h e r e q u i r e - ment t o have an i n d u s t r i a l community. By t h i s d e f i n i t i o n a b o u t 60% o f f i r m s would be c o n s i d e r e d s m a l l . L a t e r l e g i s l a t i o n i n 1977 and 1978 e l i m i n a t e d t h e community 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s h a r e h o l d e r m e e t i n g s , a l l o w e d t h e community 's s h a r e o f t h e p r o f i t s t o b e i n v e s - t e d i n forms o t h e r t h a n t h e p u r c h a s e o f s h a r e s and i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a t t e r c o n v e r t e d them i n t o i n d i v i d u a l , r a t h e r t h a n community, s h a r e h o l d i n g s . The t h e o r e t i c a l maximum t o which t h e s e s h a r e h o l d - i n g s c o u l d r i s e was lowered from one-ha l f t o o n e - t h i r d and t h e p e r - m i s s i o n t o t r a n s f e r them a f t e r f i v e y e a r s meant t h a t t h e c o n c e p t had been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a form o f w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d s h a r e owner- s h i p w i t h nominal p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e b o a r d of d i r e c t o r s . Thus , t h e i n d u s t r i a l community p a s s e d from b e i n g an e v o l u t i o n a r y p a t h t o w a r d s c o d e t e r m i n a t i o n o r self-management t o a P e r u v i a n v e r s i o n o f p e o p l e s ' c a p i t a l i s m .

Under t h e Morales Bermudez Government a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r was c a r r i e d o u t . Many p r o j e c t s were dropped; i t s s t a t u s was reduced from "predominant" t o " p r i o r i t y " and n o t even t h a t was r e s p e c t e d i n p r a c t i c e ; emphas i s was p l a c e d on i n v e s t m e n t s i n l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e , m a r g i n a l and r u r a l p r o j e c t s , r a t h e r t h a n h i g h l y p r o f i t a b l e , t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and r a p i d l y grow- i n g s e c t o r s ; and t h e s u p p l y o f c a p i t a l was l i m i t e d and made a v a i - l a b l e on n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y f a v o r a b l e t e r m s . Growth was l i m i t e d ; i n a t r a v e s t y o f t h e i d e a l s o f self-management most f i r m s were k e p t under s t r i c t government c o n t r o l u n t i l l a t e 1979 , and many found t h e m s e l v e s l o c k e d i n t o s u p p l y i n g segments o f t h e marke t ( e s - pecially when s a t i s f y i n g b a s i c n e e d s ) whose n u r c h a s i n g power had

been d r a s t i c a l l y reduced . I'!hen t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Assembly produced i n mid-1979 a new c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t f a i l e d e x p l i c i t l y t o mention s o c i a l p r o p e r t y o r t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r , t h e Government embarked on a f r a n t i c program t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t y s o c i a l p r o p e r t y e n t e r p r i s e s i n f o r m a t i o n , o r g a n i z e t h e r e g i o n a l u n i t s and e l e c t t h e s e c t o r a l assembly s o t h a t a n i n d e - p e n d e n t l y f u n c t i o n i n g s e c t o r c o u l d be l e t l o o s e t o s i n k o r s w i m i n a s e a o f c a p i t a l i s m and f a c e d w i t h t h e waves c r e a t e d by t h e new, and n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s y m p a t h e t i c , c i v i l i a n government .

T h i s b r i e f thumb-na i l s k e t c h of t h e v a r i o u s forms o f se l f -managed e n t e r p r i s e s c r e a t e d d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t i e s i n P e r u a s p a r t o f an e f f o r t t o c r e a t e an a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g y forms t h e backdrop f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e s u c c e s s e s and f a i - l u r e s , and problems and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f self-management a s a deve lopment a l t e r n a t i v e .

REFLECTIONS

The d e f i n i t i o n - o f t h e "scope" of self-management

Self-management i m p l i e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i t s w i d e s t s e n s e , i n c l u - d i n g a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e i t s e l f (and a l l t h e m a t t e r s t o be d e c i d e d i n i t s management) and a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e s o c i e t y a s a whole ( i n c l u d i n g t h e s p h e r e o f p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s ) .

But se l f -management , when i t d o e s n o t i n c l u d e s p e c i f i e d a r e a s i n which t h e worker c a n e x e r c i s e h i s d e c i s i o n making, c e a s e s t o be a m o b i l i z a t i o n f a c t o r .

I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e P e r u v i a n e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e s v a r i o u s examples f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h i s phenomenon. Land and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , f o r example , were o f f e r e d t o t h e r u r a l worker i n g e n e r i c a n d , t h e r e - f o r e , ambiguous t e r m s . Yet he c o u l d n o t d e c i d e what t o p r o d u c e , how t o produce , how much t o p r o d u c e , what p r i c e t o s e t f o r h i s p r o d u c e , how much income he c o u l d r e c e i v e , n o r how t o marke t h i s p r o d u c e . The m a r g i n s o r " s c o p e " o f h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n were t h u s reduced t o t h e i r minimal e x p r e s s i o n because o f t h e l a c k of any d e f i n e d and p r e c i s e b o u n d a r i e s .

By c o n t r a s t , i t i s s u r e l y t h e c a s e t h a t , i n impos ing such bounda- r ies, t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s would have r e s t r i c t e d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , t h u s r e v e a l i n g i t s u s e of t h e c o n c e p t .

T h i s would have e n a b l e d t h e worker t o c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y t h e s p h e r e s i n which he was n o t p e r m i t e d t o d e c i d e , t h u s g e n e r a t i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n f o r p r o t e s t o v e r t h e t y p e s o f d e c i s i o n s f o r - b i d d e n t o him. B u t , i n t h i s c a s e , h e was o f f e r e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n b r o a d , g e n e r a l t e r m s . Whi le , on t h e o t h e r hand , i n p r a c t i c e t h e r e was v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t which he was a l lowed t o d e c i d e . Once a g a i n , t h e c o n t r a s t a r o s e between what was s a i d and what was r e a l l y p e r m i t t e d ; a c o n t r a s t which s e r v e d t o c r e a t e a g i t a t i o n and a s a c a t a l y s t f o r h i s becoming aware o f t h e r e a l i t y i n which he l i v e d and of t h e u n v i a b i l i t y o f t h e model p roposed by t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s " f rom above" .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f a c t t h a t self-management was p r e s e n t e d i n am- b i g u o u s t e r m s meant t h a t it had a d i f f e r e n t meaning f o r t h e wor- k e r t h a n f o r t h e p u b l i c o f f i c i a l c h a r g e d w i t h i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . For t h e p e a s a n t , i t meant t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f improving h i s s t a n - d a r d o f l i v i n g and h i s a c c e s s t o t h e d e c i s i o n making s t r u c t u r e , w h i l e f o r t h e f u n c t i o n a r y it s i g n i f i e d an i d e o l o g i c a l d e v i c e i n whose name t h e worker o u g h t t o a b s t a i n from s t r i k e s , work s t o p - p a g e s , and economi: and p o l i t i c a l demands because i n making them he would be undermining h i s own i n t e r e s t s a s "owner" ( t h e o r e t i - c a l l y , o f c o u r s e ) o f h i s f i r m . An i n s t r u m e n t o f l i b e r a t i o n i n one c a s e and o f o p p r e s s i o n i n t h e o t h e r , self-management was l e f t ambiguous and used a s an i d e o l o g i c a l t o o l by t h e dominant s e c t o r s o f t h e s o c i e t y .

I t i s wor th p o i n t i n g o u t , however , t h a t t h e s e d i s t i n c t meanings w i l l a lways e x i s t , s i n c e t h e y a r i s e from t h e c l a s s p o s i t i o n o f t h e worker and o f t h e p u b l i c o f f i c i a l , o r o f whoever a c t s a s t h e p r o m o t i o n a l a g e n t o f self-management .

But it seems t o be e q u a l l y c l e a r t h a t self-management , even when used a s an i d e o l o g i c a l weapon f o r r a t i o n a l i z i n g and d e f e n d i n g an e x i s t i n g o r d e r , i n c o r p o r a t e s e l e m e n t s o f m o b i l i z a t i o n and c o n c i e n t i c i z a t i o n . T h i s o c c u r s when t h e worker compares t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n i n which he l i v e s w i t h t h a t s o c i e t y ( o r a s p e c t s o f i t ) w i t h " f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n " t h a t t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s , o r whoever u s e s t h e c o n c e p t , o f f e r s him, even when t h e y d o s o f o r t h e i r own e n d s .

Problems i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a self-managed s e c t o r -

I n Peru t h e r e was an a t t e m p t t o implement a se l f -managed s e c t o r i n t h e s o c i e t y : t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r . I t would t h e r e f o r e be a p p r o p r i a t e t o make a more d e t a i l e d and minute a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r a t e g y f o l l o w e d , t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e c a u s e s o f i t s d e t e r i o r a t i o n and a l m o s t i t s d e f o r m a t i o n a s it a p p e a r s t o d a y .

Did i t r e p r e s e n t a " f i n a l " model pushed by a g roup of u t o p i a n i s t l i b e r t a r i a n s who c o u l d n o t r e a l i z e t h e i r g o a l b e c a u s e of t h e s p e c i f i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m i l i t a r y government? Was the s t r a t e g y o f p romot ing many se l f -managed o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n q r d e r t o be a b l e t o c o u n t on " s e e d s " from which a c o r r e c t one l a t e r would p r o s p e r ? Should t h e y have been more " r e a l i s t i c and p r a g m a t i c " o r , by c o n t r a s t , even more a u d a c i o u s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f e n t e r p r i s e s ? Were t h e f i n a n c i a l mechanisms s u f f i c i e n t l y f l e x i b l e and o p p o r t u n e ? Was t h e l o g i c o f economic p r o f i t a b i l i t y C i r n l y e s t a b l i s h e d ( o r s h o u l d it have b e e n ) ?

Should t h e y have a v o i d e d ( a s seems t o have been t h e c a s e ) forms of p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e e n t e r p r i s e s ? Should t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s and i n d u s t r i a l communit ies I J V C been i n c l u d e d ? Was a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y n e c e s s a r y t o s u s t a i n i n d d e f e n d self-management and t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e workers and t:ic r e f o r m s and improvements o b t a i n e d ? Was it p o s s i b l e ( o r i u l d i t have been p o s s i b l e ) t o d i s t i n q u i s h a r t i f i c i a l l y between

an economic and a p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e workers? What was t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e c o n c r e t e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y e n t e r p r i s e s c r e a t e d : V i l l a E l S a l v a d o r (CUAVES), D e c i s i o n Campesina, Moto Andina, e t c . ? Were t h e " i n s t i - t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n " mechanisms c r e a t e d (SINADEPS, FONAPS, e t c . ) s u f f i c i e n t l y autonomous and i n t h e hands o f t h e workers them- s e l v e s o r were t h e y r a t h e r a d d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s f o r c o n t r o l by t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s ? Mere t h e y t h e n promotors o r c o n t r o l l e r s o f p o p u l a r i n i t i a t i v e s ?

Self-manayement and "group egoism' '

When forms o f se l f -managed o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e i n t r o d u c e d w i t h i n a c a p i t a l i s t c o n t e x t , t h e y f a c e a h o s t i l e env i ronment t h a t can have v a r i o u s consequences . The f i r s t i s t h a t o f subsuming t h e s e forms w i t h i n t h e r u l i n q c a p i t a l i s t sys tem, c o n v e r t i n g them i n t h i s way i n t o a n o t h e r k i n d o f f i r m o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e l o g i c o f p r o f i t - making. A second consequence may be v i o l e n t o p p o s i t i o n b o t h a t t h e l e v e l of words and a c t i o n s l e a d i n g t o t h e i r d i s a p p e a r a n c e . A t h i r d t y p e of r e s u l t i f t h e deforming o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e , t h a t i s , , c a u s i n g i t t o l o s e i t s se l f -managing c h a r a c t e r t h r o u g h t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e "group egoism syndrome".

The P e r u v i a n example o f t h e s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s o f f e r s food f o r t h o u g h t i n t h i s r e g a r d . They were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a c a p i t a l i s t env i ronment i n c o n d i t i o n s o f g e n e r a l i z e d unemployment, e x p l o i t a t i o n and e x t r a c t i o n o f t h e s u r p l u s g e n e r a t e d by workers (by t h e s t a t e and t h r o u g h t h e marke t t o which p r o d u c t i o n was o r i e n t e d ) . The s t a t e a p p a r a t u s c o n t r o l l e d and s u p e r v i s e d t h e c o o p e r a t i v e s , y e t t h e y l a c k e d a d e s i g n beyond t h a t o f t h e i n d i v i - d u a l e n t e r p r i s e t h a t would i n c o r p o r a t e o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l . These c o n d i t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e d a s e t o f f a c t o r s t h a t f a v o r e d t h e r i s e and development o f t h e "group egoism" t h a t t h e worker who was a member o f a p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e e x p e r i e n - c e d a s a g a i n s t o t h e r w o r k e r s .

But t h e P e r u v i a n e x p e r i e n c e a l s o o f f e r s c o n t r a r y examples o f l a n d - less p e a s a n t s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e c o o p e r a t i v e s a t t h e i n i t i a - t i v e o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e members " i n s p i t e o f " t h e l o g i c o f income maximiza t ion . V a r i o u s m o b i l i z a t i o n s , l a n d i n v a s i o n s , pronouncements and c o n c r e t e s t r u g g l e s s h a r p e n e d t h e w o r k e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h i s "group egoism" had i t s o r i g i n i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem i n which he found h i m s e l f .

Is t h e "egoism" o f t h e w o r k e r s , t h e n , a consequence o f t h e sys tem i n which t h e s e d i f f e r e n t forms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e i n s e r t e d ? What i s t h e p r i c e o f s o l i d a r i t y when t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n f o r i n d i v i - d u a l work i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t r e c e i v e d f o r c o l l e c t i v e work? How can t h i s "egoism" b e combated? Are t h e r e c a s e s when t h i s h a s o c c u r r e d ? What were t h e r e s u l t s ?

The fundamenta l q u e s t i o n s : Who p a r t i c i p a t e s ? Why? How?

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f se l f -managing forms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e s , r e q u i r e s a d e f i n i t i o n a s t o who a r e t h e a c t o r s i n such a p r o c e s s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The wor- k e r , t h e c i t i z e n , t h e s o c i o - ~ o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e ap- p a r a t u s of t h e s t a t e a r e , p e r h a p s , t h e f o u r most c l e a r l y i d e n t i - f i a b l e a g e n t s . They a r e t h e o n e s who a r e g o i n g t o " p a r t i c i p a t e " and e x e r c i z e t h e i r r i g h t t o d e t e r m i n e , g i v i n g form t o t h e d e c i s i o n making s t r u c t u r e .

But t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l be r e a l and e f f e c t i v e o n l y when t h e r e a s o n s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g a r e c l e a r and d e f i n e d . The i d e n t i f i c a - t i o n o f "what i s d i s t r i b u t e d " , of t h e "scope" o r s p h e r e o f d e c i - s i o n making, is t h u s an e q u a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e e l e m e n t . Accord ing t o whether t h e i r immediate i n t e r e s t s a r e more d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d , t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l be more i n t e n s e . But when t h e s u b j e c t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s more " remote" o r ambiguous, it becomes de- formed and can become s u s c e p t i b l e t o m a n i p u l a t i o n by w o r k e r s . There may be p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t o r w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d and a b o u t t h e l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and u s e , b u t o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e i d e n - t i f i a b l e and c l e a r l y d e f i n e d .

I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o be a b l e t o c o u n t on c l e a r r u l e s o f t h e game g u i d i n g t h e form o f e x e r c i z i n g t h i s r i g h t t o d e c i s i o n making. Whether we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h g e o g r a p h i c a l o r s e c t o r a l u n i t s o r s p e c i f i c s p h e r e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , t h e r e ought t o be c l e a r r u l e s o f t h e game ( i n d i c a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t e s and l i m i t s ) t h a t govern t h e e x e r c i z e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

The P e r u v i a n l e g i s l a t i o n was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e a b o u t "how t o p a r t i c i p a t e " . The d imens ion o f t h e "commune" ( o r d i s t r i c t ) , f o r example, was n o t i n c l u d e d when t h e a n a l y s i s o f o t h e r h i s t o r i - c a l r e a l i t i e s ( Y u g o s l a v i a , China and Poland , f o r example) show t h a t t h i s i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r f o r e x t a b l i s h i n g t h e l i m i t s t o , r e a s o n f o r , and i n t e r e s t i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g .

To t h e e x t e n t t h a t c o n c r e t e a s p e c t s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e i d e n t i - f i e d , i n t e r e s t i n it w i l l e x i s t . Those i n t e r e s t s (and r i g h t s ) t h a t have been e x p r o p r i a t e d from t h e worker and t h e c i t i z e n by t h e " e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r " , by t h e s t a t e o r by t h e d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s and s o c i a l f o r c e s w i l l a l s o be p e r c e i v e d . Self-management w i l l t h e n b e on a r e a l i s t i c p a t h : of a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s t h a t it i t s e l f g e n e r a t e s and f e e d s .

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Self-managed o r g a n i z a t i o n s have l o s t t h e s u b s t a n t i a l s u p p o r t t h e y e n j o y e d from t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s i n p r e v i o u s y e a r s . During t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s t h e V e l a s c o Government 's g r a d u a l l y e v o l v i n g p o l i t i c a l "model" p l a c e d i n c r e a s i n g emphas i s on t h e c r e a t i o n o f se l f -managed e n t e r p r i s e s a s t h e economic b u i l d i n g b l o c k s and s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l worker and ne ighborhood o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s t h e p o l i t i c a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f what was s a i d would b e a f u l l y

p a r t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l democracy. I n d e e d f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d d u r i n g 1974-75 - p r e c i s e l y when i t s f o r t u n e s were waning - t h e p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e p r o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r would become predominant .

I n f a c t , t h i s s u p p o r t f o r self-management was n e v e r e i t h e r unqua l - i f i e d o r d i s i n t e r e s t e d . The c o o p e r a t i v e movement which p r e c e d e d t h e V e l a s c o Government l o s t a member o f government f i n a n c i a l and t a x i n c e n t i v e s and s u f f e r e d s e r i o u s s e t b a c k s d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y because o f i t s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e ~ c c i 6 n P o p u l a r and APRA p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e l a t t e r , whose b a s e s o f s u p p o r t t h e V e l a s c o Government was keen t o undermine. Although t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement was weakly a r t i c u l a t e d i n t e r n a l - l y and s e r v e d t o s u p p o r t r a t h e r t h a n q u e s t i o n t h e predominant c a p i t a l i s t sys tem, t h e t r e a t m e n t r e c e i v e d a t t h e hands o f t h e V e l a s c o Government s e r v e d t o c r e a t e r e s e n t m e n t s and h o s t i l i t i e s between t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c o o p e r a t i v e s and t h e newly formed a g r a - r i a n p r o d u c t i o n c o o p e r a t i v e s , SAIS and s o c i a l p r o p e r t y e n t e r p r i s e s .

The Mora les Bermudez Government looked f o r p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f rom t h e b o u r g e o i s i e , p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s i e and f o r e i g n c a p i t a l - a s w e l l a s , o f c o u r s e , t h e armed f o r c e s - d i s t a n c i n g i t s e l f w i t h i n c r e a s - i n g s p e e d from t h e o r g a n i z e d r u r a l and urban p r o l e t a r i a t . T h i s l e d t o a r a p i d d r o p i n s u p p o r t f o r s o c i a l p r o p e r t y e n t e r p r i s e s ; a n a t t e m p t t o a s s e r t g r e a t e r c o n t r o l s o v e r t h e a g r a r i a n coopera- t i v e s and SAIS; t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e l a b o u r communit ies from models o f c o d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o a v e r s i o n of " p e o p l e s c a p i t a l i s m " ; and i n c r e a s i n g r e p r e s s i o n o f t r a d e u n i o n s . The economic c r i s i s , t h e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n which t h r e a t e n e d t h e u n i t y (and l o n g e r t e r m p o l i t i c a l power) o f t h e armed f o r c e s , t h e l o s s o f a s e n s e o f " m i s s i o n " and i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l e d t h e Morales Bermudez Government t o s e e k a way o u t v i a an agreement w i t h t h o s e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s t h e V e l a s c o Government had s o u g h t ( u n s u c c e s s f u l l y ) t o e l i m i n a t e and which r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s o c i a l c l a s s e s which now formed t h e b a s i s o f s u p p o r t f o r t h e Government.

I n t h i s p e r i o d of t r a n s i t i o n between m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n r u l e t h e r e h a s been an e f f o r t t o " t i d y up l o o s e e n d s " , d e f e n d i n g t h e a g r a r i a n c o o p e r a t i v e s and SAIS a g a i n s t p e a s a n t i n v a s i o n s i n some c a s e s , b a l i n g them o u t o f b a k r u p t c y i n o t h e r s , and t r y i n g t o p u t o t h e r s on an i n d e p e n d e n t and f i n a n c i a l l y v i a b l e f o o t i n g . Face- s a v i n g e f f o r t s have been made t o s h o r e up t h e weaker s o c i a l p ro- p e r t y f i r m s t o t r y t o g e t them on a s o u n d e r economic b a s i s and n e a r l y a l l f i r m s have been s u d d e n l y found t o be a b l e t o govern t h e m s e l v e s , e n a b l i n g t h e mechanisms t o be e s t a b l i s h e d ( f i v e r e - g i o n a l u n i t s and t h e n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y ) f o r c o n v e r t i n g t h e s o c i a l p r o p e r t y s e c t o r i n t o one e s s e n t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f s t a t e c o n t r o l and s u p p o r t .

While t h e s e deve lopments s i g n a l a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n s t a t e c o n t r o l and i n t e r v e n t i o n and w h i l e t h e improving economic s i t u a - t i o n i n c r e a s e s t h e c h a n c e s f o r economic s u r v i v a l , t h e o v e r a l l p r o s p e c t s f o r self-management i n P e r u i n t h e medium-term f u t u r e a r e n o t v e r y e x c i t i n g . The major p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s a r e f i r m l y wedded t o m a i n t a i n i n g P e r u ' s c o n d i t i o n a s a d e p e n d e n t c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . W i t h i n t h a t l i m i t a t i o n t h e y a r e p r e p a r e d t o r e t u r n t o

t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e s i x t i e s o f g i v i n g s u p p o r t and i n c e n t i v e s t o v a r i o u s forms o f c o o p e r a t i v e s a s a way o f "humanizing" t h e rough- e r e d g e s of c a p i t a l i s m , a s a way o f c r e a t i n g a p o p u l a r economy f u n c t i o n a l t o t h e n e e d s o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e and a s a way o f c r e a t i n g b a s e s o f p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t . The p a s t h e r i t a g e of au- t h o r i t a r i a n c r e a t i o n , i n t e r v e n t i o n and p o l i t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n means t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s from which a p o p u l a r economy c o u l d po ten- t i a l l y be formed - v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c o o p e r a t i v e s , t r a d e u n i o n s , s o c i a l p r o p e r t y e n t e r p r i s e s and l a b o u r communit ies - a r e now d e s a r t i c u l a t e d and d i v i d e d p o l i t i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and i d e o - l o g i c a l l y . Once a g a i n , t h e p o l i t i c a l enmi ty between APRA and t h e M a r x i s t l e f t , which d a t e s from t h e d e b a t e s between Haya de l a T o r r e and ~ a r i a t e g u i i n t h e t w e n t i e s , i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e compe- t i t i o n f o r s u p p o r t f rom ( a n d c o n t r o l o v e r ) p o p u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n t h e medium t e r m f u t u r e a s t r o n g , u n i t e d and p o l i t i c a l l y a r t i c u l a t e self-managed s e c t o r a l l i e d w i t h o t h e r e l e m e n t s of a p o p u l a r economy ( e s p e c i a l - l y u n i o n s ) p r e s e n t a c r e d i b l e c h a l l e n g e t o c a p i t a l i s m i n P e r u .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , someth ing remains . Not o n l y have i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n - c e s been l i v e d t h r o u g h b u t a l s o i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n s have been l e a r - ned. A s u f f i c i e n t number o f self-managed e n t e r p r i s e s e x i s t t o p r o v i d e a p o t e n t i a l t r a i n i n g ground i n d e m o c r a t i c management f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f w o r k e r s . The p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s f o r deve- l o p i n g a dynamic and r e l a t i v e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d " p e o p l e ' s economic s e c t o r " i f r e s o u r c e s c a n be managed w i t h s k i l l and t h e economic and f i n a n c i a l c i r c u i t c l o s e d . I f p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l c l a r i t y a r e a c h i e v e d a p o p u l a r economic b a s e e x i s t s which c o u l d b e employed i n s u p p o r t o f t h e s t r u g g l e f o r l i b e r a t i o n and development . P a s t e x p e r i e n c e s have t a u g h t i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n s and r a i s e d c r i t i c a l i s s u e s some o f which w i l l s e r v e i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s s e a r c h f o r a v i a b l e n a t i o n a l development a l t e r n a t i v e .

RGsum6: ( s u i t e de l a page 3 ) . ---

h a u t d ' i n s t i t u t i o n s p a r t i c i p a t i v e s 2 l a b a s e . En 1 9 7 4 , l a c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s t i - t u t i o n e l l e c u l m i n a i t avec l a c r e a t i o n d 'un Conse i l n a t i o n a l de l a p r o p r i e t e e t d 'un Fond n a t i o n a l de l a p ropr i6 tG s o c i a l e . Mais l e s d i f f i c u l t e s 6cnnomiques e t p o l i t i q u e s , l a rgement d ' o r i g i n e e x t s r i e u r e , m i r e n t f i n au p r o j e t Velasco: c e l u i - c i f u t remplacg p a r I e gouvernement Morales Bermudez, l e q u e l abandonna peu 2 peu l e modele Velasco.

A l a lumis re de c e t expose f a c t u e 1 , l e s a u t e u r s posen t un c e r t a i n nombre de q u e s t i o n s concernan t l a p o r t e e de l ' a u t o g e s t i o n ; l e s problGmes d e mise en oeuvre ; l e s r e a c t i o n s d e 'egoismes de g roups ' e t l a problCmatique de l a p a r t i - c i p a t i o n ( q u i p a r t i c i p e , pourquoi , comment?).

La d e r n i g r e s e c t i o n de l ' a r t i c l e env i sage l e s p e r s p e c t i v e s d ' a v e n i r .

LES ENJEUX DE L A V I E A S S O C I A T I V E EN FRANCE p a r So lange P a s s a r i s CIRED, 54, b o u l e v a r d R a s p a i l 75270 P a r i s Cedex 06, F rance

O r i g i n a l : F r a n c a i s

Resume: La v i c t o i r e h i s t o r i q u e du 10 mai de l a gauche aux e l e c t i o n s p res iden- t i e l l e s f r a n c h i s e s donne un r e l i e f t o u t p a r t i c u l i e r 2 c e t e s s a i , e c r i t i l y a que lques mois 2 l a s u i t e du co l loque o r g a n i s e en j a n v i e r d e r n i e r p a r 1 'Associa- t i o n pour l e developpement des a s s o c i a t i o n s de p r o g r s s . Le phenomsne e s t m a s s i f : une c e n t a i n e d ' a s s o c i a t i o n s s e c r e e n t chaque l o u r en France , e t l e u r nomhre t o t a l s e s i t u e e n t r e 300 e t 500 '000. La v i t a l i t 6 du mouvement ne s a u r a i t masquer son he t6 rogenGi t6 , n i s e s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . I 1 n ' e n r e s t e pas moins que c e t t e f l o r a i s o n , q u i t r a d u i t s a n s dou te l a c r i s e s t r u c t u r e l l e de l a s o c i e t e f r a n c h i s e , peu t g t r e un ins t rument p r i v i l e g i e de l a dynamisat ion de l a s o c i 6 t e c i v i l e ou ' t i e r s systSme' . Le renforcement des marges de pouvoir e t d 'autonomie des c o l l e c t i v i t e s l o c a l e s e s t de n a t u r e 2 f a i r e p r o g r e s s e r l a d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n , l a democratic d i r e c t e , e t l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t e s o c i a l e des c i t o y e n s .

THE STAKE OF THE A S S O C I A T I V E L 1 FE I N FRANCE

A b s t r a c t : The h i s t o r i c v i c t o r y , on 10 May, of t h e French l e f t a t t h e Pres iden- t i a l e l e c t i o n s , g ives a s p e c i a l importance t o t h i s paper , w r i t t e n a few months ago a f t e r a co l loqu ium organ ized i n January by t h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e development of a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r p r o g r e s s . The phenomenon i s a massive one: some one hundred new a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e s e t up every day i n France, and t h e i r t o t a l number i s i n the 300 t o 500,000 range . But t h e v i t a l i t y of t h e movement cannot h i d e i t s h e t e r o g e n e i t y nor i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . Never the less , t h i s blossoming, which t r a n s l a t e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l c r i s i s of t h e French s o c i e t y , cou ld be a p r i - v i l e g e d ins t rument f o r t h e dynamisat ion of t h e c i v i l s o c i e t y o r ' t h i r d sys tem' . The e x t e n s i o n of t h e spaces f o r t h e power and autonomy of l o c a l communities could promote d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , d i r e c t democracy, and c i t i z e n ' s s o c i a l r e s - p o n s i b i l i t y .

LOS PROBLEMAS DE L A V I D A DE A S O C I A C I O N EN F R A N C I A

Resumen: La v i c t o r i a h i s t o ' r i c a d e l 10 de Mayo de l a i z q u i e r d a en l a s e l e c - c l o n e s p r e s i d e n c i a l e s f r a n c e s a s d a una impor tanc ia muy p a r t i c u l a r a e s t e docuniento, e s c r i t o hace a lgunos meses, despues de un co loqu io o rgan izado en Enero pasado por l a Asoc iac ion p a r a e l D e s a r r o l l o d e l a s Asoc iac iones de Pro- g reso . E l fenomeno e s masivo: a l r e d e d o r de un c e n t e n a r de a s o c i a c i o n e s s e c r e a n , cada dFa, en F r a n c i a y s u numero t o t a l s e s i t u a e n t r e 300 y 500'000. La v i t a l i d a d d e l movimiento no puede esconder s u he te rogene idad n i s u s c o n t r a - d i c c i o n e s . S i n embargo, e s t e f l o r e c i m i e n t o , que t r a d u c e , s i n duda, l a c r i s i s e s t r u c t u r a l de l a soc iedad f r a n c e s a , podr:a s e r un ins t rument0 p r i v i l e g i a d o de l a dinamizacion de l a soc iedad c i v i l o ' t e r c e r s i s t e m a ' . El f o r t a l e c i m i e n - t o y l a ampl iac ion de 10s margenes de poder y de autonomia d e l a s c o l e c t i v i - dades l o c a l e s podr<a h a c e r p r o g r e s a r l a d e s c e n t r a l i z a c i & , l a democracia l i r e c t a y l a r e s p o n s a b i l i d a d s o c i a l de 10s ciudadanos.

L E S E N J E U X DE L A V I E A S S O C I A T I V E EN FRANCE

Ces r e f l ex ions nous ont &z& i m p i r e e s p a r Le coZLcq^..e de io. DAP, Association pour Le Developpement des Associations de Proqr;s - I / , preside par F r a ~ ~ o i s Bloch Lain@, qui s ' e s t t e r n 2 G~enob le en januier 1981, e t dont Ie th&e e t a i t : "Pour une nouvelle ?&ale du seu scciaL: Le ro l e des associa t ions" . Celui-ci f a i sa i? s u i t e e e l x i de Reins en noveniire 1976 e t de L i l l e e-n. janvier 1979, e t el6tura-it l e s einq annhes 'ie mission que s ' b t a i t f'ixf La DAP, notamerit de convainere Ie pouvoir d ' S tab t i r de n o m e l l e s r sg l e s du jeu face au "phbnomene as soc ia t i f " . Bien que la DAP n ' a i t pas r eus s i 2 a t te indre l e s o b j e c t i f s q u r e l l e s ' e t a i t f i x e s , e l l e compte respecter Ie terme a',A'elZe s ' i t a i t donne e t l a i s s e r La place 2 d 'autres i n i t i a t i v e s .

1. E l i t e e t h6 tGroq6n6i t6 du monde a s s o c i a t i f

Le f a i t a s s o c i a t i f , r 6 q i p a r l a Loi de 1901, s ' e s t c a r a c t e r i s 6 au c o u r s d e s d e r n i e r e s a n n e e s p a r un e s s o r p a r t i c u l i e r : une c e n t a i n e d ' a s s o c i a t i o n s s e c r e e n t chaque j o u r e n F r a n c e . Les c r e a t i o n s a n n u e l l e s s e s o n t a c c 6 1 6 r e e s rap idement : de q u e l q u e s c e n t a i n e s e n 1930 , e l l e s s o n t p a s s e e s Z q u e l q u e s m i l l i e r s e n 1950, o n t d6pass6 10 '000 v e r s l e s annees 60 e t 30 '000 e n 1977. Compte t e n u d ' u n e v i e , d ' u n e a c t i v i t 6 e t d ' u n e m o r t a l i t 6 mal connues , l e c h i f f r e g l o b a l d e s a s s o c i a t i o n s e n a c t i v i t 6 s 2 l ' h e u r e a c t u e l l e e s t e s t i - m6 s e s i t u e r e n t r e 300'000 e t 500 '000 p a r l e Min is t f i re de l ' I n t 6 - r i e u r .

La v i t a l i t 6 a c t u e l l e du phenomene a s s o c i a t i f e s t g6n6ra lement r a p p r o c h 6 e d e l a c r i s e s t r u c t u r e l l e - 2 l a f o i s economique, s o c i a l e , c u l t u r e l l e e t i n s t i t u t i o n n e l l e - que t r a v e r s e l a s o c i 6 t 6 . S ' y e x p r i m e n t l e s a s p i r a t i o n s m u l t i p l e s a u chanqernent, l ' a s p i r a - t i o n a de n o u v e l l e s fo rmes d ' o r q a n i s a t i o n ( p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a u t o - g e s t i o n , d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n ) e t l a r e c h e r c h e de nouveaux s t y l e s de v i e . Cependant s ' i l e s t h o r s d e d o u t e q u ' i l p e u t 6 t r e c o n s i d e r e comme l ' u n d e s s i g n e s de d y n a m i s a t i o n de l a s o c i e t 6 c i v i l e , e n c o r e f a u t - i l a p p o r t e r q u e l q u e s nuances s u r l e c o n t e n u du monde a s s o c i a t i f q u i e s t non seulernent h 6 t e r o c l i t e , mais comprend 6 q a l e - ment un c e r t a i n nombre d ' a s s o c i a t i o n s , e t c e s o n t s o u v e n t l e s p l u s i m p o r t a n t e s , q u i n ' o n t quGre d ' a s s o c i a t i o n que I e nom.

I1 p e u t s ' a q i r de s t r u c t u r e s q u i u t i l i s e n t l e s t a t u t j u r i d i q u e s o u p l e e t commode de l a Loi de 1901 ( a s s o c i a t i o n s d 1 6 t u d e s e t de r e c h e r c h e , ou d e f o r m a t i o n p a r exernp le ) , ou e n c o r e de p e r s o n n e s p h y s i q u e s q u i s e d 6 g u i s e n t e n p e r s o n n e s m o r a l e s pour donner p l u s d e p o i d s Z l e u r a c t i o n , ou b i e n e n c o r e d ' a s s o c i a t i o n s q u i o n t e t 6

* / CIRED, 54, boulevard Raspail, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France. -

l / DAP, 9 rue Vauvilliers, 75001 Paris. On y trouve les documents relatifs - aux colloques, et notamment le numgro 74 de la revue E: "Pour le pro- gr6s des associations", par Francois Bloch Lain&.

directement creees par les departements ministeriels, les collec- tivittis locales ou des etablissements publics, et qui ne sent que les prolongements de leurs propres services. On trouve Ggalement de nombreuses associations, notamment dans les secteurs socio- culturels, qui creees au depart pour repondre 2 un besoin non satisfait par les services publics, sont passees au fil des annGes sous la tutelle de l'administration et devenues de grosses structures employant un personnel nombreux et de quasi institutions para-publiques ou encore de veritables entreprises.

Quant au secteur associatif proprement dit, il concerne la defense du droit des minorites, l'expression de solidarites, d'interets ou d'ideologies communs, la qestion du quotidien, de la vie socio- culturelle, la creation de services nouveaux (boutiques de sante, librairies-rencontre ... ) et meme des activites de production (association de paysans-artisans...). On y trouve les objets les plus divers, des tallies qui vont de quelques adherents 2 des milliers, des modes de fonctionnement extrsmement varies (certaines reposent sur le benevolat, d'autres emploient des salaries en nombre plus ou moins important) et des durees de vie trss vari- ables.

Le fait associatif en soi ne presuppose aucun jugement de valeur coherent sur le contenu mais seulement l'adhesion volontaire d'individus isolGs 5 un groupe en vertu d'un objectif commun, materialise par Ie versement d'une cotisation et par des presta- tions en temps. Ce qui nous parait particulisrement interessant dans le fait associatif ce sont precisement les points suivants:

- la lecture de la socigte au travers des mailles du filet associatif, c'est celui du pluralisme, de la diversite: tout peut s t y exprimer;

- le reseau de micro-collectivites ainsi definies par rapport 2 un objet precis et limit6 constitue autant de parcelles de la vie sociale par rapport auxquelles les individus expriment librement Ie choix de leur appartenance et leur solidarite et y participent par adhesion volontaire;

- la liberte d'association et la simplicite reelle de la constituer en fait une forme privilegiee d'initiatives collectives;

- Ie fait associatif permet, par le biais de la constitution d'une personne morale, 110pportunit6 de l'expression publique de convictions, de luttes, de solidarites, de projets ...

La vie associative est done par nature en puissance un lieu de crGativit6 sociale, d'expression individuelle et collective, d'initiative et d'intervention pour les acteurs de la soci6te civile en dehors de toute structure pr6-existante.

2. L1origina1it6 du fait associatif

L'originalite du fait associatif reside dans deux caracteris- tiques: un mode d'organisation fond6 sur la participation des membres et une vie associative qui n'est regie que par son propre

dynamisme bien que, nous l'avons dejZ mentionne, ces principes de base soient loin de coincider toujours avec les faits.

- Liberte legislative et crgativit6 juridique des associations

La Loi de 1901 qui legitime la liberte d'association autour d'un objectif autodetermine, laisse la seule responsabilite aux membres du collectif de sa formulation, de son organisation, de sa realisation. I1 s'agit en particulier de prevoir et de rgglementer l'exercice d'un pouvoir horizontal 2 ltint6rieur de l'association, de rechercher des modalites de participation, notamment dans les grandes organisations, de se preserver contre les risques d'ac- caparement de l'exercice du pouvoir, et d'agir "autrement" que les stereotypes de la vie sociale. C'est en ce sens un lieu pri- vilggi6 de l'apprentissage et de l'experimentation de la participation et de la democratic directe, dans la mesure 06 les associations, dans leur pratique, y sont attentives.

- Evolution et remise Si lour des pactes sociaux

Le principe meme de la vie associative repose sur l'adhhesion des associes au "pacte" qui 1.es lie; celui-ci doit etre regulierement reexplicit6 et r6actualis6 pour valider l'objectif de l'association et son mode de fonctionnement de facon 2 eviter soit qu'elle ne tombe en desuetude, soit qu'elle ne s'institutionnalise.

La vie associative est reqie par sa propre dynamique et l2 l'unique regle est celle de la pratique. C'est pourquoi les associations sont un mode d'organisation par essence temporaire: elles sont vouees & disparaitre soit'qu'elles aient rempli leur mission, soit qu'elles aient echoue, 2 moins qu'elles n'aient la capacite creative et militante de sa renouveler et de faire evaluer leurs objectifs.

Par exemple Ie Planning Familial, tree par un petit groupe de militants et devenu une grosse structure, se declare neanmoins "toujours en avance d'une loi". Son premier objectif fut la libert6 de contraception, que ses militants prirent l'initiative de diffuser bien avant que n'ait et6 obtenue la promulgation de la loi et que cette fonction ne lui soit officiellement reconnue par les pouvoirs publics. Puis ce fut, au cot6 d'autres groupes militants dont des groupes de femmes, la lutte pour la liberte d'avortement, probleme qui n'est pas encore vraiment resolu 2 l'heure actuelle. La formulation de nouveaux objectifs relatifs a la liberte des femmes d'assumer leur sexualit6 et leur maternite, semble justifier la poursuite en avant de leur existence et de leur action, bien que les groupes les plus moteurs sur ce type de problemes actuellement se trouvent au sein de structures militan- tes plus recentes.

L'institutionnalisation ou la recuperation par les pouvoirs pub- lies est Ie grand danger qui guette les associations, d6s lors que leurs objectifs et leurs actions connaissent un certain suc- ces, par i'echo qu'ils provoquent dans Ie public, et/ou par l'absorption par l'appareil d'Etat de l'innovation sociale dont

ils sont porteurs. Ce problGme est delicat et doit Etre nuance et nous y reviendrons ulterieurement; en particulier, il pose le probleme du rapport et du partage des pouvoirs et des spheres d'action et de responsabilite entre les pouvoirs publics et la societe civile . 3. Autonomie des associations, lieu d'exercice de pouvoir de l2

societe civile et lieu de mediation

Le mode associatif est souvent un mode d'organisation, de mobili- sation, de luttes autour d'uhe revendication ponctuelle, en dehors des structures politiques et syndicates, bien qu'il puisse s'ap- puyer sur celles-ci. Qu'il s'agisse du droit des pietons, du droit 2 l'avortement, de creches sauvages ou de la defense centre la pollution d'une industrie donnee, l'association permet de rassembler des personnes isolees. Sous couvert de la constitution d'une personne morale forte d'un certain nornbre d'adherents, celle- ci permet de constituer un interlocuteur unique, representatif, au travers uuquel pourra stoperer Ie dialogue, la lutte et les n6qociations suivant les cas.

Les pouvoirs publics ne sont pas les seuls interlocuteurs auxque:s s'affrontent les associations, pour faire reconnaitre leurs reven- dications ou leur champ d'intervention, tant s'en faut; cependant, ils le sont souvent dans la mesure 013 la vie associative inter- vient sur un terrain "public", soit qu'il relGve de la tutelle de l'administration (culture, action sanitaire et sociale, jeunesse et sports, environnement et cadre de vie...), soit des rnunicipali- tes . Par ailleurs, les associations, dGs lors que les cotisations ne couvrent pas leurs besoins financiers, sont trGs dependantes des subventions de 1'Etat et des collectivites locales pour se procurer les ressources necessaires. Deux mesures peuvent ameliorer cette situation:

- d'une part l'instauration d'un "m6cenat populaire", pour re- prendre l'expression de la DAP, ce qui suppose des reformes fiscales appropriees, et oii le public choisirait de verser directement 2 des associations de son choix une partie de ses revenus, ce qui permettrait 2 un grand nornbre d'associations de fonctionner sur la base d'un soutien direct de citoyens q u i acceptent de les cautionner;

- d'autre part 1'6tablissement de veritables rapports contractuels entre un certain nombre d'association, notamment celles qui assurent un service public, et l'Etat, sans que celles-ci soit soumises 2 un contr6le trop rigide qui mette en tutell-e leur capacite d'initiative et d'innovation et leur autonomie.

4. Les pouvoirs publics et la notion dt"int6rEt general"

L'une des grandes causes de la crise institutionnelle et du malaise social tient 2 la superposition des notions de nation,

d'Etat, d'administration, de service public et d'interet genGral.I/

L'appareil d'Etat francais se prolonge en une constellation de structures administratives, ce que A. Touraine appelle "1'Etat administratif", chargees d'assurer le service public au nom de l'intergt general, dont il detient Ie monopole. I1 aqit au non du principe de neutralit6 et de l'eqalite d'accss de tous les citoyens, et redistribue une partie du surplus sous forme de services sociaux. S'il est incontestable que par le passe, le 'Welfare state' a joue un role de proqrss social important, il s'avsre qu'aujourd'hui ce monopole, sinon ce role, lui est contes- t@. D'abord, en meme temps que les tZches assumees se sont mul- tipliees et amplifiees, l'appareil administratif s'est conside- rablement qonfl6 et a perdu de son efficacite.

Ensuite, les principes de neutralite et d'egalite d'accss 2 tous sont trSs erodes et contestes; 1 'appareil d'Etat est perqu cornme etant au service du pouvoir politique dont il tire sa legitinit6 plus que comme qarant d'un interet general dont il serait le depositaire et le qarant. Quant 2 l'appareil administratif qui en partie, dans ses meandres, echappe meme au contr6l.e du pouvoir d'Etat, il est souvent Ie reqne de l'arbitraire.

Enfin, les directives et les normes qui reqlementent les services publics (education, sante, enfance ... ) sont souvent ressenties plus comme des contraintes riqidifiantes.

L'accomplissement des services d'interet general dans le systgme actuel de 1'Etat-Providence, del6gue de droit aux services pub- lies, souffre de plusieurs lacunes graves:

- la normalisation unifiante qui ignore Ie droit 2 la difference et les particularismes locaux et sociaux. Ainsi 1'6cole publique lalque, en meme temps qu'elle democratisait l'enseiqne- rnent et luttait centre l'emprise de 1'Eqlise sur l'ecole, a diffuse de facon autoritaire un modSle unique et a notamnent reprime de facon souvent violente l'expression des cultures locales et reqionales;

- la rigidit6 institutionnelle peu permeable 2 l'innovation. Or, l'initiative de l'innovation se trouve au sein meme de la societe civile, notamnent dans Ie milieu associatif, au fur et 2 mesure de l'emerqence d'un nouveau besoin social. La faire reconnaitre et enteriner par les pouvoirs publics suppose une lutte epuisante et souvent vaine ou qui aboutit souvent 2 sa denaturation. I1 est rare qu'une administration prenne l'initiative d'une innovation sociale, et 1'"amenaqement du temps" au MinistGre de 1'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie est pro- bablenent 1'un des rares examples;

11 Thierry Schwartz; 1'Etat et la notion d e services p u b l i c s , rappel l i i s t o r i q u e , - Pour, no. 68-69, decembre 1979.

- 11impossibilit6 aux usagers des services publics de participer 2 la conception et au fonctionnement de ces services et la mise soustutellede la societe civile 2 l'egard de 1'Etat-Providence Les prises d'initiative sont difficiles 5 assumer dans la mesure oii elles sont soumises dans bien des cas 2 un rapport conflictuel avec les representants de 1'Etat.

La vie associative est eqalement l'un des canaux de l'expression, par l'un ou l'autre de ses aspects, de l'interet general, multiforme et diversifig, parall6lement 5 celui, uniformis6 et codifie, exprime par les pouvoirs publics. I1 ne s'agit pas de substituer l'un 2 l'autre, mais d'etablir des r6gles du jeu qui leur permettent de coexister, de dialoguer et de faciliter l'amenagement de ponts entre les deux (cooperation, ou transfert d'une innovation du secteur associatif aux pouvoirs publics, ou d'une responsabilite des pouvoirs publics au secteur associatif) en particulier:

les beoins sociaux sont evolutifs et l'innovation peut-etre plus facilement mise en oeuvre dans Ie cadre associatif qu'au sein des collectivit6s publiques. Dans ce cas, par Ie biais d'un rapport contractuel entre les pouvoirs publics et Ie secteur associatif, ce service nouveau peut Gtre assure par le secteur associatif, et eventuellement repris ulterieurement par les services publics lorsque celui-ci a "pris sa place" et que l'enjeu militant associatif a deperi de lui-meme;

par ailleurs le secteur associatif peut, de facon beaucoup plus souple que les services publics sous contr6le etroit de l'administration, offrir des solutions diversifiees aux besoins sociaux. Par rapport 2 1'interEt general, l'apport associatif peut Gtre l'expression d'une societe pluraliste;

les associations permettent l'expression du droit des minorites sociales, culturelles, municipales ou nationales face aux pouvoirs etablis. L'interet general se doit de proteqer l'expression de ces minorites et leur droit 2 vouloir vivre autrement;

enfin, le fait associatif, en tant que lieu d'initiative et d'auto-organisation sociale, est en soi une forme d'expression de 1'interEt general. Si 1'on veut promouvoir une societe qui se desengagerait du recours systematique 2 l'assistanat de 1'Etat-Providence, cornme c'est Ie cas actuellement en France, dans tous les secteurs de la vie sociale et des services, il faut redelimiter clairement les secteurs de l'autonomie sociale et ceux des prerogatives de 1'Etat et entre les deux les champs d'interface regis par des rapports contractuels.

La garantie de l'independance du secteur associatif autonome est liee 2 son financement. Selon les cas et les besoins, soit il est autosuffisant par Ie biais des cotisations; soit il peut recourir au financement social prive que justifieraient des am6- nagements fiscaux appropries, les individus pouvant ainsi choisir de reverser une partie de leurs imp6ts 2 des associations dont ils se declarent solidaires; soit aussi il peut etre aide, surtout 2 son demarrage par des subventions publiques, sur la base de leur utilite sociale, sans contrainte quant 5 la nature de l'activite

(les subventions d'emplois d'utilite collective regis par la Delegation 2 1'Emploi repondent bien, par exemple, 2 cette soup- lesse dansleur conception, bien que dans la pratique leur attri- bution soit assujettie au pouvoir de decision des prefets).

Par ailleurs, Ie secteur associatif qui, soit par la nature de son activite, ou par le service nouveau qu'il propose, peut Gtre considere comme "participant de l'interst general", doit pouvoir negocier avec les pouvoirs publics un contrat qui les lie relativement a un aspect defini de leur activite, sans que ce rapport contractuel, en dehors de la mission delimit6e par Ie contrat, ne porte atteinte 2 son autonomie ni 2 sa capacite d'evolution et d'innovation. Ainsi les termes du contrat doivent pouvoir Gtre reformules selon lea besoins.

Actuellement il existe la formule de "concession de service public", bien etablie dans Ie Droit franqais. Mais celle-ci etablit des rapports de subordination 6troitement contr6lee, et non pas des rapports paritaires de nature contractuelle. Elle ne permet pas d'operer une decentralisation de missions de 1'Etat ou des collectivites locales au secteur associatif, mais aqit de fait comme un instrument de "d6concentration".

5. Decentralisation et vie associative

Le d6bat sur la decentralisation, par rapport 2 laquelle il faut preciser que la reforms des collectivit~s locales pr6vue en France ne constitue qu'un pietre progrSs, concerne de tres pr6s les associations. En effet, en renforqant les marges de pouvoir et d'autonomie des collectivites locales, on opere un rapprochement entre Ie pouvoir de decision et la soci6t6 civile, facilitant dans Ie principe la participation des citoyens 2 la vie de la cite et 2 la democratic directe.

I1 est clair que la concentration des pouvoirs au niveau national incite les milieux associatifs 2 faire de meme, pour parvenir 2 se "hisser" jusqu'aux spheres nationales, gymnastique en soi epuisante et segregative socialement, qui les amene 2 reproduire les formes de pouvoir centre lesquelles elles se sont cr66es. N ' y parviennent de fait que les associations dont les promoteurs ont une bonne connaissance du fonctionnement de 1'Etat et de l'administration et des "relations", et ce ne sont pas forcement cclles qui ont le plus d'utilite sociale.

On remarquait 2 Grenoble la presence de nombreux elus locaux de municipalites "de pointe" tres soucieuses de faire participer les associations 2 la vie locale, et de nombreuses associations de vocation municipale. Le dialogue qui s'est oper6 sur la base d'une toile de fond qui tendait 2 projeter la decentralisation commo un remsde 2 I'atrophie des spheres d'autonomie de la socie- L6 civile jugulee par un pouvoir centralisateur prolong6 par les ramifications de l'appareil administratif nous a induit 2 formu- Lcr les remarques suivantes:

Ie renforcement des pouvoirs des collectivit6s locales risque de mettre les elus locaux en position de "barons", si l'exercice du pouvoir continue de leur etre d6lequ6, sans que ne soient clairement instituges des modalites de contr6le et de participation de la population, et definies des spheres d'autonomie de la soci6te civile;

la vie associative, dans ses rapports avec les collectivit6s locales, risque soit de subir un paternalisme pesant, soit un contr6le trSs immediat et de voir ses actions directement recup6rees par Ie jeu de la politique electorate locale;

les collectivites locales tendent 2 favoriser la vie associative dans des secteurs par rapport auxquels elles opsrent de la meme facon que l'administration centrale en "d6concentrant" certains de ses services publics (culture, loisirs, animation de voisinage . . . ) , peu innovants dans leur contenu, et peu pas- sible~ d'etre le lieu d'exercice de contre-pouvoirs;

la vie associative, qu'elle soit d'ailleurs de portee locale ou nationale, recouvre de fait une sur-representation des couches sociales moyennes et superieures. Lorsqu'elle est censee participer directement 2 la qestion de la cite, cette segregation sociale est grave et il incombe aux milieux associatifs et aux autorites municipales de resoudre ce probleme. I1 est probable que ce n'est pas seulement Ie principe meme du fonctionnement de la vie associative qui est en cause, mais surtout les enjeux et les objectifs qu'elle se definit et qui sont representatifs des couches sociales qui en sont les promoteurs;

l'impulsion d'initiatives municipales ne peut guGre se substituer aux initiatives sociales et celles-ci font de fait plus souvent office de "vitrines". Par exemple 1'APU (Atelier Public d'urbanisme), initiative municipale de Meylan, a peu 2 voir avec 1'APU de Roubaix (Atelier Populaire d'urbanisme), cr66 l'initiative des habitants du quartier de 1'Alma-Gare de Roubaix, soude et m5 par de longues luttes pour obtenir la rehabilitation de leur quartier selon leur propre alan d'urbanisme.

Si ces remarques font etat de constatations assez decouraqeantes, elle ne remettent cependant pas en cause Ie principe meme de la decentralisation 2 notre vue. Elles ne font que renforcer la necessit6 de delimiter et de preciser les spheres d'autonomie de la societe civile et la nature de ses rapports avec les pouvoirs publics, qu'il s'agisse du pouvoir central ou des pouvoirs locaux.

Si les associations doivent participer de fait 2 la gestion de la cite, il faut que le rapport contractuel entre elles et les pouvoirs publics soit concu de facon 5 definir, elargir et respecter leur espace d'autonomie et 2 assurer leur continuite d'action.

Par ailleurs, s'il est siir que si leur champ privileqie d'intervention est celui de la gestion du quotidien 2 1'6chelle du voisinage imrnediat, du quartier ou de la commune, elles sont

aussi celui de l'innovation et de l'experimentation sociales, celui de l'expression des minorites et des solidarites et celui de l'exercice de contre-pouvoirs. A ces titres divers, elles constituent des interlocuteurs des pouvoirs locaux par rapport. au secteur qui les concerne directement, mais aussi au plan de la politique generate locale.

Conclusion

Par les services multiples et varies qu'il offre et par la re- ponse rapide que ceux-ci procurent par rapport 2 l'evolution des besoins - qu'il s'agisse de besoins qualitativement 6volutifs, ou simplement "oublies" par 1'Etat-Providence - Ie secteur associatif tient une place importante dans la societ6 et dans le contexte de la crise de 1'Etat-Providence, son role est appele 2 S' accroitre.

Mais, come le fait remarquer J. Delors, les associations ne doivent pas faire Ie jeu d'une conception dualiste de la soci6te 06 elles joueraient Ie role "d'assistantes sociales qratuites d'un systhe economique performant". Leurs perspectives d'avenir sont etroitement liees 2 la reformulation de la conception du travail dans un autre modSle de developpement. Celle-ci, dans sa conception actuelle, subit une double crise, celle du chomage structure1 et celle de la contestation du travail lui-meme par un "mouvement anti-revolution industrielle". "I1 faut, dit J. Delors, concevoir come travail tout ce qui consiste a pro- duire des productions utiles et 2 transformer les relations sociales" . Cette conception elargie du travail et de la production assigne en effet un role renouvele 2 la formule associative et 2 sa fonction sociale, dans une societe oii Ie progres technique bien qere et une redistribution du revenu plus equitable permettraient aux individus de disposer du temps et de l'argent necessaires ces activites associatives. Les spheres d'intervention directe et monolithique de 1'Etat seraient alors reduites au profit de celles que la societe civile assurerait de facon autonome et selon le principe du droit 2 la difference, tout en beneficiant de l'accgs aux ressources publiques sans lesquelles il n'est pas possible d'assumer des actions soutenues.

Certes, la vie associative n'est que l'une des formes d'organisation collective de la societ6 civile dont on ne peut considerer qu'elle constitue en soi la base d'une revolution sociale, mais sa vitalit6 et son renouveau sont l'indicateur d'un mouvement social au travers duquel les individus expriment, notamment dans Ie secteur des services au sens trSs large, leur capacite de stautog6rer et d'innover pour satisfaire leurs propres besoins ou do nouveaux besoins emerqeants.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

CO-OPT1 NG FREI RE: A C R I T I C A L ANALYSIS OF PSEUDO-FREI REAN ADULT EDUCATION by Ross K i d d and K r i s h n a Kumar I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l f o r Adul t Educat ion 29 P r i n c e A r t h u r Ave. To ron to , O n t a r i o M5R 1B2, Canada

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

A b s t r a c t : I n t h i s p a p e r , Ross Kidd and Kr i shna Kumar make an a t t empt t o examine t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of F r e i r e a n pedagogy i n some r e c e n t a d u l t educa t ion work. I n the f i r s t p a r t of t h e paper , they p r e s e n t a t h e o r e t i c a l model which e x p l a i n s some of t h e prominent s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and economic a s p e c t s o f t h i s work.

I n t h e second p a r t , a c a s e s tudy of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l programme i n non-formal a d u l t e d u c a t i o n o p e r a t e d by a major non-government agency i s made.

P r i o r t o these two s e c t i o n s Kidd and Kumar p rov ide a b r i e f overview of t h e h i s - t o r i c a l c i rcumstances i n which F r e i r e ' s work and concep ts came t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n .

The c a s e s tudy p rov ides one i n s t a n c e of t h e p rocess by which pseudo-Freirean pedagogy d o m e s t i c a t e s t h e l i t e r a c y l e a r n e r s of some Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s . The co-op ta t ion of Paulo F r e i r e i s an impor tan t a s p e c t i n t h e p o l i t c a l economy of e d u c a t i o n i n t h e Th i rd World today . The s t u d y shows how a ph i losophy o f l i b e r a t i o n , which o r i g i n a t e d i n a Th i rd World coun t ry , can be used f o r develop- i n g a s t r a t e g y f o r p e r p e t u a t i n g dependence. E v i d e n t l y , t h e p rocess cannot be seen i n i s o l a t i o n from t h e socio-economic f a c t o r s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e r e l a - t i o n s between t h e c o u n t r i e s t h a t have economic power and t h e c o u n t r i e s t h a t l a c k such power.

L A RECUPERATION DE F R E I RE: UNE ANALYSE C R I T I Q U E DE L'EDUCATION DES ADULTES PSEUDO-FREIRIENNE

Resume: Les a u t e u r s examinent l e s a p p l i c a t i o n s de l a pedagogic de Pau lo F r e i r e dans un c e r t a i n nombre d ' a c t i v i t g s d f 6 d u c a t i o n des a d u l t e s . La premiere p a r t i e de l ' a r t i c l e p r e s e n t e un modele t h e o r i q u e q u i e x p l i q u e c e r t a i n s a s p e c t s soc io - p o l i t i q u e s e t economiques i m p o r t a n t s de c e s a c t i v i t e s .

La seconde p a r t i e c o n s t i t u e une e t u d e de c a s d 'un programme i n t e r n a t i o n a l d ' e d u c a t i o n non-formelle des a d u l t e s mis en oeuvre p a r une impor tan te agence non-gouvernementale.

P rga lab lement 2 c e s deux s e c t i o n s , l e s a u t e u r s p r e s e n t e n t un b r e f panorama d e s c i r c o n s t a n c e s h i s t o r i q u e s dans l e s q u e l l e s l e t r a v a i l e t l e s concep ts de F r e i r ? o n t f a i t I ' o b j e t de l ' a t t e n t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e .

' e t u d e de cas f o u r n i t un exemple du p rocessus p a r l e q u e l l a pedagogic pseudo- f r e i r i e n n e domestique l e s a l p h a b e t i s e s dans que lques pays du T i e r s Monde. La r e c u p e r a t i o n de F r e i r e e s t un a s p e c t impor tan t de 1'Zconomie p o l i t i q u e de ' e d u c a t i o n dans 1c T l ? r s Monde a c t u e l . L 'e tude montre comment une philosophic de l a l i b e r a t i o n , nee dans un pays du T i e r s Monde, peut e t r e u t i l i s g e pour l a u s e au p o i n t d 'une s t r a t e g i c q u i pe rpe tue l a dependance. D e t o u t e ev idence , I e p rocessus ne peut Z t r e i s016 des f a c t e u r s socio-economiques q u i c a r a c t e - r i s e n t l e s r e l a t i o n s s n t r e pays d i s p o s a n t d ' u n pouvoir Zconomique e t l e s pays q u i en son t p r i v g s . LA FALSIFICACION DE FREIRE: UN ANALISIS CRITIC0 DEL SISTEMA PSEUDO-FREIREIANO EN LA EDUCACION PARA ADULTOS

Resumen: En e s t e in forme , Ross Kidd y Krishna Kumar examinan l a a p l i c a c i & n de l a pedagogia de F r e i r e en e l c o n t e x t o de t r a b a j o s r e c i e n t e s en l a educacion para a d u l t o s . En l a p r i m e r a p a r t e d e l informe s e p r e s e n t a un mode10 t e o r i c o que e x p l i c a a l g u n o s a s p e c t o s economicos y s o c i o - p o l i t i c o s s o b r e s a l i e n t e s .

En l a segunda p a r t e s e i n v e s t i g a un programa i n t e r n a c i o n a l en education no formal p a r a a d u l t o s impulsado por una impor tan te agenc ia no gubernamental .

Ante r io rmente 10s a u t o r e s p r e s e n t a r o n una b reve p e r s p e c t i v a d e l con tex to h i s - t o r i c ~ d e n t r o d e l c u a l 10s concep tosde F r e i r e r e c i b i e r o n renombre i n t e r n a c i o n a l .

E l e s t u d i o p roporc iona un ejemplo d e l p roceso por e l cua l una ~ e d a g o g f a psedo- f r e i r e i a n a l l e g a a domes t ica r 10s que luchan c o n t r a e l ana l fabe t i smo en c i e r t o s p a i s e s d e l Terce r Mundo. La f a l s i f i c a c i o ' n de l a s i d e a s de Pau lo F r e i r e e s un a s p e c t o impor tan te de l a economia politics de educacion en e l Terce r Mundo. E l e s t u d i o demuestra como una f i l o s o f i a de l ibe rac io 'n que t u v o s u o r i g e n en un p a i s d e l Terce r Mundo puede u s a r s e p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o de una e s t r a t e g i a con e l p r o p o s i t o d e p e r p e t u a r l a dependencia. Evidentemente, no s e puede mi ra r e l p roceso en forma a i s l a d a de 10s f a c t o r e s socio-economicos que ca rac - t e r i z a n l a s r e l a c i o n e s e n t r e 10s pacses que t i e n e n poder econgmico y a q u e l l o s a qu ienes l e s f a l t a .

Ross Kidd :' and K r i s h n a Kumar

CO-OPTING FREIRE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS O F PSEUDO-FREIREAN A D U L T

EDUCATION E/

P a u l o F r e i r e ' s w r i t i n g s a r e now known around t h e w o r l d , and w i t h - i n t h e l a s t decade s e v e r a l a g e n c i e s o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n have t r i e d t o r e f l e c t h i s i n f l u e n c e i n t h e i r p o l i c i e s and work. The t e r m i - no logy a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i s w r i t i n g s h a s found a p l a c e i n r e p o r t s and d e c l a r a t i o n s coming from a wide r a n g e o f n a t i o n a l and i n t e r - n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s . I n f a c t , one can s a y t h a t t e rms such a s c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n ' , ' d i a l o g u e ' , ' b a n k i n g ' , and ' c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e ' have become household e x p r e s s i o n s i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n .

U n t i l t h e s i x t i e s , non-formal e d u c a t i o n o p e r a t e d on t h e m a r g i n s of deve lopmenta l a c t i v i t y , w i t h l i t t l e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t and h a v i n g weak l i n k s w i t h economic p r o j e c t s . I t u s u a l l y c a t e r e d t o a s m a l l s e c t i o n o f T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s , such a s t h e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - o f f f a r m e r s who a t t e n d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n programmes. A s M b i l i n y i h a s shown, t h e r e was no m a t e r i a l b a s i s f o r e x t e n d i n g e d u c a t i o n t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f c i t i z e n s :

There was n o b a s i c economic o r p o l i t i c a l need f o r e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p r imary e d u c a t i o n b a s e , s i n c e ' s u p e r - e x p l o i t a t i o n ' was p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t i n v e s t m e n t i n o u r fundamenta l a t t e n t i o n t o e i t h e r r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l o f p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s w i t h i n a g r i - c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n o r t o f i t t i n g i d e o l o g i c a l l y t h e p e a s a n t s and w o r k e r s t o t h e i r p l a c e i n p r o d u c t i o n ( p . 4 9 8 ) .

I n t h e l a t e s i x t i e s , t h e demand f o r i n c r e a s i n g food p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World was h e a v i l y emphas i sed by i n t e r n a t i o n a l deve lopment a g e n c i e s and t h e r i c h i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . During t h i s p e r i o d , a c o n c o m i t a n t demand was made on non-formal e d u c a t i o n t o p r o v i d e t h e t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r t h e new t e c h n o l o g y of food pro- d u c t i o n which was p u b l i c i s e d under t h e ' G r e e n Revolut ion ' . I n 1965 , UNESCO and UNDP launched t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l World L i t e r a c y Program- me, w i t h t h e aim o f i n c r e a s i n g r u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y by combining l i t e r a c y i n s t u r c t i o n w i t h v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g i n t echnology- d e p e n d e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s . T h i s programme was e s s e n t i a l l y aimed a t c r e a t i n g a q u a l i f i e d work f o r c e , and f o r t h i s a im, a r e a s o f p o t e n t i a l economic growth and t h e p e o p l e who would have t h e r e s o u r c e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n were chosen . The UNESCO p r o - gramme c o i n c i d e d w i t h , and i n many c a s e s p r o v i d e d a n e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t , f o r t h e 1 G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n . '

*/ Ross Kidd i s t h e S e c r e t a r y General of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Council f o r Adult - Educa t ion , 29 P r i n c e Ar thur Ave., Toron to , O n t a r i o M5R 1 B 2 , Canada.

**/ Excerpted from an a r t i c l e pub l i shed i n t h e Economic and P o l i t i c a l Weekly, - Bombay, Vol X V I , Nos. 1 & 2 , January 3-10, 1981. Most of t h e f o o t n o t e s and r e f e r e n c e s have been omi t t ed owing t o l a c k of space .

By t h e end o f t h e s i x t i e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f r u r a l s o c i e t y i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and t h e impac t of t h e Green R e v o l u t i o n had combined t o c r e a t e an e x p l o s i v e s i t u a t i o n . I n o r d e r t o s a f e g u a r d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e T h i r d World e l i t e s , it was n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t a i n s o c i a l d i s c o n - t e n t . The s t r a t e g y d e s i g n e d by t h e World Bank, USAID, and o t h e r a g e n c i e s was a m o d i f i e d Green R e v o l u t i o n - an a t t e m p t t o e x t e n d t h e same t e c h n o l o g y , i n a m o d i f i e d form, t o t h e s m a l l - s c a l e peas - a n t , a l o n g w i t h c r e d i t and o t h e r government s e r v i c e s . Land r e - forms and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l changes were , once a g a i n , a b s e n t from t h e p l a n n e r s ' c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The b a s i c aim was t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e p e a s a n t i n t o t h e new p r o d u c t i o n sys tem. Under t h e b a n n e r o f ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' i n deve lopment , he was t o be drawn away from any form o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n which c o u l d u l t i m a t e l y p rove harm- f u l f o r t h e s t a t u s quo .

The s m a l l - s c a l e p e a s a n t , who had s o f a r been e x c l u d e d from most non-formal e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l development p r o - grammes, now became t h e t a r g e t o f deve lopmenta l p l a n n i n g under t h e I n t e g r a t e d Development S t r a t e g y . Non-formal e d u c a t i o n was t o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h i s s t r a t e g y a s t h e t r a i n i n g and s o c i a l i s i n g mechanism t o c r e a t e t h e new ' p e a s a n t c a p i t a l i s t ' . T h i s was no narrow economic programme, l i k e t h e e a r l i e r w o r k - o r i e n t e d l i t e r a c y programme l a u c h e d by t h e UNESCO. The purpose o f t h e new programme was t o c o v e r a l l t h o s e a s p e c t s o f a p e a s a n t ' s l i f e t h a t c o u l d f a c i l i t a t e h i s i n i t i a t i o n i n t o a consumer economy; a s p e c t s such a s a g r i c u l t u r e , h e a l t h , s a n i t a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n , f e r t i l i t y , and s m a l l - s c a l e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . Massive amounts o f money were s p e n t by a g e n c i e s l i k e t h e World Bank and USAID t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e po- t e n t i a l o f non-formal e d u c a t i o n .

During t h i s p e r i o d , when t h e new aims o f non-formal e d u c a t i o n were b e i n g f o r m u l a t e d , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e o f P a u l o F r e i r e became w i d e l y known t h r o u g h t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s w r i t i n g s . F r e i r e had deve loped and t e s t e d h i s i d e a s i n B r a z i l and C h i l e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p e a s a n t s ' and w o r k e r s ' s t r u g g l e s f o r l a n d ownersh ip , b e t t e r working and l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , and p o l i t i - c a l r i g h t s . I n h i s w r i t i n g s , he p r e s e n t e d m a s s - i l l i t e r a c y a s a s t r u c t u r a l problem c a u s e d by o p p r e s s i o n o f t h e masses by t h e power- f u l c l a s s e s i n s o c i e t y . Accord ing t o him, t h e problem c o u l d b e s o l v e d o n l y by b r e a k i n g t h e o p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e . H i s work i n - s p i r e d many p r o g r e s s i v e g r o u p s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d t o u s e educa- t i o n a l communication a s a t o o l i n s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t o p p r e s s i o n . He a l s o a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h o s e a g e n c i e s t h a t were de- v e l o p i n g a n e d u c a t i o n a l methodology f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e s m a l l p e a s a n t i n t o t h e consumer economy under t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e I n t e g r a t e d R u r a l Development S t r a t e g y . These a g e n c i e s found i n F r e i r e ' s t e r m i n o l o g y a p r o g r e s s i v e g l o s s which c o u l d make t h e i r approach m a r k e t a b l e i n t h e T h i r d World. By c o - o p t i n g F r e i r e ' s t e r m i n o l o g y and c o n c e p t s , t h e y c o u l d hope t o i n f l u e n c e t h e d i r e c - t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l change i n t h e T h i r d World.

The e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y which grew o u t o f t h e CO-optat i -on and d i s - t o r t i o n o f F r e i r e i s r e f e r r e d i n t h i s p a p e r a s t h e 'pseudo- F r e i r e a n p e r s p e c t i v e ' . Having shown i t s h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s , we

would now examine t h e t h e o r y i n d e t a i l - what i t i s and how i t r e p r e s e n t s a d i l u t i o n o f F r e i r e . Of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s no forma- l i s e d s c h o o l t h a t o p e r a t e s under t h i s l a b e l , b u t t h e r e i s a de- f i n a b l e g r o u p o f i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s who seem t o have d i s t o r t e d F r e i r e i n a common way. We w i l l t r y t o p r o v i d e syn- t h e s i s o f t h e i r i d e a s . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s o u r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r i d e a s and methods. The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s b a s e d on o u r a n a l y s i s o f a number o f documents p u t o u t by t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f e d u c a t i o n i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g I n d i a , T h a i l a n d , and Turkey; i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s L i t e r a c y House, Lucknow World Edu- c a t i o n , New York; and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s C e n t r e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n ; and t h e w r i t i n g s o f a number o f i n d i v i - d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n non-formal a d u l t e d u c a t i o n .

Our c o n c e r n h e r e i s n o t w i t h t h e l a c k o f o r thodoxy i n b r e a k i n g from F r e i r e ' s i d e a s . Our c o n c e r n i s w i t h t h e deve lopment and promot ion o f a t h e o r y t h a t o p e r a t e s under t h e c o v e r o f F r e i r e a n t e r m i n o l o g y , and s e r v e s m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s which a r e d i r e c t l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o F r e i r e ' s aim o f t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f o p p r e s s i o n i n t h e w o r l d . What we a r e a t t a c k i n g i s : f i r s t , t h e w a t e r i n g down o f a n i m p o r t a n t i d e a which h a s s e r v e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e o p p r e s s e d i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e s f o r l i b e r a t i o n , and s e c o n d l y , t h e u s e o f F r e i r e a n t e r m i n o l o g y and method w i t h o u t i t s s u b s t a n c e a s a smokescreen f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d d o m e s t i c a t i o n o f T h i r d World p e a s a n t s and workers i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l .

The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n p e r s p e c t i v e

The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n p e r s p e c t i v e o p e r a t e s i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :

- naming t h e c e n t r a l problem a s ' p o v e r t y ' r a t h e r t h a n a s ' o p p r e s s i o n ' ;

- i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c a u s e o f p o v e r t y a s t h e s e l f - i n f l i c t e d de- f i c i e n c y o f t h e p o o r , r a t h e r t h a n o p p r e s s i o n ;

- p r o p o s i n g , a s t r e a t m e n t , t o change t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e p o o r t h r o u g h t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n and s k i l l s ;

- c o v e r t i n g F r e i r e ' s method i n t o a ' n e u t r a l ' c l a s s r o o m t e c h n i q u e w i t h o u t ' p o l i t i c s ' ; and

- d e f i n i n g ' a c t i o n ' a s c o p i n g a c t i v i t y .

The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n p e r s p e c t i v e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a v o i d s t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m ' o p p r e s s i o n ' . Terms l i k e ' p o v e r t y ' , ' d i s a d v a n t a g e ' , and ' d e p r i v a t i o n ' a r e used i n t h e p l a c e o f o p p r e s s i o n . There i s a 'myth-making e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y a s d i a b o l i c a l a l l t h o u g h t - l a n g u a g e which u s e s such words a s ' a l i e n a t i o n , d o m i n a t i o n , oppress ion" ' ( F r e i r e , 1 9 7 0 , a ) . The s h i f t i n t e r m i n o l o g y i s s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e ' o p p r e s s i o n ' l e a v e s no d o u b t a b o u t t h e c a u s e o f n a t u r e o f t h e problem whereas ' p o v e r t y ' i s ambiguous and s u g g e s t many pos- s i b i l i t i e s . O p p r e s s i o n i s an a s p e c t o f e x p l o i t a t i o n i n an economic and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s c o n n o t a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i - l y t h e r e when we t a l k a b o u t p o v e r t y .

T h i s s h i f t i n t e r m i n o l o g y can be a t t r i b u t e d t o a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s . The pseudo-Fre i rean t h e o r y seems t o be based on t h e con- c e p t o f a ' c u l t u r e o f p o v e r t y ' - t h e view t h a t t h e poor have a d i s t i n c t i v e s e t o f s e l f - i n f l i c t e d h a b i t s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which e x p l a i n t h e i r p o v e r t y and p r e v e n t them from improving t h e i r s i t u a - t i o n . For example , i n s t a t i n g t h e aim o f a l i t e r a c y p r o j e c t a s " h e l p i n g t h e l e a r n e r t o become c r i t i c a l l y aware o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r h i s p o v e r t y and h i s backwardness" , Mehta (1978) j u x t a p o s e s 'pover - t y ' and ' b a c k w a r d n e s s ' , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i t i s t h e same l e a r n e r who i s poor a s w e l l a s backward. Another example can be drawn from t h i s s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g p o v e r t y and underdevelopment:

. p e a s a n t c u l t u r e s a r e commonly c h a r a c t e r i s e d a s l a c k i n g i n n o v a t i v e n e s s , b e i n g f a t a l i s t i c , seldom d e f e r i n g p r e s e n t g r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r f u t u r e a d v a n t a g e s , and h o l d i n g a l i m i t e d . view o f t h e w o r l d . P e o p l e i n such c u l t u r e s t e n d t o b e l i e v e t h a t a l l t h e d e s i r a b l e t h i n g s i n l i f e a r e i n f i x e d s u p p l y , s o t h a t i f someone accumula tes an abnormal ly l a r g e s h a r e o f good t h i n g s it i s a t someone e l s e ' s expense . T h i s p h i - l o s o p h y h e l p s e x p l a i n t h e mutua l d i s t r u s t i n i n t e r - p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e low d e g r e e o f empathy, and t h e l i m i t e d a s p i - r a t i o n s one o f t e n e n c o u n t e r s i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . I/

T h i s i t e m i s a t i o n o f p u t a t i v e d e f e c t s and n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p o o r , a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i r p o v e r t y , f i n d s s c i e n t i f i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h o s e s o c i o l o g i s t s who have c r e - a t e d t h e ' c u l t u r e o f p o v e r t y ' t h e o r y , c i t i n g l a c k o f ach ievement m o t i v a t i o n ( M c C l e l l a n d ) , f a i l u r e t o c o n c e p t u a l i s e p r o g r e s s (Fos- t e r ) , u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o t a k e r i s k s ( C a n c i a n ) , e t c , a s e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r underdevelopment and p o v e r t y .

While t h i s view h a s been s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d i n o t h e r f i e l d s , it seems t o t a k e a l o n g t i m e t o be d i s c r e d i t e d and t o d i e o u t i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . C h a r l e s V a l e n t i n e h a s p r o v i d e d t h e most d e t a i l e d c r i t i q u e o f t h e ' c u l t u r e o f p o v e r t y ' t h e o r y , and he h a s shown t h a t t h e much p u b l i c i s e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e poor a r e b e t t e r ex- p l a i n e d a s t h e p o o r ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s t h a n a s c a u s e s o f t h e i r p o v e r t y :

Lack o f work, l a c k o f income, and t h e r e s t pose c o n d i t i o n s t o which t h e poor must a d a p t t.hrough w h a t e v e r s o c i o - c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s t h e y c o n t r o l . These c o n d i t i o n s a r e phenomena o f t h e env i ronment i n which t h e poor l i v e , d e t e r m i n e d n o t by b e h a v i o u r s and v a l u e s o f t h e poor b u t by t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t o t a l sys tem ... t h i s l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e i s p e r p e t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e economic and p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s of t h e non- p o o r . ( V a l e n t i n e , 1968; p. 1 1 6 )

One means o f t r e a t i n g F r e i r e ' s c o n c e p t o f ' c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e ' a s ' c u l t u r e o f p o v e r t y ' i s by m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g F r e i r e ' s u s e o f t e r m s

l / Jack t lezirow, 'Educa t ing Adul t s i n Fami ly P l a n n i n g ' , World Educat ion I s s u e s , (No. 1, 1 9 7 2 ) .

l i k e ' n a i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' , ' f a t a l i s m ' , ' s u p e r s t i t i o n ' , ' n a i v e t y ' , e t c . By u s i n g t h e s e t e r m s i n an everyday s e n s e , and w i t h o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e t e r m s and o p p r e s s i o n , p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n s a r e a b l e t o j u s t i f y t h e i r own view o f p o v e r t y a s a s e l f - i n f l i c t e d phenomenon. Such a view d i s t r a c t s a t t e n t i o n away from what t h e dominant c l a s s e s a r e d o i n g t o t h e p o o r , f o c u s - i n g i n s t e a d on what t h e poor a r e d o i n g t o t h e m s e l v e s . I n d e e d , F r e i r e d e s c r i b e s t h e o p p r e s s e d a s ' n a i v e ' , ' s u p e r s t i t i o u s ' , ' f a t a l i s t i c ' , e t c , b u t he n e v e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e a r e s e l f - i n f l i c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r t h a t t h e c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e i s a s e l f - g e n e r a t e d phenomenon. What he means i s t h a t t h e o p p r e s s e d a r e u n a b l e t o o b j e c t i f y themse lves i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e dominant c l a s s e s , and t h e y a c c e p t t h e o p p r e s s o r s view o f t h e m s e l v e s . "The o n l y way t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e " , F r e i r e s a y s , " i s t o s e e it a s a t o t a l i t y t h a t i s i t s e l f p a r t o f a l a r g e r complex ... it i s n o t someth ing born by s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a t i o n on t h e s p o t . R a t h e r , it a r i s e s from t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s o f t h e T h i r d World and t h e m e t r o p o l i s " ( F r e i r e , 1 9 7 5 ) . Thus, t h e ' c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e ' i s i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d t o and d e f i n e d by t h e dominant word of t h e o p p r e s s o r . The ' n a i v e t y ' o f t h e o p p r e s s e d i s l i n k e d t o t h e i r b e i n g a n o b j e c t o f o p p r e s s i o n . The ' c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e ' i s n o t an i s o l a t e d , i n d e p e n d e n t c u l t u r e w i t h i t s own i n t e r n a l dynamics. I t e x i s t s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e dominant c u l t u r e by which it i s d e f i n e d .

From ' l i b e r a t i o n ' t o ' d o m e s t i c a t i o n '

The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n view o f p o v e r t y h e l p s us comprehend how a n o t h e r p o p u l a r F r e i r e a n t e r m , ' c r i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' , i s u s e d i n p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n l i t e r a t u r e . I f t h e o p e r a t i v e s o u r c e o f pover - t y i s t o b e found among t h e poor t h e m s e l v e s , t h e n t h e remedy must come from t h e same s o u r c e . Thus, t h e pseudo-Fre i rean p e r s p e c t i v e s u g g e s t s t h a t p o v e r t y can be overcome by changing t h e p o o r , by h e l p i n g them d e v e l o p b e t t e r h a b i t s and s k i l l s , r a t h e r t h a n by a change i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

Lack ing s t r u c t u r a l p e r c e p t i o n , men a t t r i b u t e t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n t o someth ing w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s r a t h e r t h a n t o someth ing i n o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y ... I f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s l i e s ... i n men ' s own ' n a t u r a l ' i n c a p a c i t y it i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n w i l l n o t be o r i e n t a t e d towards t r a n s f o r m i n g r e a l i t y b u t towards t h a t resumed i n c a p a c i t y . ( F r e i r e , 1970b, p . 3 6 )

When p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n s t a l k a b o u t ' c r i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' , t h e y mean a n awareness i n t h e p o o r o f t h e i r n e e d s and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r f u l f i l l i n g t h e s e n e e d s . The s o c i a l problems t h a t c a u s e o p p r e s s i o n , such a s low wages, unequa l a c c e s s t o l a n d , w a t e r , and e d u c a t i o n , a r e i g n o r e d . The s t r a t e g y i s t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e o p p r e s s e d , t h e r e b y p e r p e t u a - t i n g and r e i n f o r c i n g t h e dependence o f t h e o p p r e s s e d on e x t e r n a l d e f i n e r s o f t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what domes t i - c a t i o n i s .

La Belle (1976) makes a useful distinction between this 'deprivation-development' strategy for social change and Freire's 'dependency-liberation' strategy. The former is based on a psycholo- gical view of disadvantage (deprivation) and prescribes behaviour modification (development) as the solution. The latter explains disadvantage as the result of structural inequalities that create dependency and proposes to increase the power of the oppressed (liberation) as a solution.

The 'deprivation-development' strategy is the crux of the pseudo- Freirean argument. It provides a route out of the liberal dilemma on how to handle Freire's politics:

Freire's techniques have been adapted for establishing a dialogue and engaging the learner in reflection rather than more political connotations of his approach. I/

By suggesting that poverty is self-inflicted, and not a product of oppression, that the major problem is lack of skills, rather than structural constraints, the pseudo-Freireans succeed in by- passing the political aspect of Freire. They are able to accom- modate him within the liberal-humanist model of adult education. They create the impression that Freire is simply another in the tradition of technique-innovators. They recognise the authori- tarian nature of traditional teaching, and consider Freire as yet another classroom-methodologist who can help the adult educator in shedding some of the authoritarianism of his traditional role. According to Griffith, "Freire's notions about the necessity for making the student an active, questioning, thinking participant in the formal education process are neither new nor revolutionary".~/ In urging that the adult learner should be involved in his own learning, Griffith says, Freire belongs to a long line of humanist educationists.

The pseudo-Freireans accept Freire's criticism of 'banking' education, and appear to use his concept of 'dialogue', but they apply this term interchangeably with 'discussion'. They claim to have 'adapted and adopted' such conscientisation techniques as the use of pictures to represent life situations and the use of generative themes. It is precisely through such 'adaption and adoption' that in the UNESCO work-oriented literacy method, which we have dis- cussed ealier, Freire's codes of unemployment, hunger, oppression, and liberation could be translated into developmentalist modules of family planning, nutrition, sanitation and modern agriculture. Evidently, Freire provided a revolutionary gloss to such projects, and his revolutionary associations suppli-ed a smoke-screen for the real intent of non-formal education which was to legitimise existing social relations in the Third World and between the Third and the industrialised world.

l/ Lyra Srinivasan, "Perspectives on Non-formal Adult Learning, (New York: World Education, 1977). W.S. Griffith, 'Paulo Freire: Utopian Perspectives on Literacy Education

- for Revolution', in S.M. Grabowski, (ed) K I o Freire: A Revolutionary Dilemma for the Adult Educator. (Svracuse: ERIC Clearing House on Adult . Education, 1972).

Pseudo-Fre i rean pedagogy c o n v e r t s d i a l o g u e i n t o a form of ' d i s - covery l e a r n i n g ' making a mockery of F r e i r e ' s p h i l o s o p h y . I n t h i s c o n v e r s i o n , d i a l o g u e becomes a s e a r c h f o r t h e ' r i g h t ' a n s w e r s , p r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e programme p l a n n e r and p r o v i d e d t o t h e t e a c h e r , n o r m a l l y t h r o u g h a t e a c h e r ' s g u i d e . I n e f f e c t , d i a l o g u e t h u s becomes a s u b t l e form of ' b a n k i n g ' , a means o f p r o p a g a t i n g t h e new myths o f deve lopment . I n h i s "Pedagogy o f t h e Oppressed" F r e i r e had a n t i c i p a t e d t h i s d i l u t i o n o f ' d i a l o g u e ' i n t o a n i n s t r u - ment f o r d o m e s t i c a t i o n : "Without t h i s f a i t h i n man d i a l o q u e i s a f a r c e which i n e v i t a b l y d e g e n e r a t e s i n t o p a t e r n a l i s t i c manipu la - t i o n " ( F r e i r e , 1 9 7 0 a ) . A u t h e n t i c d i a l o g u e i s p o s s i b l e o n l y when p e o p l e a r e t r u s t e d and g i v e n t h e change t o a s k t h e i r own q u e s t i o n s and make t h e i r own d e c i s i o n s . I n d e e d , p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n s a p p e a r t o b e d o i n g someth ing s i m i l a r , b u t t h e methods t h e y a p p l y show t h a t what happens i n t h e i r p r o j e c t s i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .

A good i l l u s t r a t i o n can be drawn from t h e methodology o f ' p rob lem s o l v i n g ' . I t i s u s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d a s a m u l t i - s t e p p r o c e s s i n v o l v - i n g an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s o f a p r o b l e m - s i t u a t i o n , i d e n t i - f i c a t i o n o f t h e l i k e l y consequences o f a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n s , and s e l e c t i o n and implementa t ion o f t h e f i n a l a l t e r n a t i v e ( M e z i r o w , o p . c i t . ) . The r h e t o r i c s u g g e s t s a two-way communication and a c t i v e engagement o f t h e l e a r n e r i n t h e p rob lem-so lv ing p r o c e s s . However, t h e r e a l i t y , a s o u r c a s e s t u d y w i l l p r e s e n t l y show, i s t h a t o f a p r e d e t e r m i n e d , t e c h n i c a l , and n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d p r o c e s s . 'Problem- s o l v i n g ' i s , i n f a c t , a p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n v e r s i o n o f F r e i r e ' s con- c e p t o f p r o b l e m a t i s a t i o n . The i n c l u s i o n o f ' p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ' a s one o f t h e s k i l l s t o be t a u g h t t h r o u g h a l i t e r a c y programme i m - p l i e s t h a t a d u l t i l l i t e r a t e s a r e p o o r p r o b l e m - s o l v e r s . Such a view o f t h e p e o p l e o b v i o u s l y d o e s n o t r e g a r d t h e s u r v i v a l t e c h - n i q u e s u s e d by them t o cope w i t h a h o s t i l e economic s t r u c t u r e and d i f f i c u l t p h y s i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s a s p rob lem-so lv ing s k o l l s . P s e u d o - F r e i r e a n Pedagogy s t a r t s by denying t h a t p e o p l e have prob- l e m - s o l v i n g s k i l l s , and goes on t o s u p p l y pre-packaged i n f o r m a t i o n on prob lem-so lv ing methods and b e h a v i o u r . For p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n s , e a c h problem c o m p r i s e s s e g r e g a t e d b i t o f l i f e t h a t p o s e s an i m - m e d i a t e d i f f i c u l t y and must be o f f e r e d an immediate s o l u t i o n . Thus, t h e y o f f e r a d i s i n t e g r a t e d view o f l i f e i n t h e name o f an ' i n t e g r a t e d ' method. T h e i r d i l e m a i s :

. l i k e t h a t o f many e d u c a t o r s who r e a l l y want t o do good and t h e r e f o r e b r i n g change , b u t who i n s i s t t h a t it i s always o t h e r s who must l e a r n , who must change. They t h e r e f o r e s e e k new t e c h n i q u e s and " i n n o v a t i o n " , r e j e c t i n g t h e b a s i c i s s u e a s u n r e a l i s t i c , t h a t i t i s n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r e a l i t y de- f i n e d by t h e s t a t u s quo. They a r e i n f a v o u r o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a s l o n g a s it d o e s n ' t change a n y t h i n g . ( W i l l i a m s , 1971; p. 8 3 )

For F r e i r e , a u t h e n t i c d i a l o g u e must l e a d t o a c t i o n which i s t h e n a n a l y s e d and e v a l u a t e d b e f o r e f u r t h e r a c t i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s o f a c t i o n and r e f l e c t i o n i s what F r e i r e c a l l s ' p r a x i s ' . A c t i o n i s n o t j u s t any a c t i o n ; it i n v o l v e s c o l l e c t i v e s t r u g g l e t o c h a l l e n g e t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s which d e t e r m i n e some o f t h e b a s i c components o f s o c i a l l i f e , s u c h a s , a c c e s s t o l a n d , w a t e r , h o u s i n g and income. I n s e v e r a l p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n programmes where t h e i d e a o f c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n i s c u l t i v a t e d , c o l l e c t i v e p o t e n t i a l i s

c h a n n e l l e d towards pre -p lanned economic p r o j e c t s l i k e c h i c k e n o r v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g , and no a t t e m p t i s made t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i n e - q u i t i e s i n t h e economic and power s t r u c t u r e . The assumpt ion b e h i n d such programmes i s o b v i o u s l y t h e view t h a t low p r o d u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n u n j u s t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s t h e prob lem, i . e . , o n l y i f t h e p o o r would produce more t h e y would be b e t t e r o f f .

Pseudo-Fre i rean method: A c a s e s t u d y

With t h e h e l p o f o u r t h e o r e c t i c a l framework o f p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n pedagogy, we made a c a s e s t u d y o f a major non-formal a d u l t edu- c a t i o n agency o p e r a t i n g i n t h e T h i r d World, namely World Educa- t i o n , I n c . Our main r e a s o n f o r s e l e c t i n g t h i s agency a s a c a s e was t h e s c a l e o f i t s c o v e r a g e . I t s u p p o r t s p r o j e c t s i n 50 coun- t r i e s , and i t s p u b l i c a t i o n s c i r c u l a t e i n 138 c o u n t r i e s . A second r e a s o n o f o u r c h o i c e was t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f most r a p i d growth i n World E d u c a t i o n ' s l i f e o f twenty e i g h t y e a r s s y n c h r o n i s e s w i t h t h e p e r i o d i n which p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n pedagogy d e v e l o p e d , namely t h e s e v e n t i e s . A t h i r d r e a s o n comes from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f u n d i n g s o u r c e s o f World E d u c a t i o n i n c l u d e b o t h a g e n c i e s such a s t h e World Bank and USAID a s w e l l a s p r i v a t e l y o w n e d t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s l i k e Genera l Foods, IBM, Exxon, C a r n e q i e , and founda- t i o n s such a s Ford , But tenhe im, and T i n k e r .

What i s known t o d a y a s World Educa t ion was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1951 under t h e name o f World L i t e r a c y , I n c , m a i n l y t o a s s i s t L i t e r a c y House ( t h e n L i t e r a c y V i l l a g e ) i n t h e n o r t h I n d i a n p r o v i n c e o f U t t a r P r a d e s h . L i t e r a c y House was s t a r t e d i n t h e e a r l y 1952 by Welthy H . F i s h e r , an American P r e s b y t e r i a n m i s s i o n a r y . World E d u c a t i o n ' s i n i t i a l a r e a o f o p e r a t i o n was c o n f i n e d t o I n d i a , and L i t e r a c y House remained i t s f i e l d l a b o r a t o r y f o r a l o n g t i m e . World E d u c a t i o n ' s f i r s t major p r o j e c t o u t s i d e I n d i a was i n Thai- l a n d where i t deve loped t h e p r o t o t y p e f o r t h e N a t i o n a l A d u l t L i t e r a c y Programme. The methodology d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s p r o j e c t was l a t e r t r a n s p o r t e d t o Turkey, E t h i o p i a , Kenya and Bangladesh , a s w e l l a s t o World E d u c a t i o n ' s home c o u n t r y , t h e Uni ted S t a t e s , under t h e p r o j e c t c a l l e d 'AIM: An Exemplary Program f o r I n t e r - n a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e ' . ( A I M s t a n d s f o r A p p e r c e p t i o n - I n t e r a c t i o n Method) . World E d u c a t i o n ' s a r e a o f o p e r a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e American s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e . The major c o u n t r i e s it h a s s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f o u r s t u d y a r e T h a i l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , P h i l i p - p i n e s , I n d i a and Turkey i n A s i a ; Colombia, Honduras and Guatemala i n L a t i n America; Ghana, Kenya and E t h i o p i a i n A f r i c a .

The t i m e f o r r a p i d and e x p a n s i v e growth i n World E d u c a t i o n ' s a c t i v i t i e s came i n 1968 , a f t e r it s u b m i t t e d p r o p o s a l s t o t h e USAID f o r f u n d s f o r " l i n k i n g l i t e r a c y programmes and f a m i l y p l a n - n i n g e d u c a t i o n " . ( I t i s wor th n o t i n g t h a t i n t h e 1968-72 p e r i o d , USAID f u n d i n g f o r p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l programmes e s c a l a t e d f o u r - f o l d , from $34 m i l l i o n t o $123 m i l l i o n , w h i l e USAID's h e a l t h c a r e f u n d i n g dropped from $164 m i l l i o n t o $60 m i l l i o n ) . Accord ing t o World E d u c a t i o n ' s P r e s i d e n t , Thomas B . Keehn, " t h e aims o f t h i s programme were t w o f o l d : (1) t o a t t a c k t h e problems o f r e s i s t a n c e

t o f a m i l y p l a n n i n g a r i s i n g from t r a d i t i o n , r e l i g i o n , s u p e r s t i t i o n , f e a r , i g n o r a n c e , and economic c o n c e r n , and ( 2 ) t o d e v e l o p non- f o r m a l f u n c t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n programme d i r e c t e d toward o u t - o f - s c h o o l young a d u l t s w i t h t h e l o w e s t l i t e r a c y l e v e l s , where t h e n e e d s a r e g r e a t e s t " \/. The p r o p o s a l s were a c c e p t e d , and i n t h e n e x t f i v e y e a r s - i . e . , from 1 9 6 9 t o 1974 - Kor ld E d u c a t i o n revenue i n c r e a s e d f i v e - f o l d , from $200,000 t o o v e r $1 ,000 ,000 (WE Annual R e p o r t , 1 9 7 3 - 7 4 ) . The p r o j e c t which e n a b l e d World Educa t ion t o i n c r e a s e i t s r e v e n u e , s t a f f , and a r e a o f o p e r a - t i o n s s o remarkably was c a l l e d " f u n c t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n f o r f a m i l y l i f e p l a n n i n g " , and t h i s programme p r o v i d e d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h i t s new and o v e r a l l i d e n t i t y i n t h e T h i r d World.

L ike many o t h e r non-formal a d u l t e d u c a t i o n a g e n c i e s , World Educa- t i o n h a s c a r r i e d i n i t s work o v e r t h e decade o f t h e S e v e n t i e s a d i s - t i n c t s tamp o f t h e i d e a s and t e r m i n o l o q y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P a u l o F r e i r e . The o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s annua l r e p o r t f o r 1976-77 u r o u d l y d e c l a r e d t h i s l i n e a a e :

P r o v o c a t i v e c h a l l e n g e s t o t r a d i t i o n a l assumpt ions a b o u t a d u l t l e a r n i n q have been born and n u r t u r e d i n L a t i n America. P a u l o F r e i r e , I v a n I l l i c h , and o t h e r s have produced a new g e n e r a t i o n o f e d u c a t o r s who know from t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e t h a t p e a s a n t s and t h e urban p o o r a r e b o t h l e a r n e r s and t e a c h e r s . . . We f i n d e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e among t n e s e young e d u c a t o r s t o o u r un- d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a r t n e r s h i p between l e a r n e r s and t e a c h e r s i n a dynamic e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s .

I n a monograph which o u t l i n e s t h e programme d e s i g n f o r t h e Func- t i o n a l Educa t ion f o r Family L i f e P l a n n i n g , David Harman p o i n t s a t F r e i r e ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between ' b a n k i n q ' e d u c a t i o n and t h e new, d i a l o g u e - b a s e d pedagogy p r o f e s s e d i n t h e monograph (liarman, 1 9 7 3 ) . We have a l r e a d y g i v e n an example o f t h e impor tance a t t a c h e d t o F r e i r e by a n o t h e r World E d u c a t i o n t h e o r i s t ( S r i n i v a s e n , c f . f o o t - n o t e 1 , p . 3 2 ) . A l l u s i o n s t o F r e i r e a n i d e a s a r e t o be found a l l o v e r t h e l i t e r a c y m a t e r i a l s and r e p o r t s produced by o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h World E d u c a t i o n a s o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f some o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s w i l l p r e s e n t l y show.

C u r r i c u l u m f o r d o m e s t i c a t i o n

The f u n c t i o n a l l i t e r a c y programme i n T h a i l a n d , which s t a r t e d i n 1970 , o f f e r s us a key example o f World E d u c a t i o n ' s c u r r i c u l u m p l a n n i n g . A s an a c t i v e c o l l a b o r a t o r w i t h t h e Tha i M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , World E d u c a t i o n ' s p e r s o n n e l made a major a t t e m p t i n T h a i l a n d t o modern ise a c o n s e r v a t i v e a d u l t e d u c a t i o n prograr.'me by o f f e r i n g t h e i r t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and p r o g r e s s i v e - l o o k i n g t e r n i - n o l o g y . The c u r r i c u l u m was deve loped on t h e b a s i s of a s u r v e y o f p e o p l e ' s b e l i e f s , h a b i t s , l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , needs and languaqc p a t t e r n s . P e o p l e ' s problems were s p o t t e d d u r i n g t h e s u r v e y , and t h e f i n a l c u r r i c u l u m was supposed t o r e f l e c t t h e s e prob lems . Such a s u r v e y smacks o f F r e i r e ' s s t r a t e g y t o send p r o j e c t members

I/ Thomas B. Keehn, 'A Programme Plan for Functional Ldiu-.I t ion i i n i l I'.inii l \ l i l o

planning', Literacy Discussion, ( 3 ( 1 ) 1 9 7 2 ) . p p . 5-16.

t o t i le v i l l a g e s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a p a r t i c i p a n t ' s view of o p p r e s - s i v e c o n d i t i o n s i n which v i l l a g e r s l i v e . The Tha i s u r v e y s were s i m i l a r t o F r e i r e ' s s t r a t e g y o n l y i n a s u p e r f i c i a l way a s we can e a s i l y s e e i f we n o t i c e t h e s t a t - e d purpose o f t h e s e s u r v e y s i n t h e m i n i s t r y documents:

The u l t i m a t e g o a l o f t h e Tha i c o n c e p t - o r i e n t e d program of f u n c t i o n a l l i t e r a c y and f a m i l y l i f e e d u c a t i o n i s t o improve t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s by a t t e m p t i n g t o c o r r e c t m i s c o n c e p t i o n s and t o change t h e o u t - moded b e h a v i o u r s . ( M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , T h a i l a n d , 1972)

The assumpt ion i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s c l e a r l y what we have e a r l i e r shown a s t h e p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n t h e o r y of t h e c u l t u r e o f p o v e r t y . P l a c e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , t h e b a s e l i n e s u r v e y of p e o p l e ' s needs and problems becomes a sham. I t i s o n l y l o g i c a l t h a t p e o p l e a r e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e ' t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n s ' i n such s u r - veys : i n d e e d , p e o p l e a r e t a r g e t s o f m a n i p u l a t i o n i n t h e Tha i c u r - r i c u l u m . Accord ing t o Bernard and A r n s t r o n g ( 1 9 7 9 ) , i n t h e Tha i s u r v e y s " t h e r o l e o f t h e v i l l a g e r s i s l i m i t e d t o p r o v i d i n g t h e b a s e l i n e i n f o r m a t i o n " . Data a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f "what ought t o b e " , i s done by an i n t e r - a g e n c y cornmi t t e e o f l o c a l e x p e r t s " .

The Tha i c u r r i c u l u m i l l u s t r a t e s t h e range and t h e n a t u r e of peo- p l e ' s ' p r o b l e m a t i c ' b e h a v i o u r which i s t h e t a r g e t o f change under l i t e r a c y t e a c h i n g . Four main a r e a s compr i se t h e f i r s t l e v e l c u r - r l cu lurn : a g r i c u l t u r e , h e a l t h and f a m i l y l i f e , economics , and c i v i c s . The t o p i c s l i s t e d under t h e s e a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a blatant d i d a c t i c i s i m . Economic and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e rna- f e r i a 1 c o n d i t i o n s o f Thai p e o p l e a r e t o t a l l y i g n o r e d , whereas t h e need f o r c l e a n l i n e s s , b u d g e t i n g , and o b e d i e n c e t o o f f i c i a l a d v i c e a r e emphas i sed . C l e a r l y , t h e c u r r i c u l u m i s n o t meant t o d e a l w i t h s t r u c t u r a l p rob lems . I t s purpose i s t o d e v e l o p a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s t a t u s quo. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e c e n t r a l symbol o f t h e Tha i programme was a B u d d h i s t f i g u r e o f ach ievement , t h e K h i t Phen man who behaves r a t i o n a l l y and w i t h ' c o n t e n t m e n t under a l l c i rcum- s t a n c e s and a c c e p t s s u f f e r i n g i n t h e name o f a v o i d i n g u s e l e s s s t r i v i n g .

The Tha i c u r r i c u l u m had s e v e r a l o f t h e fundamenta l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n mode o f o p e r a t i o n . I n i t s t e c h n i c i s t c o n c e r n , it was p e r h a p s more s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a n any o t h e r s i m i l a r programme i n t-he w o r l d . The u s e o f l o o s e l e a f c o v e r s and c a r d s i n p l a c e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r i m e r mere ly d i s g u i s e d t h e r e a l o r t h o d o x n a t u r e o f t h e programme.

I n o u r e x a m i n a t i o n o f l i t e r a c y m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o n e d w i t h t h e h e l p nf World E d u c a t i o n e x p e r t s i n T h a i l a n d and Turkey, and t.he p r i m e r s p r u d l ~ c e d by t h e L i t e r a c y House, Lucknow, we found t h a t t h e r e a l i t y symbol i sed i n them i s h ' iqhly a r t i f i c i a l and t o t a l l y removed from the' m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f p e o p l e ' s l i f e i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . The Â ¥ r u c n problems and c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g t h e p e o p l e seem t o undergo J process o f deft concea lment and d i s j u n c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i r p r e - n n t ~ a t i o n i n t h e m a t e r i a l s . The s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f eco-

I c l d s s c s a r e n e v e r d e p i c t e d . I n s t e a d , one f i n d s a c o l l e c t i o n :7c- lec t ive images o f l i f e , i n an u n s e p c i f i e d economic s e t t i n g

lung i11th a d i d a c t i c t e x t . O b j e c t s t .hat can provoke any d i a l e c - i i - 2 1 u n d e r s t a n d i n g , such a s t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e r i c h and t h e

p o o r , a r e s i m p l y removed from p i c t u r e s and t h e t e x t ; and t h e symp- toms, r a t h e r t h a n t h e c a u s e s , o f problems a r e a t t a c k e d . The o v e r - a l l image of s o c i e t y t h a t i s p r o j e c t e d i n t h e p r i m e r s i s t h a t o f harmony and c o - o p e r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n of t h e a c t u a l c o n f l i c t s and d i v i s i o n s .

P s e u d o - F r e i r e a n s f o l l o w F r e i r e i n c a l l i n g t h e key problems t h e y a t t a c k i n t h e m a t e r i a l s a s ' g e n e r a t i v e t h e m e s ' o r ' c o d e s ' , t e r m s t h a t World E d u c a t i o n t h e o r i s t David Harman acknowledges t o have come i n t h e i r c u r r e n t usage from F r e i r e ' s work. The themes t h a t F r e i r e c a l l s g e n e r a t i v e s h o u l d " c o n t a i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u n f o l d - i n g i n t o a g a i n a s many themes , which i n t h e i r t u r n c a l l f o r new t a s k s t o be f u l f i l l e d " ( F r e i r e , 1970a, p . 9 3 ) . The themes we s e e i n t h e l i t e r a c y p r i m e r s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a r e one-d imens iona l and f l a t , i n c a p a b l e o f l e a d i n g t h e l e a r n e r t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t o f h i s o p p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h a s s o c i a t i v e t h i n k i n g . I n f a c t , t h e y come a c r o s s a s a s e t o f s l o g a n s which v i c t i m i s e t h e l e a r n e r s by making them f e e l inadequa t .e , and t h e r e b y r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i r dependence. "Aao Charcha Karen" , a Hindi p r i m e r p u b l i s h e d by t h e L i t e r a c y House i n I n d i a ( T r i p a t h i and P r a k a s h , 19781, o f f e r s some good examples o f t h e t r e a t m e n t g i v e n i n s e v e r a l o t h e r p r i m e r s t o common T h i r d wor ld s i t u a t i o n s . The key t o hap- p i n e s s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s book, l i e s i n f a m i l y p l a n n i n g t h r o u g h b i r t h c o n t r o l :

How l u c k y a r e t h e p e o p l e who a r e born i n s m a l l f a m i l i e s . They have no d e a r t h o f a n y t h i n g . They f a c e n o prob lems . A l l t h e means o f p l e a s u r e and c o m f o r t a r e w i t h i n t h e i r r e a c h . L i f e is heaven f o r them. (Our t r a n s l a t i o n o f Lesson 1 8 )

The p h i l o s o p h y t h a t it i s l u c k y t o be born i n a s m a l l f a m i l y i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e messages g i v e n i n t h i s book on o t h e r common problems :

E a t i n g j u s t r i c e h a s a bad e f f e c t on h e a l t h . E a t e g g s t o make up f o r p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y . Crowds a r e i n c r e a s i n g b e c a u s e o f i n c r e a s i n g i n p o p u l a t i o n .

Everywhere, t h e s o - c a l l e d ' p r o b l e m - c e n t e r e d ' l e s s o n s o f t h e p r i m e r s u b t l y t r y t o d i v e r t t h e l e a r n e r ' s a t t e n t i o n away from t h e econc- mic and p o l i t i c a l c a u s e s o f s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l p rob lems . The s e n t e n c e a b o u t r i c e - e a t i n g d o e s n o t show why s o many p e o p l e i n I n d i a a r e f o r c e d t o e a t o n l y r i c e . I t p r e s e n t s them a s p e o p l e who have a bad h a b i t grown o u t o f i g n o r a n c e . The s e n t e n c e a b o u t p ro- t e i n d e f i c i e n c y does n o t a l l o w p e o p l e t o q u e s t i o n why an a g e - o l d s o u r c e o f p r o t e i n i n I n d i a n d i e t , l e n t i l s , h a s become s c a r c e and e x p e n s i v e , and i t s p e r c a p i t a a v a i l a b i l i t y h a s d e c l i n e d i n t n e pos t -Green R e v o l u t i o n p e r i o d . The I n d i a n l i t e r a c y l e a r n e r i s s i m p l y b e i n g a s k e d t o s w i t c h from l e n t i l s t o e g q s .

The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n view o f knowledge c o n s i s t s o f r i g h t and wrong a n s w e r s . The ' c o r r e c t ' answer is p r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p l a n n e r , and ' p a c k a g e d ' i n t h e p r i m e r and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s . The t e a c n e r ' s job i s s i m p l y t o d i s p e n s e t h e ,pre-packaged knowledge. While he must b e p r e p a r e d w i t h t h e ' c o r r e c t ' answers t o a n t i c i p a t e d q u e s - t i o n s , he must a l s o m a i n t a i n an a i r of e x p l o r a t o r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n

n t ~ e g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n . Pseudo-Fre i rean p r o g r a m e p l a n n e r s i n - 1st on c a l l i n g t h e i r s t r a t e g y a s ' d i a l o g u e ' , b u t t h e p r a c t i c e s hoy recommend i n t h e t e a c h e r - g u i d e s i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from D a n k i n g ' . F r e i r e h a s warned a g a i n s t u s i n g t h e codes a s bureau- r a t i c f o r m u l a s . The p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n p r a c t i c e i s n o t o n l y i n f a r i n g c o n t r a s t t o F r e i r e , b u t a l s o t o t h e i r own t h e o r i s t s :

. t h e e s s e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n i s t h a t i t d o e s n o t d r i v e p e o p l e t o a c c e p t p r e d e t e r m i n e d ends b u t , i n s t e a d , f o s t e r s t h e i n i t i a - t i v e f o r them t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t e l l i g e n t l y i n t h e c h o i c e o f e n d s . E d u c a t o r s f o n o t s e t o u t t o c o n v i n c e , p e r s u a d e , o r e n g i n e e r c o n s e n t . T h i s i s t h e r e a l m o f p r o p a g a n d i s t s . R a t h e r , e d u c a t o r s h e l p p e o p l e t o become more aware , t o u n d e r s t a n d more c l e a r l y , t o d e c i d e more r a t i o n a l l y whether o r n o t t o a d o p t b i r t h c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e .

i s s t a t e m e n t l o o k s l i k e mere r h e t o r i c i f we examine t h e Tha i o g r d m e i n which Mezirow p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e . The c o r r e c c

i s d e r i n most o f t h e b a s i c l e s s o n s of t h i s proqramne c o u l d o n l y one word t h a t was t o be f i l l e d i n by t h e l e a r n e r .

i r o n y o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s b e h a v i o u r i n a p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n program- - p o ~ e s o u t most v i s i b l y i n t h e T u r k i s h programme where a d r a - i t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s i m p l a n t e d i n n a r r a t i v e s t o b e r e a d a l o u d . e purpose o f t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t o make c l a s s - d i s c u s s i o n u l y ' l i v e ' . The n a r r a t i v e s s t a r t w i t h a c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t a o b l e n ; e n l i g h t e n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s o f f e r e d i n t h e middle p a r t , iu trie end p r e s e n t s a r e s o l u t i o n . The dogmatic n a t u r e o f t h e ~ a l o q t i e c a n n o t be m i s t a k e n :

Doctor Ayhan T e z e l ( t o A l i Dede) : I l i k e your v i l l a g e v e r y much. May be t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t I am a v i l l a g e r my- s e l f . Your v i l l a g e i s v e r y p o o r . But i t i s s w e e t and c h a r n - i n q . P o v e r t y may a l s o be overcome.

A l i Dede: P o v e r t y and p r o s p e r i t y depend on t h e p e r s o n ' s own a b i l i t y .

1 Dede c o n f i r m s t h e s e l f - i n f l i c t i o n t h e o r y o f p o v e r t y which i s e backbone of World E d u c a t i o n ' s e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g . I t i s

1 ~ ' ~ l t a b l e t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n s and answers t h a t f o l l o w t h e problem- dinas o f t h e T u r k i s h teacher -manua ls s h o u l d p u t b l a t a n t l y what

t r e dramas convey soirewhat d e f t l y . A problem-drama t i t l e d "How J Live a s a Hunan" i s f o l l o w e d by t h i s set o f recormended ques- o n and a n s g e r between t h e l e a r n e r and t h e t e a c h e r :

L e a r n e r : Why d o we g e t u n b a l a n c e d , o n e - s i d e d n u t r i t i o n ?

Teacher : Because we d o n ' t know how t o g e t b a l a n c e d n u t r i t i o n .

I e a r n e r ' s image a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e T u r k i s h and s e v e r a l o t h e r t o r i ~ i l s i s t h a t of a f o o l i s h , i g n o r a n t p e r s o n . I n l e s s o n a f t e r %son of t h e T u r k i s h p r o g r a m e we h e a r a b o u t w o r r i e d p e o p l e sad- n l / becominq j u b i l a n t by coming t o know how a new h a b i t o r I n c . c a n change t h e i r w o r l d .

Conclus ion

Our c a s e s t u d y p r o v i d e s one i n s t a n c e of t h e p r o c e s s by which p s e u d o - F r e i r e a n pedagogy d o m e s t i c a t e s t h e l i t e r a c y l e a r n e r s of some T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . The c o - o p t a t i o n o f P a u l o F r e i r e i s an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t i n t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World t o d a y . Our s t u d y shows how a p h i l o s o p h y o f l i b e r a - t i o n , which o r i g i n a t e d i n a T h i r d World c o u n t r y , can be u s e d f o r d e v e l o p i n g a s t r a t e g y f o r p e r p e t u a t i n g dependence . E v i d e n t l y , t h e p r o c e s s c a n n o t be s e e n i n i s o l a t i o n from t h e soc io-economic f a c t o r s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e c o u n t r i e s t h a t have economic power and t h e c o u n t r i e s t h a t l a c k such power.

R e f e r e n c e s - - -

Anne K. Bernard and Gregory Armstrong, hit Pen" and adult education in Southern a hail and', Learning, ( 2 ( 1 ) 1979), pp. 16-18.

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, (New York: Seahury Press, 1-970) - ?

Paulo Freire, "Cultural Action for Freedom", Harvard Educational Review Mono- .-

graph Serix No. l, (Cambridge, Massacl~ussetts: Harvard University Press, 1970) - b

Paulo Freire, 'Oppression Dependence and Maginalisation', LADOC (No. 60, 1975)

Susan George, How the Other Half Dies (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 1976)

David Harman, Functional for Family Life Planning: Program Design, (New York: World Education, 1973).

Thomas J. La Belle, 'Goals and Strategies of Non-formal Education in Latin AmericaT, Comparative Education Review (20(3) 1976), pp. 328-345.

~arjorie Mbilinyi, 'Basic Education: Tool of Liberation or Exploitation', Prospects, (7(14) 1977), pp. 489-503.

David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (Princeton, NJ: D Van Nostrand Co., 1961).

Prayag Mehta,, 'Dynamics of Adult Learning and Development', Convergence, (11 ( 3 - 4 ) 1978), pp. 36-43.

Cl~~rles Valentine, Culture of Poverty, (Chicago: University of Cnicago Press, 1968).

Charles Valentine, 'The Culture of Poverty: Its Scientific Significance and Its Implications for Action', in Leacock, EB (ed) The Culture of Poverty: A Critique (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971).

Rick Williams, 'Towards a Pedagogy of Oppressed Youth', Convergence, (4 ( 2 ) 1971), pp. 80-83.

I gnacy Sachs, Anne B e r g e r e t , M i c h e l S c h i r a y , S i l v i a S i g a l , Dan ie l Thery, K rys tyna V inaver

initiation a 1'ecod~veloopement

Avec 116dition arabe de 'Que faire - un autre d6veloppe- m&' publie au dGbut de cette ann6e par la SNED 2 Alqer (voir annonce en arabe dans ce nurn6ro) voici, cinq ans apres le Rapport Daq Hammarskjold 1975, un ouvraqe realise 2 partir des contributions 2 ce projet des cher- cheurs du CIRED sous la direction d'lgnacy Sachs. Sa premiere partie couvre 1'6cod&veloppement en tant que projet de civilisation, la croissance gconomique et le developpement des inegalitgs, les impasses des modsles de developpement. La seconds partie envisage les alternatives: 6codeveloppement et satisfaction des besoins fondamentaux (alimentation, agriculture, sant6, habitat, technologies industrielles appropri6es pour un developpement autocentre) ..

(Grenoble, 14 rue des Arts: Privat Sditeur, 19811, 368 pp.

BUILDING BLOCKS

LAND REFORMS I N NEST BENGAL b y D. Bandyopadhyay Land Reform Commiss ioner Government o f West Bengal W r i t e r s B u i l d i n g C a l c u t t a , I n d i a

O r i g i n a l l anguage : Eng l i s h

A b s t r a c t : 'Deve lopmen t ' p o l i c i e s pu r sued d u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s i n I n d i a n o t o n l y f a i l e d t o a l l e v i a t e r u r a l p o v e r t y , b u t o v e r a l l growth was accompanied by growing i m m i s e r a t i o n o f t h e r u r a l p o o r . M a l n u t r i t i o n i i i c r ~ ' n s c ' J p a r i p a s s u w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d and t e c h n o c r a t i c s t r a t e g i e s .

T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s a n i n n o v a t i v e deve lopmen t p o l i c y which i s a t t e m p t e d h> t h e L e f t F r o n t government of West Benga l . R a d i c a l l a n d r e f o r m i s t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e of t h e r u r a l deve lopmen t programme. I t i m p l i e s f i x i n g and iinplcrnpnt i n g l and c e i l i n g s and l a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , b u t i t does n o t s t o p t h e r e .

Through l a n d c e i l i n g s , some 1 . 2 m i l l i o n a c r e s have been v e s t e d i n t h e S t a l e ( t h i s r e p r e s e n t s more t h a n a q u a r t e r o f t h e 4 m i l l i o n a c r e s t h u s t r a n s f e r r e d n a t i o n w i d e ) and more t h a n h a l f of t h i s h a s a l r e a d y been d i s t r i b u t e d t o one m i l l i o n b e n e f i c i a r i e s (57% o f which b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s c h e d u l e d c a s t e s and t r i b e s ) .

Tlie p o l i c y i n c l u d e s a l t e r n a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c r e d i t s u p p o r t and o t h e r fo rms o f

f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e ; a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n ; deve lopmen t 01 i n s f r a s t r u c t l i r e t h r o u g h food f o r work programmes; a new s y s t e m o f t a x c o l l e c - t i o n ; l e g a l a s s i s t a n c e ; new l i n k a g e s between b u r e a u c r a c . ~ , r u r a l se l f -gover~ni i i ; , i n s t i t u t i o n s and r u r a l w o r k e r s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The p r o c e s s of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f l a n d r e f o r m w i t h i t s emphas i s on d i r e c t p a r - t i c i p a t i o n of t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s i s r e l e a s i n g i m p u l s e s o f change a l r e a d y disc ' t i r - n i b l e . Thus a d i s p o s s e s s e d human i ty i s emerg ing i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o w r e s t i t s l e g i t i m a t e p l a c e i n s o c i e t y .

Resume: Les p o l i t i q u e s de ' d e v e l o p p e m e n t ' a p p l i q u e e s e n I n d e d e p u i s t r e n t e a n s n ' o n t p a s s e u l e m e n t f a i l l i 5 r g d u i r e l a p a u v r e t e r u r a l e , mats l a c r o i h - s a n c e s ' e s t accompagnee d ' u n e p a u p e r i s a t i o n c r o i s s a n t e d e s m a s s e s r u r a l c 5 . La m a l n u t r i t i o n s ' e s t a c c r u e p a r a l l e l e m e n t 5 l a c o n c e n t r a t i o n de l a t e r r t ' 2 d e s s t r a t e g i e s t e c b n o c r a t i q u e s .

Ce t a r t i c l e d e c r i t l a p o l i t i q u e i n n o v a t r i c e du gouvernement du F r o n t dc gaui. I~t ' du Benga l e o c c i d e n t a l . Une r e f o r m e a g r a i r e r a d i c a l e e s t l a p i e r r e a n y , u l a i r ( \ d u programme de d6veloppernent r u r a l . E l l e i r np l ique 1 ' C t a b l i s s e m e n t e t

l ' a p p l i c a t i o n dc" p l a f o n d s f o n c i z r s e t de n e s u r e s de r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , mats e l l e ne s ' a r r s t e p a s 1 2 .

R e s u l t a t de l a f i x a t i o n dc p l a f o n d s , un demi -mi l l i on d ' h e c t a r e s o n t e t 6 con- t i e s 2 1 ' E t a t (5 cornparer a u t o t a l de 1 . 6 m i l l i o n s d ' h e c t a r e s p o u r t o u t e 1 ' I n d e ) e t p l u s de l a m o i t i e de c e t t e s u r f a c e a d6jZ e t 6 r e d i s t r i b u g e Z un n i l l i o n de b @ n 6 f i c i a i r ; s , done 57'7 a p p a r t i e n n e n t aux c a s t e s e t t r i b u s l e s p l u s x i s e r a b l e s ( ' s c h e d u l e d c a s t e s and t r i b e s ' ) .

La p o l i t i q u e comprend d e s m6canismes nouveaux de c r e d i t e t d ' a u t r e s formes d ' a i d e f i n a n c i e r e ; des t e c h n o l o g i e s a p p r o p r i e e s pour l ' i r r i g a t i o n ; l a r e a l i s a - t i o n des i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s p a r d e s programmes d ' a l i m e n t a t i o n p o u r I e t r a v a i l ; un nouveau s y s t s m e de p e r c e p t i o n d e s impSt s ; une a i d e l e g a l e ; de n o u v e l l e s r e l a t i o n s e n t r e La b u r e a u c r a c i e , l e s i n s t i t u t i o n s r u r a l e s d ' a u t o g e s t i o n Glues e t l e s o r g a n i s a t i o n s d e s t r a v a i l l e u r s r u r a u x .

La mise e n oeuvre d e s r e f o r m e s , avec son a c c e n t s u r l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n d i r e c t e d e s b 6 n ? Â £ i c i a i r e s l i b e r e des e n e r g i e s pour I e changement . A i n s i l e s damn6s de l a t e r r e s ' a f f i r m e n t pour a r r a c h e r l e u r p l a c e l e g i t i r n e d a n s l a sociGtG.

R E F O R M A S A G R A R I A S E N B E N G A L A O C C I D E N T A L

Resumen: Lds p o l i t i c a s d e ' d e s a r r o l l o ' a p l i c a d a s e n l a I n d i a d e s d e hace t r e i n - t a a n o s no s o l o han f r a c a s a d o en r e d u c i r l a p o b r e z a r u r a l , s i n 0 que e l c r e c i - : l iento ha s i d o acornpanado de una m i s e r i a c r e c i e n t e d e l a s masas r u r a l e s . La malnutrition ha aumentado p a r a l e l a m e n t e a l a concentration d e l a t i e r r a y a l a s e s t r a t e g i a s t e c n o c r a t i c a s .

L s t e a r t i c u l o desc r ibe? l a p o l i t i c a i nnovadora de d e s a r r o l l o d e l g o b i e r n o d e l F r e n t e d e I z q u i e r d a de Bengala O c c i d e n t a l . Una r e f o r m a a g r a r i a r a d i c a l e s l a p i e d r a a n g u l a r d e l programa de d e s a r r o l l o r u r a l . E l l a i m p l i c a e l e s t a b l e c i - m i e n t o y l a a p l i c a c i o n d e rnedidas d e l i r n i t a c i o n de l a p r o p i e d a d a g r < c o l a y d e redistribution d e l a t i e r r a , p e r o no l l e g a s o l o h a s t a ahi'.

Como r e s u l t a d o d e l a f i j a c i o n d e d i c h o s l f m i t e s , medio m i l l 0 5 d e h e c t a r e a s han sicio e n t r e g a d a s e l E s t a d o ( e s t o r e p r e s e n t a mas d e un c u a r t o d e 10s c u a t r o ~ i i l l o n e ~ d e h e c t a r e a s a s < Lraspasadas e n t o d a l a I n d i a ) y mas d e l a m i t a d d e o s t a s u p e r f i c i e ya ha s i d o r e d i s t r i b u i ' d a a un m i l l o n d e b e n e f i c i a r i e s , d e 10s . u d l e s e l 577 p e r t e n e c e a l a s c a s t a s y t r i b u s mas m i s e r a b l e s y o r g a n i z a d a s .

La p o l i t i c a comprende nuevos mecanism05 d e c r e d i t 0 y o t r a s fo rmas d e ayuda i i r i d n c i e r a ; t e c n o l o g i a s a p r o p i a d a s p a r a l a i r r i g a c i o 6 ; l a realization d e i n - f r ~ e s ~ r u ~ t u r a s po r meciio d e programas d e a l i m e n t a c i o h p a r a e l t r a b a j o ; un niiovo s i i t e m a d e r e c o l e c c i o n de i m p u e s t o s ; a s i s t e n c i a l e g a l ; nuevas r e l a c i o n e s o n t r e Id administration, l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s r u r a l e s d e a u t o g e s t i o n e l e g i d a s y 1.15 o r g a n i z a c i o n e s d e t r a b a j a d o r e s r u r a l e s .

l . I p n o s t a en marcha de l a r e fo rma a g r a r i a con s u a c e n t o en l a participation c l i r c c t ~ de 10s b e n e f i c i a r i o ; e s t a l i b e r a n d o e n e r g i a s p a r a e l cambio ya pe rcep - t i b l e . Do e s t a fo rma , e l s e c t o r d e s p o s e f d o d e l a humanidad, que v i v e en e l . i r - ip i ) , e s t a l e v a n t a n d o s e p a r a a r r e b a t a r e l l e g c t i m o p u e s t o que I e c o r r e s p o n d e ' 1 1 1 , I S O L i o d a d .

D . Bandyopadhyay :' LAND REFORMS I N WEST BENGAL

I t i s now w e l l r e c o g n i s e d t h a t development p o l i c i e s pursued d u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s i n o u r c o u n t r y f a i l e d t o a l l e v i a t e r u r a l p o v e r t y . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e a r e e v i d e n c e s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t o v e r a l l growth was accompanied by growing i m m i s e r a t i o n o f t h e r u r a l p o o r . I n s t i t u t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e d i s - a d v a n t a g e d groups o f t e n s e r v e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u r a l r i c h . The poor were n o t a l l o w e d a c c e s s t o t h e i r s e r v i c e s . T e c h n i c a l e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s i n v a r i a b l y s e r v e d s u r p l u s f a r m e r s and i n s t i - t u t i o n a l c r e d i t meant f o r t h e poor r e a c h e d t h o s e who o f t e n r e - f i n a n c e d i t t o t h e poor a t u s u r i o u s r a t e s of i n t e r e s t . The poor were d e p r i v e d o f t h e b e n e f i t s a c c r u i n g from t h e t o t a l i t y o f a c t i - v i t i e s which went on i n t h e name o f deve lopment .

For t h e c o u n t r y a s a whole t h e p e r c a p i t a r a t e o f growth o f g r o s s d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t between 1960 and 1976 was 1 . 3 . But d u r i n g a l m o s t t h e same p e r i o d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n below t h e pover- t y l i n e i n c r e a s e d from 42 i n 1960-61 t o 47.6 i n 1973-74. Disag- g r e g a t e d f i g u r e s f o r some o f t h e ' a f f l u e n t ' S t a t e s c o r r o b o r a t e t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d . I n West Benga l , f o r example, t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n below t h e p o v e r t y l i n e i n c r e a s e d from 40% i n 1960- 61 t o 6 6 % i n 1973-74. S i m i l a r f i g u r e s a p p l y t o U t t e r Pradesh (42 t o 6 3 % ) and B i h a r (41 t o 5 9 % ) .

The e n t i r e deve lopment s t r a t e g y f o l l o w e d s o f a r p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e s p e c t o f t h e r u r a l s e c t o r had been b a s i c a l l y t e c h n o c r a t i c i n n a t u r e . I t was t h o u g h t t h a t g i v e n t h e sys tem a s i t were , i n j e c - t i o n o f a d e q u a t e d o s a g e o f input -mix t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g up of b a s i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e l i k e i r r i g a t i o n , r o a d , e l e c t r i c i t y , o u t p u t would i n c r e a s e ; and t h i s would have a g e n e r a l t o n i n g up e f f e c t on t h e r u r a l economy b e n e f i t i n g a l l c o n c e r n e d . Advent o f t h e " m i r a c l e s e e d " b u t t r e s s e d t h i s t h e s i s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e b e n e f i c i a l Â £ a l l - o u o f t h e new t e c h n i q u e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l produc- t i o n was v e r y l i m i t e d i n i t s s p r e a d and i t sharpened r u r a l d i f - f e r e n t i a t i o n b o t h r e l a t i v e l y and a b s o l u t e l y . S t u d i e s made by F.A.O. i n d i c a t e t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1969-1974 ( t h e hey-day o f g r e e n r e v o l u t i o n ) t h e number o f p e r s o n s s u f f e r i n g from m a l n u t r i - t i o n i n c r e a s e d b o t h a b s o l u t e l y ( f rom 1 4 1 t o 175 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s ) and r e l a t i v e l y (from 26 t o 30% o f t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ) .

There a r e a l s o i n d i c a t i o n s o f growing c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d on o r ~ e hand & e q u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g i n c i d e n c e o f l a n d l e s s n e s s on t h e o t h e r . The s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f a g r i c u l t u r a l workers between 1961 and 1971 a l s o i n d i c a t e s growinq p a u p e r i s a t i o n o f t h e

* / The author is Land Reforms Commissionei, Government of West Bengal, Writers Building, Calcutta, India.

lower layers of peasantry. If the technocratic approach to development continued without touching the structure in any significant manner, it had been estimated that the share of the lower 40% of the population in the gross national product which was 17% in 1975 would come down to 15% in 2000.

The traditional wisdom that with the growth of the size of the cake everyone's share would increase proved false. Increase in GNP was accompanied in our country with increase in both relative and absolute levels of poverty and destitution for growing numbers ofpeople. Benefits of economic growth did not trickle down as predicted. They were siphoned off somewhere up in the line leaving more people hungry, shelterless, illiterate, diseased and destitute than thirty years ago. It had been proved that mere injection of packages of critical inputs in the agrarian sector and creation of rural infrastructure would only benefit those who possessed and controlled productive assets. With highly skewed pattern of land distribution any development policy which aims at delivering desirable baskets input-mix for raising output would only increase rural differen- tiation. In land-scarce, labour-abundant economy with a high degree of concentration of landownership and inegalitarian distribution of productive assets, fundamental structural change in the form of radical land reform provides the only sure and swift method of reducing rural poverty. Such structural overhaul, however desirable it might be, is not possible within the given legal and constitutional frame. Hence the attempt of the Left Front Govern- ment has been to implement land reform measures within the existing legal parameters to enable the rural poor to benefit from the process of development. Land reform is considered as the corner- stone of the entire rural development strategy in West-Bengal. -

Poverty encompasses the totality of life and existence of the af- flicted population. Hence-to be effective any antipoverty ~ pro- ~

Gramme with land reform as the major component has to be multi- dimensional in its design and impact. A programme of land reform which stops at merely distribution of land or with an enabling legislation for security of tenure of sharecroppers is bound to have a minimal effect. On the other hand, witn the reversal process initiated by the entrenched interests and with no support system for the potential beneficiaries, their conditions could be, as well, worse off in the post reform situation than before. The land reform programme of West Bengal recognises this critical deficiency of the traditional administrative approach. That is why an attempt has been made to remedy the situation by developing a broad support mechanism by establishing functional linkages with the bureaucracy, elected rural self-governing institutions and rural workers' organisations. This is the main difference of the land reform programme currently being implemented in West Bengal with the attempts made earlier in the State and in other States of India.

The main features of the programme of land reforms in West Bengal are:

(1) Quick recording of the names of the sharecroppers (barqa- dars) through "Operation Barga" and thereby securing to them the legal rights that they are entitled to.

(ii) Distribution of already available ceiling surplus vested lands among the landless and the land poor rural workers with the active cooperation of the Panchayati raj institutions.

(iii) Drive to detect and vest more ceiling surplus lands through quasi-judicial investigative machinery with the help of rural workers' organisations and Panchayati raj institutions.

Giving institutional credit cover to the sharecroppers and the assignees of vested land to irreversibly snap the ties of bondage they have with the landlords and money-lenders . Assigning permanent title for homestead purpose to all the landless agricultural workers (including sharecroppers), artisans and fishermen upto 0.08 acres who are occupying lands of others as permissive possessors.

Providing tiny sources of irriqation to the assignees of vested lands through bamboo tubewells where underground hydrological conditions permit such technology and bank financed dugwells with heavy subsidy from the State in other suitable areas with a view to induce such assignees to go in for high value multiple cropping to improve their economic status.

vii) Giving financial assistance in the form of subsidies to the assignees of vested land for development of their lands.

(viii) Abrogation of the old revenue system which was a hangover from the Zamindari era and substituting it by a new measure under which revenue is assessed on land-holding above a certain valuation on progressive rate. Small and marginal farmers have been exempted from revenue burden.

Restoration of land alienated by poor and marginal farmers through distress sale provided the purchaser himself is not a poor peasant having land-holding less than 1 acre.

(X) Designing Food for Work Programme for developing rural infrastructure which would primarily benefit the assignees of vested land and mariqinal farmers as well as to give them sustenance during periods of distress to tide over the crisis and to prevent retransfer of land to affluent farmers.

Though recording of sharecroppers as such is not a new element in the land reforms administration of the State what is novel about the present programme is the massive drive to register the names of the sharecroppers with the collaboration of the groups of beneficiaries and with the active assistance of rural workers' organisations and rural self-governing institutions. Typically bureau- cratic method of recording the names of sharecroppers failed to achieve any significant success. Individually sharecroppers felt diffident to come forward and register their names against the wishes of the landowners because of fear of retaliation. Hence, in "Operation Barga" which was launched by this Government towards the end of 1978, the emphasis has been to develop group action among the potential beneficiaries to enable them to overcome the fear psychosis by creating a mutual support system. An important feature of the new methodology is to have group meetings with the potential beneficiaries in the evening in the localities where they stay. In such meetings the sharecroppers are encouraged to express their grievances and to relate experiences of various social and economic injustice that they suffer. Officials who attend such meetings explain the benefits that bargadars are entitled to under the law and the advantages that would accrue, through recording of their names in the record of rights. Im- mediately thereafter, tentative lists of claimants are prepared which are followed by public verifications of such claims in field in presence of both the landowners and the claimant sharecroppers on the next day. After the field verification a provisional list is hung up in all the important places in the cluster of villages where the operation is going on. Landowners are given opportunity to file objections which are also heard and verified in the field in public. Thereafter, certificates of sharecropping are distri- buted among the beneficiaries. This methodology which depends heavily on the group action of the sharecroppers is qualitatively different from the traditional revenue court approach where the poor are at a disadvantage asagainstthe rich, because of their inability to engage lawyers and to produce documentary evidence which they do not have. Most of the sharecropping aqreements are oral in character and therefore there is no documentary evidence to support their claims. It also enables rural workers' organisations to effectively participate in the programme of registration by organising the sharecroppers in groups. They put forward their claims in groups and their claims are verified in field in public. This procedure enables them to overcome the fear complex and re- duces the possibilities of severe retaliatory action on the part of the landowners because of their knowledge that such action would meet with the organised resistance. The results of this

new methodology h a s been f a i r l y good. T i l l 3 0 t h A p r i l , 1 9 8 0 , some 850,000 s h a r e c r o p p e r s were r e c o r d e d o u t o f a n e s t i m a t e d num- b e r o f r o u g h l y 2 m i l l i o n .

Most d i f f i c u l t a s p e c t i n "Opera t ion Barga" i s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s h a r e c r o p p e r s . To overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y a s i g n i f i c a n t amendment h a s been made i n t h e Land Reforms Law under which a p e r s o n l a w f u l l y c u l t i v a t i n g t h e l a n d o f a n o t h e r i s presumed t o be t h e b a r g a d a r i f such a p e r s o n i s n o t a member of t h e f a m i l y o f t h e o t h e r p e r s o n whose l a n d he c u l t i v a t e s and t h e burden of p r o v i n g t h a t such a p e r s o n i s n o t a b a r q a d a r l i e s on t h e landowner. T h i s i n n o v a t i v e , and i m a g i n a t i v e amendment g i v i n g a p resumpt ion i n f a v o u r o f t h e b a r g a d a r and s h i f t i n g of onus of r e b u t t a l t o t h e landowner h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t a sea-change i n t h e t e c h n i q u e of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and r e c o r d i n g of b a r g a d a r . T h i s p r o v i d e s t h e l e g a l f rame of t h e m a s s i v e "Opera t ion B a r g a " .

One of t h e major d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n implement ing "Opera- t i o n B a r g a " h a s been t h e e x - p a r t e i n j u n c t i o n o r d e r s from t l i e c o u r t s , which a r e b e i n g i s s u e d w i t h t h e i n t e n s i t y o f monsoon shower. O f t e n t h e new methodology i s b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d a s i l l e g a l on a t o t a l m i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s and law. A s s o c i a t i o n o f r u r a l workers i n t h e p r o c e s s o f r e c o r d i n g i s o f t e n m i s i n t e r p r e t - e d a s p a r t i s a n s h i p on t h e p a r t o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o t a l l y i g n o r i n q t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e ILO Convention l 4 1 - "Convention Concern- i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n s o f Rura l Workers and T h e i r Role i n Economic and S o c i a l Development". P a r l i a m e n t r a t i f i e d t h i s c o n v e n t i o n . Hence t h e methodology of " O p e r a t i o n Barga" i s j u s t i f i e d n o t o n l y on t h e ground t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a mechanism o f d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e programme b u t a l s o because i t h a s a l e g a l s a n c t i o n beh ind i t .

T i l l d a t e t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n of v a r i o u s l a n d ---p.p c e i l i n g laws ap- p r o x i m a t e l y a b o u t 1 . 1 7 m i l l i o n a c r e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d have been v e s t e d i n t h e S t a t e . I n c i d e n t a l l y , West Bengal i s t h e o n l y S t a t e i n I n d i a which h a s v e s t e d s o much o f a q r i c u l t u r a l l a n d t h r o u g h i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c e i l i n g l a w s . Out o f l i t t l e o v e r 4 m i l l i o n a c r e s of a q r i c u l t u r a l l a n d d e c l a r e d s u r p l u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y , West B e n g a l ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n h a s been 1 . 1 7 m i l l i o n a c r e s . T h i s f i g u r e does n o t i n c l u d e t h e Government w a s t e l a n d and t h e l a n d s o f t h e t e n a n t s who have come under d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Government a f t e r t h e a b o l i t i o n o f Zamindary. Out o f t h i s 1 . 1 7 m i l l i o n a c r e s , 630,000 a c r e s have been d i s t r i b u t e d among l i t t l e o v e r l m i l l i o n b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f whom r o u g h l y 5 7 % b e l o n g s t:o t h e Scheduled C a s t e s and Scheduled T r i b e s .

D i s t r i b u t i o n of c e i l i n g s u r p l u s v e s t e d l a n d s t o t h e e l i g i b l e l and- l e s s and l a n d p o o r a q r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s and s h a r e c r o p p e r s h a s becn r a t h e r t a r d y . O f t e n former l andowners c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r c i s e -- ---.-p - p o s s e s s i o n and e n j o y u s u f r u c t o f t h e s e l a n d s b y - c l a n d e s t i n e c ~ r a n g e m e n t 7 ~ 1 t h lower e c h e l o n s of b u r e a u c r a c ~ . Not i n f r e q u e n t l y t h e i r henchmen o r t h e i r l a n d l e s s r e l a t i v e s were i n d u c t e d on such

l a n d s soon a f t e r v e s t i n g who had been e x e r c i s i n g some i n f l u e n c e o r o t h e r t o p r e v e n t t h e i r e j e c t m e n t and d i s t r i b u t i o n of such l a n d t o g e n u i n e l y l a n d l e s s p e r s o n s . There were c a s e s where t h e o l d owners , who c o n t i n u e d t o domina te t h e v i l l a g e l i f e , j u s t asked t h e l a n d l e s s workers and s h a r e c r o p p e r s n o t t o p r e f e r t h e i r c l a i m s on s u c h l a n d . Tha t a p a r t innumerab le w r i t p e t i t i o n s have been f i l e d i n t h e High Cour t some of which a r e pending f o r p r e t t y l o n g p e r i o d s . L a t e s t s t a t i s t - i c s show t h a t a b o u t 171,000 a c r e s o f v e s t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s have been h i t by i n j u n c t i o n o r d e r s of t h e High Cour t and C i v i l C o u r t s . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e 20,000 C i v i l Rules i n t h e High C o u r t and 27,000 C i v i l S u i t s i n d i f f e r e n t C i v i l C o u r t s . While t h e landowners c a n p u r s u e t h e i r c a s e s w i t h s i n g l e minded d e v o t i o n and w i t h new t e c h n i q u e s and r u s e s which t h e i r money, power and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n c a n commandeer, it i s becoming i n c r e a - s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o keep t r a c k o f t h e s e m a t t e r s even w i t h a s p e c i a l p a n e l of S t a t e l a w y e r s and a s e p a r a t e l e g a l c e l l i n t h e Depar tment . T r a d i t i o n o f i n v i o l a b i l i t y of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n c u l c a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s permeates t h e j u d i c i a l sys tem i n c l u d i n g t h e l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n i n g e n e r a l and it becomes e a s y f o r t h e a f f e c t e d pro- p e r t i e d c l a s s e s t o draw j u d i c i a l sympathy w i t h t h e p l e a o f i n j u r e d innocence on any a n t i p r o p e r t y l e g a l measure . What a p p e a r e d t o b e v e r y s u r p r i s i n g was t h e r o l e o f t h e l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n . Whether because o f c o n s t a n t e s p o u s a l o f t h e c a u s e of p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s e s o r because o f t h e impulse t o be on t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t t o p r o t e c t t h e i r b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s o r because of t h e l a c k o f i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n , by and l a r g e , t h e p r o f e s s i o n i n t h e S t a t e f a i l e d t o r i s e t o t h e o c c a s i o n i n t h e l e g a l b a t t l e s i n t h e law c o u r t s . P e r h a p s , t h e i - r c l a s s i n t e r e s t s o f t e n t r a n s c e n d e d t h e i r p r o f e s s i o - n a l e t h i c s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t programme was b e i n g s t a l l e d t h r o u g h innumerab le i n j u n c t i o n o r d e r s . Land Reform c o n t i n u e s t o b e a major v i c t i m of t h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y c u l t o f t h e j u r i d i c a l sys tem e v e n a f t e r t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e R i g h t t o P r o p e r t y from o u r C o n s t i - t u t i o n . Roughly 374,000 a c r e s o f v e s t e d c e i l i n g s u r p l u s a g r i c u l - t u r a l l a n d s a r e s t i l l a v a i l a b l e f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n . To overcome t h e i n b u i l t i n e r t i a o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e machinery w h i c h o f t e n coa- p.

l e s c e s w i t h t h e land-owning c l a s s e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s a s ignL- f i c a n t r o l e h a s been a s s i g n e d r e c e n t l y t o t h e e l e c t e d Panchaya t ---pp-

S a m i t i e s a t t h e Block l e v e l t o v e t t h e l i s t o f e l i g i b l e p e r s o n s .---p-

v i l l a g e w i s e and t o recommend names f o r a s s i g n m e n t o f v e s t e d l a n d s n o t e x c e e d i n g one a c r e p e r household w i t h o u t any premium. With t h e involvement of t h e e l e c t e d r u r a l s e l f - g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n of v e s t e d l a n d i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t work would b e comple ted w i t h e x p e d i t i o n . Even assuming t h a t some of t h e s e l a n d s may be s u b m a r g i n a l r o u g h l y 350,000 d e s t i t u t e h o u s e h o l d s wou1.d b e immedia te ly p a r t i a l l y r e h a b i l i t a t e d .

hough West B e n g a l ' s ach ievement i n v e s t i n g o f c e i l i n g s u r p l u s l a n d i s s i g n i f i c a n t by a l l I n d i a s t a n d a r d , t h e r e i s s c o p e f o r f u r t h e r v e s t i n g o f l a n d i f t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e law c o u l d be removed. Tasks i n v o l v e d i n d e t e c t i n g c e i l i n g s u r p l u s l a n d s a r e : (i) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of f a m i l i e s h a v i n g o r s u s p e c t e d t o have l a n d s above c e i l i n g ( ii) l o c a t i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g a l l t h e p l o t s o f l a n d

in the possession of every such family both according to record of rights and in reality including tracing of benami or clandes- tine transfers of property made to friends, relatives or other persons real or imaginary through fictitious or collusive transactions, (ill) initiating legal processes for vestinq of all surplus land including lands held in benami, and (iv) taking over possession of land vested after completing the quasi-judicial and administrative processess. For any massive drive to detect and vest ceiling surplus l~and unstinted help and cooperation of sharecroppers and agricultural workers arc essential. They have the full knowledge of both real and nominal owners. It is only on their evidence that sham and collusive transactions could be detected and nullified. Earlier experience showed that without security of cultivation and alternative source of employment, in a changed situation sharecroppers and agricultural workers who took initiative in finding out such land had to suffer enormously.

Hence "Operation Barga" which ensures security of cultivation to the recorded bargadars and well designed Food for Work Programme which assures alternative employment in times of need are two very - ---pp-- important complementary measures for detection of ceiling surplus lands. During 1979 on an average 4400 acres of agricultural land vested in the State per month. It could be substantially stepped up with removal of the present deficiency in the law. Most of the big landowners have secreted away their land in the names of nominal title holders. If such holdings could be declared illegal for the purpose of land ceiling huge area would still vest. Entire thrust would be shifted to this programme after Operation Barga is completed .

Developing %a-lternative institutional credit support system f ( ~ r -- .- the beneficiaries of land reform is a remarkable feature in West Bengal. Usury along and rack-renting are the two potent instruments of rural exploitation. Mere assignment of surplus land or recording of names of sharecroppers really does not help people much unless simultaneously attempts are made to meet their credit needs. It may look astounding, but it is a reality that a large number of village poor accept consumption credit with a rate of interest ranginq from 150 to 300 per cent per annum. The usual practice is to take a bag of rice during the lean season and to return a bag and a half immediately after harvest. Duration of the loan is three to four months. Sometimes they borrow with stipulation to return double the amount. There are various sophis- tication and ramification of this system of extraction. Immediate- ly after launching of Operation Barqa, reports were received about stopping of consumption credit by landowners and hiking of rates of interests as retaliation. Though cooperative system has fairly widespread network, as elsewhere it is controlled by the village rich. There were reports of using cooperative finance by the landowners for usury. Promulqation of law for universal member- ship was followed by largescale default by cooperative credit societies. It was not unlikely that societies were made temporari- ly defunct to dissuade and to prevent the marginal farmers and

s h a r e c r o p p e r s from becoming members and t o d r y up t h e s o u r c e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l c r e d i t f o r c i n g them t o come t o t h e landowners and money l e n d e r s f o r c r e d i t . Hence i n t h e k h a r i f ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y mid- March t o mid-Ju ly) s e a s o n o f 1979, a b i g programme of f i n a n c i n g o f s h a r e c r o p p e r s and a s s i g n e e s o f v e s t e d l a n d by n a t i o n a l i s e d commercial b a n k s , t h e S t a t e Bank of I n d i a and r e g i o n a l r u r a l banks was l a u n c h e d . There were innumerab le d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p u t t i n g t h r o u g h t h i s scheme. Banks a r e accustomed t o d e a l i n g w i t h l a r g e amounts f o r a s m a l l number o f a c c o u n t s . There i s a n i n b u i l t a v e r - s i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e banks t o d e a l w i t h l a r g e number o f a c c o u n t s w i t h s m a l l amounts . And on t h e t o p o f it a l o t o f p romot iona l a c t i v i t i e s were r e q u i r e d t o wean away t h e v i l l a g e poor from t h e f o l d of t h e u s u r e r s who used a l l t y p e s o f p l o y s t o p r e v e n t deve lop- merit of new c r e d i t sys tem o v e r which t h e y had no c o n t r o l . Banks had t h e i r problem of inadequacy of s t a f f t o t a c k l e t h i s programme. I n West Bengal r u r a l b r a n c h e s o f commercial banks had 0.04 f i e l d o f f i c e r s p e r b r a n c h . T h e r e f o r e , a p a r t f rom t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l psyche o f t h e b a n k s , t h e r e was t h e f o r m i d a b l e problem o f o r g a n i s a - t i o n . L i s t s of r e c o r d e d s h a r e c r o p p e r s and a s s i g n e e s of v e s t e d l a n d , p r e p a r e d and c e r t i f i e d by revenue o f f i c i a l s , were s u p p l i e d t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g b r a n c h e s . P a n c h a y a t s were r e q u e s t e d t o s p o n s o r c a s e s . Revenue and development s t a f f were dep loyed t o p r e p a r e documenta t ion . About 52,000 b a r g a d a r s and a s s i g n e e s were g i v e n a bank l o a n . Though compared t o t h e t o t a l number o f b a r q a d a r s and a s s i g n e e s t h i s f i g u r e may look s m a l l , i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e c o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d when i t i s compared w i t h per formance of t h e banks d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t i e s . Between 1972 and 1978 a l l t h e banks t o g e t h e r opened a round 79,000 d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e o f i n t e r e s t a c c o u n t s i n t h e a g r a r i a n s e c t o r . I n 1979 k h a r i f s e a s o n a l o n e under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e S t a t e Government t h e y opened a d d i t i o n a l 52,000 a c c o u n t s . During t h e r a b i ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y mid-November t o F e b r u a r y ) s e a s o n o v e r 7,000 bor rowal a c c o u n t s were opened m a i n l y f o r t h e a s s i g n e e s . Thus d u r i n q t h e y e a r l i t t l e o v e r 59,000 new b o r r o w a l a c c o u n t s were opened e x c l u s i v e l y f o r t h e v i l l a g e p o o r . S t a t e Government h a s been v e r y p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t repayment o f 1oar .s . To i n d u c e prompt repayment , West Bengal Government i n t r o d u c e d f u l l i n t e r e s t s u b s i d y scheme f o r t h o s e who p a i d back t h e l o a n w i t h i n t h e s t i p u l a t e d p e r i o d . Bank b r a n c h e s have g i v e n fund o u t o f which t h e y p a i d t h e i n t e r e s t and l a t e r on r e n d e r e d a c c o u n t s . Tha t a p a r t , r e v e n u e , p a n c h a y a t and development a g e n c i e s have been i n s t r u c t e d t o j o i n t h e campaign f o r prompt r e c o v e r y o f bank l o a n s . E x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t r a t e of r e c o v e r y i s f a i r l y good, and p a r t i c u l a r l y , much b e t t e r t h a n t h e r a t e o f r e c o v e r y o f l o a n s advanced t o h i g h e r income g r o u p s i n t h e v i l l a g e s . Consumption l o a n i s b u i l t i n t o t h e bank l o a n s on t h e b a s i s o f imputed c o s t o f l a b o u r a t t h e minimum r a t e s of wages m u l t i p l i e d by t h e a v e r a g e mandays r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e a p a r t i c u l a r c r o p . I n t h e k h a r i f s e a s o n o f 1980 t h e programme was t o cover 160,000 new b e n e f i c i a r i e s under bank f i n a n c e . The main problem i s t o d e v i s e a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n a l f rame t o e n s u r e p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n and t o c o v e r i n c r e a s i n g number of b e n e f i c i a r i e s s e a s o n a f t e r s e a s o n .

A large number of landless sharecroppers and agricultural workers live on the landowners' plots as permissive occupiers. Landowners allow them to do so to have the services of such persons at their beck and call. Whenever bargadars recorded their names or the agricultural workers wanted higher wages they faced the threat of eviction from the homestead plots. This affected their morale adversely and put them to immense difficulties. To obviate this situation a programme of conferring titles on such permissive possessors up to .08 acres of land has been undertaken. The progress so far has not been significant. Only 41,000 families bene- fitted so far. But, with active support of the rural workers organisations, it is expected that the rate of conferment of t.-tles would pick up in the coming months.

The revenue system that was prevalent in the State was a remnant of the old zamindary era. Whatever rent was payable by the raiyats and under raiyats to the superior landlords was converted into revenue payable to State when they became tenants directly under the State with slight marginal adjustment. Under the zamindary system there was no rational basis for fixation of rent. There- fore the anomalies which crept into the rent structure continued in subsequent post abolition period. Under the new Land Holding Revenue Act, valuation of land holding has been made the main determinant of revenue assessment. Land-holdings whose valuation fall below Rs. 50,000 have been totally exempted from revenue assessment. Land-holdings above that value are being assessed on progressive rates. This will have the effect of relieving marginal, small and middle farmers from revenue burdens and mopping of some surplus from the upper-middle and rich farmers.

A serious attempt to implement these modest land reform measures has thrown up certain basic issues which require reflection. In the debate on the failure of implementation of land reform in our country in the early seventies the administrators, social scien- tists and even politicians found a catch-all reason - 'lack of political will'. It was argued and quite correctly 'with resolute and unambiguous political will all other shortcomings and difficulties could have been overcome; in the absence of such will even minor obstacles became formidable road-blocks in the path of Indian land reforms'. While no one would dispute the basic logic underlying this statement, inbuilt road-blocks in a pluralistic society are not really minor. They are formidable. West Bengal's experience shows even with definite political will at the top, to carry through any measure of reform which aims at slight rearrange- ment of property relationship in a constitutional frame through the rule of law is a herculean task beset with impediments the magnitude which was totally unknown previously. It is true that without political will nothing could be done, but its existence does not solve all the problems. Sharp reaction of the entrenched interests is both predictable and understandable. But inner dynamics of agencies which are expected to implement the programme often cause surprise.

The main agency of implementation of land reform is the bureaucracy. The middle and upper rungs of bureaucracy in West Bengal have hardly any connection with land unlike in most other States. recruits come from urban middle class, many of whom are migrants from erstwhile East Pakistan. The coalescing of interests of rural landed gentry and the bureaucracy which happens in other States is not a common feature in this State. Even so generally the bureaucracy maintains a stance of hostile neutrality to the entire issue of land reform. The reason lies in the age-old tradition of the administration of maintaining order, with or without law. The main burden of administrative ethos and procedure, general civil and criminal laws, judicial pronouncements and prac- tices is the maintenance and safeguarding of existing property relationship in the rural areas. Hence it is natural for the bureaucracy to develop a bias against any action or an isolated law which aims at altering the existing socio-economic arrangements. Hence it was felt that to carry through the programme, additional change of the bureaucracy was necessary. The Govern- ment has undertaken a programme of holding reorientation camps where 30 to 40 landless agricultural labourers and sharecroppers and a dozen or two officers of different ranks stay together, eat together and work together for three to four days. The village poor are encouraged to speak out their bitterness - and to iden- tify according to their perceptions the reasons of their being destitute and poor and to suqqest remedial measures. Having seen their own images in the eyes of the poor, quite a gew officials felt disturbed and started questioning the correctness of their past behaviour and activities. It sets in a process of change of mind at least among a few functionaries at the cutting edges of the administration.

The process of implementation of land reform with its emphasis on the direct participatory role for the village poor is releasing impulses of change which are already discernible. A disinherited, deprived and dispossessed humanity is emerging in the country- side to wrest its legitimate place in society.

L'ECONOMIE ALGERIENNE ENTRE L'AUTONOPUE ET LA EEPENDANCE p a r A b d e l l a t i f Benachenhou U n i v e r s i t 6 d l A l g e r I n s t i t u t des S c i e n c e s economiques 2, r u e D idouche Mourad A l g e r , A l g e r i e

O r i g i n a l : F r a n c a i s

R6sumG: 18 ans aprss ltInd6pendance, au lendemain de I'adoption du Plan quinquennal 1980-84, cet article analyse la situation de l'economie algerienne par rapport 2 1'~conomie mondiale et mesure le degr6 d'autonomie et de dgpendance d c son fonctionnement.

Les plans successifs ont recherche l'autonomie par la valorisation des ressour- ce5 naturelles; l'industrialisation en profondeur; et la transformation des structures agraires. La dependance, multiforme, se nourrit des contradictions objectives comme des insuffisances de la politique du developpement. On peut en trouver des manifestations dans la politique energetique (r6le des exportation~), industrielle (choix des investissements et des types de technologie) ou agricole (deficit alimentaire).

Le renforcement de l'autonomie implique la reduction des prelGvements ext6- rieurs sur 1'6conomie alggrienne (prix des hydrocarbures); le renforcement des capacites nationales de reproduction des equipements; et la diversification dans la composition des exportations.

1 H E A L G E R I A N ECONOMY BETWEEN S E L F - R E L I A N C E AND DEPENDENCE

Abstract: 18 years after Independence and following the adoption of the 1980- 84 Plan, the paper discusses the situation of the Algerian economy in the context of the world economy and assesses its relative self-reliance and dependence.

The development plans have sought self-reliance through the development of natural resources; industrialization in depth; and transformation of agrarian structures. Dependance is multiform and rests on objective contradictions as wel.1 as on the shortcomings of development policies. Examples could be found in the energy policies (importance of exports), industrial policy (choice of investment or technologies) or agricultural policy (food deficit).

The strengthening of self-reliance requires a decrease in the external levy on the Algerian economy (price of hydrocarbons); increase of the national capacity for capital goods; and diversification in the composition of expor- iations.

LA E C O N O M I A A R G E L I N A E N T R E L A A U T O N O M I A Y L A D E P E N D E N C I A

rtfcsui'en: 18 anos despues de la independencia, y despues de la adopci6n del Plan quinquenal 1980-8&, este informe analiza la situation en que se encuentra la economia argelina en el context0 de la economia mundial y evalua la auto- nornid y la dependencia de su funcionamiento.

1.0s planes sucesivos han tratado de realizar la autonomia por medio de la vcilorizacion de recursos naturales, la industrialization a fondo y la trans- formacion de estructuras agrarias. La dependecia, multiforme, se alimenta de nintradicciones objetivas tanto como de las insuficiencias de las pol<ticas de desarrollo. Se puede encontrar ejemplos en la politica de la energ<a (el p d p e l de las exportaciones), de la industria (la selection de inversiones y de tecnologias) o en la politica agricola (deficit alimenticio).

L 1 fortaleciarnento de la autonomia implica la reduction dc deduccioncs eiteriores tiechas sobre la economi'a argelind (el precio de hidrocarburos); el fortalecimientode la capacidad nacional de reproduction de capital y la diversification en la composicign de exportaciones.

Abdellatif Benachenhou L/

L 'ECONOMIE ALGERIENNE E N T R E L'AUTONOMIE E T L A DEPENDANCE

18 ans aprss l'indspendance, au lendemain de l'adoption du Plan Quinquennal 1980-84 on peut tenter d'analyser la situation de l'economie algerienne par rapport 2 l'economie mondiale et rnesu- rer Ie deqre d'autonomie er de dependance de son fonctionnement.

Le rnodele theorique de base qui a servi de fondement 2 l'accumu- lation rejette explicitement ou implicitement toute specialjsa- tion statique de l'economie et toute insertion dans une division internationale ineqale du travail. Les relations economiques internationales sont consid6rees comme un rnoyen du developpement dont la nature et le rythme sont definis en dehors d'elles. Ni le modsle de specialisation dans les exportations des produits primaires, ni le modsle de substitution aux importations ne sent acceptes comme fondement theorique des actions de developpement. La valorisation des ressources naturelles sur Ie plan mondial, Ie lancement d'une industrialisation en profondeur, la transforna- tion des structures techniques et sociales de l'aqriculture sont consid6res c o m e les el6merits principaux d'une politique de do- veloppement autonome seule susceptible d'ecarter les obstacles connus d'une croissance tiree par les exportations ou de substitution dux importations.

Le march6 mondial sert S mobiliser les ressources financigres et technologiques indispensables 2 la mise en oeuvre et 2 l'accelo- ration du processus d'integration economique interne.

Si dependance il y a, elle est consideree comme un mal necessaire mais provisoire du passage 2 l'autonomie. Celle-cl, 2 son tour, est definie c o m e une situation dans laquelle l'economie alqerienne a des rapports d'echanqe avec l'economie mondiale, carac- terises par la similitude des biens et services echanqes du point de vue du travail et de la valeur ajoutee qui y sont incorpores.

Tel est le projet. I1 convient de passer en revue les conditions de realisation de ce projet en identifiant les elements d'autonomie et les facteurs de dependance qui coexistent A l'heure actuelle, avant de tracer les perspectives d'avenir.

1. Les facteurs d'autonomie

Aprss ltInd6pendance et une periods relativement courte d'inertic dans la politique de developpement, Ie lancement et la mise en

* / Abdellatif Benachenhou ehtprofesseur 2 l1UniversitG dlAlger, e t ~ i c r ~ t ~ i r t - general de I'Association des Gconomistes du Tiers Monde.

oeuvre des plans successifs de d6veloppement ont ob6i 2 trois principes fondamentaux de politique 6conomique:

1.1 La valorisation des ressources naturelles.

1.2 L'industrialisation en profondeur.

1.3 La transformarion des structures agraires.

Chacun de ces 616rrents apparait cornme un volet de la politique de d6veloppement autonome.

1.1 La valorisation des ressources naturelles

La valorisation des ressources naturelles sur Ie march6 mondiale apparait comrne Ie lieu contradictoire de la dependance et de l'autonomie. En procurant les moyens financiers du d6veloppement, elle permet de promouvoir et de consolider le d6veloppement des autres secteurs orient6s vers les marches internes.

Cette valorisation a eu deux aspects. Le contrfile majoritaire de la production des hydrocarbures a et6 le resultat en 1971, d'une lonque s6rie de n6gociations et de conflits avec les op6rateurs essentiellement des firmes franqaises traditionnellement instal- lees dans le Sahara alg6rien et confirm6es dans leurs droits par les Accords dlEvian de 1962 et les Accords de 1965. Depuis cette date, la Loi Fondamentale a d6fini les conditions d'intervention toujours minoritaire du capital etranger dans le secteur des hydrocarbures 2 l'exclusion du gaz et a fix6 les attributions de la Soci6t6 National des Hydrocarbures.

Mais le contr6le de la production ne vaut que par son prolonge- ment naturel, Ie contr6le du march6. Dans ce domaine, l'action de llOPEP, dont l'Alg6rie est un membre actif, a contribu6 2 detruire la pratique commerciale de 1'6nerqie 2 bon march6 et a permis Zi travers les hausses successives du prix du petrole le maintien du pouvoir d'achat du brut 2 son niveau de 1974. Les initiatives r6centes pour 6tablir une parite des prix du petrole et du qaz, dont la place dans les exportations algeriennes va devenir croissante, permet de consolider la politique de valorisation des hydrocarbures 2 l'exportation.

La valorisation des ressources naturelles comporte cependant des d6ments de d6pendance qu'il faudra identifier plus loin.

L'industrialisation en profondeur rejette la satisfaction des besoins externes ou de la demands interne telle quelle est struc- tur6e par l'histoire 6conomique dependante de ltAlq6rie. I/ Elle --

I / L u r r n o t r e o n v r a g e : r o r m a t i o n du Sous-D6veloppement e n A l g G r i e : E s s a i s u r l e b l i r n i l e f a h d u P- d < X p p e m e n t du c a p i t a l i s m e e n A l g e r i e 1830-1962, (AI.er: 1 9 7 8 ) .

se donne pour objectif la restructuration qlobale des marches de biens de consommation c o m e de biens d'equipement 2 travers la mise en pl-ace progressive et ordonnee de branches de l'industrie telles que l'industrie chimique, la siderurqie, l'industrie meca- nique et electrique, l'industrie de materiaux de construction, etc.. .

Ce faisant, l'industrialisation evite les pisges de l'import substitution et l'instabilite commerciale, financisre et tech- noloqique des industrialisations tournees vers l'exportation. NGanrnoins, elle appelle une rigueur considerable dans la politique des investissements, le choix des techniques et l'orqanisation au secteur industriel. Dans ce domaine, la preponderance du secteur public et la soumission des int6rSts prives industriels,Z la lo- gique d'ensemble constituent des imperatifs de la reussite de l'industrialisation en profondeur.

La transformation des structures, des proqranmes et des methodes du systsme educatif dans son ensemble constitue une qarantie de l'efficacite de la realisation et du fonctionnement de l'appareil industriel par Ie developpement des capacites scientifiques et technologiques netionales 2 tous les niveaux de qualification. Ainsi conpe et ainsi tentee, l'industrialisation constitue un element de l'autonomie. Sa mise en oeuvre a r&v@lE d'autres formes de dependance et desiqne les progrss 2 realiser.

l. 3 La transformatlgc des sLruct~~res agraATe5

La reussite de l'industrialisation mais surtout la realisation d'un developpement au profit de la majorit6 implique des politiques agraires en vue de developper l'intensification de la pro-- duction agricole, d'accroitre les revenus des Daysans et de limiter la dependance alimentaire dej2 amorcec 5 la periode coloniale du fait des specialisations agricoles mises er1 place aprss la DeuxiSme Guerre Mondiale. DSs 1963 sur les terres colo- niales, 2 partir de 1971 sur les terres des absenteystes et des grands proprietaires fonciers la reorganisation des structures techniques et sociales de l'agriculture a constitue un volet sinon important du moins notable de la politique economique d'ensemble.

Force est de reconnaitre neanmoins que la polarisation des moyens physiques et hurnains, par les activites non agricoles, Le niveau d'organisation du secteur agricole ont contribue 2 d6velopper une domination de l'espace economique non agricole sur l'espace Gco- nornique agricole et plus largement rural, avec des effets neqatifs sur la production agricole et la repartition globale des revenus. I /

l / S u r c e t a s p e c t d u dGveloppement en A l g e r i e , v o i r n o t r e o u v r a g e : L'c 'xcde - p--.

r u r a l en A l g G r i e , ( A l g e r : 1 9 7 9 ) .

L'integration inter-sectorielle positive entre l'industrie et le developpement rural dans son ensemble necessite sinon une inver- sion des priorites du moins une gestion plus attentive et plus coordonnee des diffgrents elements de la politique economique d'ensemble. Le Plan 1980-84 constitue une etape dans ce sens, en raison des investissements importants consacr6s 2 l'agriculture et 2 l'hydraulique.

2. Les elements c.e la dependancg

La dependance est multiforme. Certains de ses aspects resultent de la mise en oenvre du processus de l'autonomisation revelant le caractere contradictoire de toute politique de developpement dans le monde contemporain tandis que d'autres aspects de la dependance resultent des insuffisances de la politique elle- meme.

2.1 La politique energetique

La politique energetique doit 2 la fois procurer les ressources externes necessaires au developpement et garantir l'autonomie energetique 2 long terme d'une economie de plus en plus exigeante en energie sous toutes ses formes.

Dans ce cadre general, la dependance apparait et se developpe chaque fois que, en raison d'une variation defavorable des termes de l'echange ou d'une evolution defavorable des paiements exte- rieurs, 1'Algerie est obligee deporter sur Ie march6 mondial des quantites croissantes d'hydrocarbures dont les coCits s'alourdis- sent necessairement et dont le remplacement ulterieur par des sources alternatives d'energie ne pourra Gtre realise qu'2 des coCits plus importants et probablement 2 travers des mecanismes de dependance plus forts, si on songe par exemple 2 la technolo- qie nucleaire.

Fort heureusement le dernier Plan, en precisant la notion de reserves strategiques, amorce une politique plus raisonnable en la matiere. Celle-ci gagnerait 2 Gtre completee par des mesures favorisant la croissance de l'offre d'energie hydroelectrique et solaire et limitant la consommation d'energie sous toutes ses formes particulierement dans les secteurs non productifs.

11 faut aussi noter ici que le passage 2 des prix relatifs nor- maux entre Ie petrole et le qaz ne constitue pas, loin de 12, une condition suffisante du retablissement de rentabilites relatives eqales, etant donnees les coCits de production, de liquefaction et de transport du gaz naturel.

2.2 Ld poJit1que industrlelle et les condltlons dc La reproduction -P - --

A partir de 1974, l'acceleration du rythme des investissements, particulierement dans I.'industrie, a produit des effets pervers

dans la politique du developpement. Deux de ces effets sont particulisrement regrettables: un affaiblissement de la maitrise de l'orientation des investissements, une aptitude decroissante 2 mettre en place, faire fonctionner et reproduire les equipements.

La selection des investissements a et6 moins efficace que necessaire puisque dans l'industrie, mais aussi dans d'autres secteurs, des projets non prioritaires ont pu voir le jour et se realiser en raison du dynamisme de leurs initiateurs plus que de leur necessite economique. I1 en a et6 particulisrement ainsi dans l'industrie de biens de consomation mais aussi dans certaines industries de biens intermediaires. Inversement, l'urgence reelle ou supposee d'autres besoins, la crainte des obstacles technologiques, les conditions meme de realisation des investissements ont retarde, de manisre excessive selon nous, la reflexion et l'action en vue du developpement de l'industrie des biens d1.6quipements dont la part dans les investissements industriels n'a cesse de decroitre, y compris dans Ie Plan 1980-1984.

De meme, l'acc6leration du rythme des investissements a favorise l'apparition de formes trGs integrees d'importation des technologies. Cette evolution, necessaire dans certains cas mais pas dans tous, a freine les progrss possibles de l'engenerie nationale, retard6 la conception et la raise en oeuvre d'une politique nationale des biens d'equipement et surtout, c o m e des debats recents ont pu le montrer, alourdi la "facture technologique" payee par 1'AlgErie 2 ses fournisseurs etrangers.

Le dynamisme des investissements et I'importation massive de connaissances, de competences, d'gquipements ont conduit, au del2 du caractere cumulatif des liaisons et dependances technologiques, 2 une acceleration de l'endettement exterieur en fin de periode. Cette situation est rendue plus preoccupante du fait du deficit alimentaire.

Le dynamisme de la politique non agricole (investissements, emplois, revenus), les problsmes d'organisation et de gestion, des exploitations agricoles ont, dans des conditions naturelles glo- balement difficiles, dgcourage les paysans et freine la production agricole obligeant le recours de plus en plus fort aux importations de produits alimentaires pour satisfaire une demande urbaine, et meme rurale, en forte croissance.

Les raisons des glissements relsvent de la theorie conune de la pratique de la planification. Des mecanismes pervers, certains diront meme des phenomenes de polarisation, se sont developpes ouvrant la voie 3 des ineqalites sectorielles, des inefficacites de production et des instabilites dans l'allocation des moyens humains. Le resultat global en est que Ie renouvellement de l'outil de production et, encore plus, son fonctionnement et son

elarqissement vont dependre de l'importation des connaissances, des competences et des equipements. Cette situation risque de perdurer d'autant plus que le prochain plan consacre des masses importantes d'investissements au rattrapage des secteurs dits sociaux: education, habitat, sant6, etc ...

3. Les pegspectives d'avenir

L'experience algerienne rnontre les difficultes, aussi bien internes qu'externes, de realisation d'un developpement autonome par rapport aux forces qui structurent l'economie mondiale Z leur profit. l/ Elle necessite un approfondissement de la reflexion en matisre de politique industrielle pour cerner les possibilites et les limites d'une industrialisation autonome dans un pays du Tiers Monde.

11 n'est pas inutile d'identifier ici quelques aspects de la politique future qui permettra de renforcer les facteurs d'autonomie et d'affaiblir les causes de la dependance.

Trois aspects nous paraissent importants:

3.1 Diminuer les prelsvements sur l'economie alqerienne.

3.2 Accroitre les capacites nationales de reproduction des Squipements.

3.3 Diversifier la composition dcs exportations.

3.1 La diminution des pr6lSvements sur l'economie algerienq~

La reduction des prelsvements sur l'economie algerienne necessite d'abord une meilleure valorisation des ressources naturelles et particulisrement du gaz naturel.

I1 est normal que la valorisation de ces ressources atteigne le niveau des prix des sources alternatives d'energie.

C'est 2 cette condition qu'on peut reellement parler de recuperation de la rente liee aux hydrocarbures et envisager une regula- tion de la production qui tient compter des besoins energetiques 2 long terme de l'economie.

La reduction des pr6lSvements necessite aussi une meilleure aptitude a n6gocier, les contrats d'achat 2 l'exterieur, quelle que soil. la nature de ces achats.

Elie suppose aussi une croissance des productions nationales, en particulier de la production agricole, pour exclure l'achat Z l'etranqer de ce qui normalement, peut Stre produit localement.

L / Voir n o t r e ouvrage: P l a i i i f i c a t i o n e t di5veloppement en AlgGrie 1 9 6 2 - I s , - (Alger : 1980) .

3.2 G croissance des capacites n a t i ~ n a l ~ ~ ~ - & ~ ~ r - ~ ~ ~ r g ~ ~ ~ - t i o n des equipements

La mise en place d'une industrie de biens d'equipements souleve des problsmes theoriques et pratiques consid@rables. La nature, la taille, la qualite des equipements doivent 6tre choisies de manisre judicieuse pour parvenir dans ce domaine, S une situation de moindre dependance de l'economie l'egard de l'exterieur dans le long terme.

De meme, Ie choix des partenaires dans ce type de cooperation industrielle est un problSme delicat 2 resoudre quand on salt Ie degre de monopolisation et de cartellisation atteint, au niveau mondial, par la majorite des branches fabriquant les biens d'equipement.

11 n'est pas exclu de penser que la cooperation Sud/Sud et Est/ Sud pourra etre avantaqeuse dans ce domaine.

Parallelement, au plan interne, la mise en place de ces industries, dont certaines sont grosses consommatrices de capitaux, ngcessitera un financement adequat dont la riobilisation impliquera certainement une vision globale diffgrente aussi bien du fonctionnement de l'economie que de la repartition des revenus surtout si l'option est prise en faveur de la preservation des ressources en hydrocarbures et d'un endettement exterieur moins contraiqnant.

En tous cas, seuls le developpement d'une industrie nationale des biens d'equipement et la croissance de capacites nationales de conception et de realisation permettront d'atteindre, ne serait- ce que progressivement, l'objectif essentiel d'une politique de dgveloppement: l'interiorisation du changement technologique.

3.3 La modification de la composition des exportations

Echanger des ressources naturelles non renouvelables, quel que soit leur prix, centre des produits manufactures est un signe de sous-developpement et de dependance.

Dans les conditions economiques de l1Alqerie, et en supposant un certain succ6s dans la politique nationale des gquipements, il faudra toujours importer et done trouver les moyens de financement de ces importations.

L'autonomie necessite la promotion d'exportations industrielles. Celles-ci jouent ici Ie role de financement des importations et non de moteur de la croissance. Les possibilites de croissance des exportations industrielles de 1'Algerie ne sont pas gvidentes si on exclut, les industries dites "de main-d'oeuvre" pour lesquelles l'economie algerienne n'est ni economiquement ni socialement preparee et si on exclut les industries grosses consommatrices d'energie dans lesquelles les coGts en capital, et

probablement les surcoiits, devront Stre compenses par des charges de fonctionnement moindre, en l'occurence un faible prix de l'energie. Dans ce cas, il n'est pas exclu que le coiit en devises de l'unite produite soit aussi important que son prix de vente sur les marches externes si on 6value les charges en 6ner- gie 2 leur prix mondial, cornrne on doit le faire.

I1 reste alors 2 explorer attentivement d'autres voies en prenant en consideration la necessite 2 chaque fois de lier, pour une production choisie, marches internes prioritaires et exportations.

I1 nous semble utile d'orienter la reflexion vers certains types de biens d'equipement et d'explorer les voies et moyens d'une cooperation industrielle et comrnerciale avec d'autres pays du Tiers Monde.

Conclusion

L'analyse de l'experience algerienne de developpement et d'industrialisation permet d'enoncer quelques idees qui peuvent Stre d'une certaine utilite pour la theorie du developpement.

La premiere idee est que l'exclusion de l'investissement direct etranger dans les activites de production est un element necessaire mais non suffisant d'un developpement autonome. La politique technologique globale joue un role essentiel dans ce domaine.

La deuxieme idee est que, contrairement 2 une vision dominante, le developpement ne depend pas exclusivement des moyens financiers dont dispose un pays mais de sa capacite 2 concevoir, mettre en place, utiliser, entretenir, reproduire l'outil de production.

La troisieme idee est que la reussite ou l'echec d'une politique autonome d'industrialisation depend 2 la fois de causes externes et de causes internes. Les premieres s'appellent strategic du capital et internationalisation, les secondes s'identifient au jeu des forces sociales en presence et 2 leurs strategies propres.

Elle indique enfin que l'opposition faite en theorie entre developpement par substitution aux importations et developpement par les exportations est une opposition academique et qu'il est pre- ferable d'opposer developpement dependant et developpement duto- nome et populaire.

M A R K I N G S

OPEC AND THE T H I R D WORLD * / by I b r a h i m S h i h a t a -

The wor ld economy i s c u r r e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t may be r e l e v a n t t o p o i n t o u t some f a c t s on t h e c a u s e s and consequences o f t h i s phenomenon. The i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s have been b laming t h e o i l p r i c e r i s e s f o r t h e c u r r e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f l a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a number o f s t u d i e s have f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h i s a s s e r t i o n i s n o t o n l y e x a g g e r a t e d b u t s i m p l i s t i c . I n f a c t , t h e r e i s now c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n o i l p r i c e s h a s o f t e n been t h e r e s u l t , n o t t h e c a u s e , o f wor ld i n f l a t i o n . For example , w h i l e w o r l d e x p o r t and i m p o r t p r i c e s i n c r e a s e d a t l e s s t h a n one p e r c e n t p e r y e a r d u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s , t h e y i n c r e a s e d a t 30% p e r y e a r d u r i n g t h e 12 months p r e c e d i n g t h e f i r s t major i n c r e a s e i n o i l p r i c e s i n 1973/74. One o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s was t h e s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n wor ld monetary r e s e r v e s , which doubled w i t h i n a p e r i o d o f o n l y 3 y e a r s ( e n d o f 1969 t o end o f 1972) I/. The huge d e f i - c i t s r e c o r d e d by T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n 1975 were l a r g e l y a t - t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e c e s s i o n i n t h a t y e a r r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t s o f t h e i r o i l i m p o r t s which , a c c o r d i n g t o Western s o u r c e s 2 / , amounted t o o n l y 1 . 6 % of t h e i r t o t a l g r o s s d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t ( G D P ) . Moreover, t h e r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n i n i n d u s - t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s a v e r a g e d a b o u t 7% p e r annum d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1976-78, d e s p i t e t h e f r e e z i n g o f t h e p r i c e o f o i l d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d and i t s d r o p i n r e a l t e r m s . The IMF r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i n 1979 began w e l l b e f o r e t h e impac t o f t h a t y e a r ' s i n c r e a s e i n o i l p r i c e s c o u l d be f e l t 3/.

P r o f . Ib rah im S h i h a t a i s t h e D i r e c t o r General of t h e OPEC Fund f o r I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Development (Obere Donaus t rasse 93, A-1020 Vienna, A u s t r i a ) . The t e x t reproduced h e r e i s excerp ted from an a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d i n Colombo, S r i Lanka, on 14 January 1981, t o t h e SEACEN Governors Meeting.

Robert T r i f f i n , Annex of F i n a l Ac t , Second World S c i e n t i f i c Banking Meeting, Dubrovnik, May 26-31, 1980.

Morgan Guaranty & T r u s t , World F i n a n c i a l Markets , September 1930. I n f a c t , accord ing t o an a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d ou t by t h e OPEC S e c r e t a r i a t and based on IMF f i g u r e s , the i n c r e a s e i n v a l u e of t h e o i l imported by non-OPEC Thi rd World c o u n t r i e s from OPEC s o u r c e s , r e p r e s e n t e d on ly 18.7% of t h e i n c r e a s e i n va lue of t h e i r impor t s from i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e p e r i o d 1974-79.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund, Annual Report 1980, p . 5

According t o GATT, t h e major c a u s e s o f i n f l a t i o n i n t h e i n d u s t r i - a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s a r e t h e i r monetary and f i s c a l p o l i c i e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t s o f t h e i r o i l i m p o r t s , t h e t o t a l o f which c o n s t i t u t e o n l y 2 % of t h e combined G N P of t h e OECD c o u n t r i e s I/. S t r o n g e v i d e n c e o f t h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f such p o l i c i e s i n f u e l i n g i n f l a t i o n i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i s t h e reduced i n f l a t i o n r a t e a c h i e v e d by Germany and S w i t z e r l a n d , two heavy o i l i m p o r t e r s , where t h e r a t e between 1973 and 1978 d e c r e a s e d from 6 . 9 % t o 2.5% and from 8.8: t o 1 . 1 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A r e c e n t d e t a i l e d s t u d y by t h e OPEC S e c r e t a r i a t on t h e i n f l a t i o n i n a number o f OECD coun- t r i e s conc luded t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f o i l p r i c e r i s e s t o t h e i r i n f l a t i o n was o n l y 0 . 4 % i n 1973 , 1 . 6 % i n 1974 , 2 . 5 % i n 1975 and l e s s t h a n 1:. i n 1976 ( r a n g i n q from 0 . 5 % i n France t o 0 . 7 % i n I t a l y ) 2 / .

The i n f l a t i o n impor ted from t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s h a s been a major problem f o r most T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s . The IMF e x p e c t s i n f l a t i o n r a t e s Jn t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s n o t o n l y t,o be h i g h l y pronounced b u t w i d e l y s p r e a d among t h e major i n d u s - t r i a l i z e < c o u n t r i e s . On t h e o t h e r hand , p e r s i s t e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f l a t i o n <s s e r i o u s l y e r o d i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e c u r r e n t a c c o u n t s u r p l u s e s a c c r u i n g t o t h e o i l e x p o r t i n g T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . T h i s i s p o s i n q a s e r i o u s dilemma f o r t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n s a s t o whether t o keep t h e o i l i n t h e g round , o r t o con- t i n u e t o d e p l e t e t h e i r l i m i t e d o i l w e a l t h by t u r n i n g i t i n t o f i n a n c i a l h o l d i n g s w h o s e v a l u e e r o d e s o v e r t i m e . Accord ing t o OAPEC, t h e o i l r e v e n u e s o f 10 Arab o i l p r o d u c e r s i n c r e a s e d by 56". ? n nominal t e rms i n l979 b u t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f l a t i o n and c u r r e n c y f J u c t u a t i o n s d e p r e s s e d t h e i r v a l u e t o below 1974 l e v e l s . And i c c o r d i n q to t h e IMF, t h e e s t i m a t e d US$115 b i l l i o n 1980 c u r r e n t a c c o u n t s u r p l u s o f t h e o i l e x p o r t e r s i s b r o a d l y e q u i v a l e n t , i n r e a l t e r m s , t o t h e !is.%- b i l l i o n s u r p l u s t h e y r e c o r d e d i n l 9 7 4 3 / .

Slow qrowth and c o n t i n u e d i n f l a t i o n a r e a l s o e x p e c t e d t o have t h e i r a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' e x p o r t s t o t i le i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s ' m a r k e t s . E x p o r t s of p r imary com- modi t i e s ( e x c l u d i n g f ' . ~ c i s ) , which a c c o u n t f o r some 55% o f t h e merchandise e x p o r t s f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , a r e e x p e c t e d t o grow by o n l y 3.3; per y e a r d u r i n g 1980-85. F u r t h e r m o r e , T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' e x p o r t s t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s a r e facincj a d d i t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e r i s e i n p ro- t e c t i o n i s n s i n c e 1 9 7 0 , p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a i n s t t h e i r manufac tured qoods. Although s u c h goods a c c o u n t f o r o n l y 2 4 % o f t h e T h i r d

l ; G.!.'!;, Repor t in P r o - ; p ~ , ~ L a f o r I n t e r n d t i o n a ! Tr ; i Je . (Geneva: 1 9 7 9 ) . - . - . -- - -- .. -- ---

/ i.,ll'EC Seerâ t a r i ;XL. ' i ' ; ' i : Tmpact of O i l P r i c e A d j u s t m e n t s on t!;e R c o n o i ~ i e s of tile M d i u r J i~ Ju : . t . i - i aUz tC ~ Cuun:ric< (DEr 35/80!51L'EB/123, May 1980, inpu pub- I i s h e d ) . l'iiis c n ~ - ~ c l d s i o n i s s u p p o r t e d by GATT's Annual R e p o r t l n t e r n a t i - o - -- 11.3! 'Iradi.' 1978179 (September l Y 7 9 ) , p . 1 0 , which c a t e g o r i c a l l y dcxsrr ibcd .---p--

t i le v iew t h a t tlie o i l p r i ce - i n c r e a s e was a ma jo r c a u s i t i v e l a c - t o r b e h i n d l ! i c r t , s u r g e n e c o f i n f l.? t ion a s " d a n g e r o u s l y wrong" .

World c o u n t r i e s ' t o t a l e x p o r t s , t h e y a r e t h e f a s t e s t growing c a t e - gory among a l l e x p o r t s . Recent counte r -measures , such a s t h e GATT-sponsored M u l t i l a t e r a l Trade N e g o t i a t i o n s (MTN) comple ted i n A p r i l 1979 , a r e o f l i t t l e e f f e c t compared t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g pro- t e c t i o n i s t s e n t i m e n t , t h e r e c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t r a d e r e s t r i c - t i o n s , and t h e a d o p t i o n o f n o n - t a r i f f and o t h e r t r a d e r e s t r i c t i o n s by some c o u n t r i e s . These c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i o u s c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e few s e m i - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g a number o f Asian C o u n t r i e s I/. The i n c r e a s e i n t h e volume o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' e x p o r t s t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s h a s n o t , on t h e o t h e r hand , been accompanied by an i n - c r e a s e i n t h e u n i t p r i c e o f t h e s e e x p o r t s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f o i l ) . T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n t h e low i n - come group , have n o t been e x p e r i e n c i n g a s a t i s f a c t o r y improvement i n t h e i r t e r m s o f t r a d e . For example , d u r i n g 1967-72 t h e a n n u a l growth r a t e i n t h e t e r m s o f t r a d e o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s which do n o t e x p o r t o i l was -1.1%. A f t e r some improvement i n 1973 and l a t e r d u r i n g 1976 and 1977 , t h e a n n u a l growth r a t e i n t h e i r t e r m s o f t r a d e h a s remained n e g a t i v e s i n c e 1978 2 / . Moreover, t h e IMF e s t i m a t e s a l a r g e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e i r t e r m s of t r a d e in 1980 t h a n was p r e v i o u s l y p r e d i c t e d . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s f o r t h e e x p o r t s of t r o p i c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and m e t a l s A/. The s i t u a t i o n we have j u s t d e s c r i b e d c l e a r l y p o i n t s t o t h e d i f f i - c u l t i e s f a c i n g t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n g e n e r a t i n g s u f f i c i e n t . r e s o u r c e s i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e i r growing c u r r e n t a c c o u n t d c f i - c i t s and t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r long- te rm a d j u s t m e n t p rograms . A s a r e s u l t , most o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s w i l l e i t h e r have a c c e s s t o s u f - f i c i e n t l y l a r g e amounts o f e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s on r e a s o n a b l e t e r m s , o r must f a c e s e r i o u s f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

There seems t o be l i t t l e p r o s p e c t , however, f o r a mass ive i n c r e a s e i n t h e volume o f c o n c e s s i o n a l a i d t o t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . Net d i s b u r s m e n t s o f O f f i c i a l Development A s s i s t a n c e ( O D A ) from t h e members o f t h e Development A s s i s t a n c e Committee ( D A C ) o f t h e OECD were e s t i m a t e d a t 0 . 3 % o f t h e d o n o r s ' t o t a l GNP i n 1979. T h i s i s f a r below t h e t a r g e t o f 0 . 7 % o f t o t a l g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t ( G N P ) e n d o r s e d by t h e UN G e n e r a l Assembly i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s .

l / A r e c e n t s t u d y h a s conf i rmed t h a t , i n 1 9 7 8 , two As ian c o u n t r i e s (Sou th Korea and Taiwan) and Hong Kong a c c o u n t e d f o r some 50% of t h e t o t a l in]- p o r t s o f manufac tu red goods by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d West f rom n o n - o i l 7 r o - d u c i n g T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , and s e v e n c o u n t r i e s ( t h e above t h r e e p1'1.s Mexico, B r a z i l , S i n g a p o r e and I n d i a ) a c c o u n t e d f o r 757 of such i m p o r t s ; c f . F i n a n c i a l Times, 1 7 November 1980, p . 4 .

2 / IMF, World Economic O u t l o o k - S i t u a t i o n o f t h e Non-Oil evel loping C o u n t r i e s , - -- (Washington: ID/80/4, 31 March 1980, p . 6 0 ) .

3 1 W, Annual Repor t 1980 , pp. 15-18

According to the World Bank, net flows of ODA from DAC countries are expected to be about 0.36% of GNP in 1985, which is lower than the 0.39% projected earlier by the same source I/ and is about half the level which the Brandt Commission urged donors to reach by 1985.

The growth of commercial bank lending, crucial to the middle- income Third World countries in particular, may also slow down during the 1980's as a result of the emergence of supply constraints in many commercial banks and private lending institutions, the sharp rise in the debt service ratios of some Third World countries and the worsening of their debt servicing capacity. Furthermore, in their private borrowing i.n the 1980's Third World countries will be facing increasing competition from some old and new borrowers. These include the industrialized countries which are planning massive investment programs in the energy field, the European centrally-planned economies, which are planning to increase their borrowing, and China, which is entering the financial market in order to finance huge modernization programs.

All the previously mentioned factors lead to the often-expressed conclusion that Third World countries will soon have to face lower economic growth, and therefore devastating socio-economic consequences. We should not accept this conclusion, however. The Third World countries must face the challenge and look for realistic and effective solutions. It would be presumptious on my part to prescribe such solutions, but in my view, a good part of the answers to the problems of Third World countries in the 1980's and beyond depend on their achieving three major objectives:

(i) effective socio-economic reforms at home which would enable them to develop efficient management, a disciplined work force, a fair distribution of economic gains, and consumptionpatterns consistent with their limited resources;

i i ) massive flows of resources from the North and between themselves to complement their domestic savings, and

(iii) a more equitable international economic and financial system which would provide the basis for a more acceptable international division of labour and for fair international relationships of production and exchange.

l / World Bank, World Development Report , (Washington: 1980), p . 2 9 L -.

These objectives cannot be achieved without bold policy actions at home and considerable solidarity among the Third World cou'i- tries, based on enlightened awareness of all the issues involved. In this connection three points may be worth emphasizing:

1. South-South discussions should reflect a sense of realism that has often been absent in the fora where the South's demands have been debated. Third World countries must recognize the fact that part of their dilerrma is of their own making. There is no denying that external factors have exacerbated the situation, as I have just indicated. But this may present only half of the truth. For it is also true that most Third World countries are doing little or nothing to check the menacing growth rates of their populations, to curb their military spending, to avoid expenditure on prestige projects, or to rationalize patterns of consumption in their societies. While we address the external factors affecting our Third World countries and try to find realistic solutions to their economic problems, we should not ignore the need for hard corrective measures at home.

2. The South must also recognize that promoting easy solutions based on inaccurate data or false hopes can only be counter- productive. Specifically, it would be a mistake if Third World countries continue to assume that some of them, i.e. the members of OPEC, can provide a panacea for all their financial troubles. It is true that OPEC members have done a great deal in the way of helping other Third World countries and that they are reasonably expected to continue these efforts as long as they are able to do so. To extend this to saying, as many have already done, that. the solution to the present financial predicament lies in the hands of OPEC, or that OPEC is the only qualified midwife for the birth of the New International Economic Order (NIEO), cannot, in my view, provide a serious contribution to the discussions.

To place the capacities of OPEC member countries in their true perspective, I should remind you that the total GNP of the 13 OPEC countries reached US$379 billion in 1978 according to -,he World Bank Atlas. This represented barely 4% of global GNP in the same year, and 7% that of the OECD countries. It is hardly half the GNP of Japan and less than 18% of that of the United States. The comparison is much more striking when confined to the GNPs of the few OPEC countries in possession of significant net liquid assets. In fact, the combined GNP of seven Arab members of OPEC, including Algeria and Iraq, stood at a mere 19% of the GNP of Japan in 1978.

Furthermore, the savings of these countries, their so-called surpluses", are in no way comparable to the surpluses of other countries, as they do not result from the intrinsic strenc't'i of a national production machinery. Rather, they are the outcome of oil extraction far beyond the financial needs of the domestic economies of these countries. In fact, they maintain s u c ~ ~ high

levels of oil production simply out of their concern for the sta- bility and welfare of the world economy. Being the monetary realization of a depletable national resource, these savings should naturally be invested with great prudence. Without such prudent investment, the future generations of these countries would find themselves without oil and without savings and would again be dependent on the little income derived from their other meaqer resources.

3. The financial problems of Third World countries differ from one country to another in their origin and magnitude. In particular, there is a marked difference between the financial problems of the low-income and those of the high-income and semi- industrialized countries. The generally advocated solutions to the problems of the latter countries, such as greater access to capital markets and elimination of the trade barriers to their exports of manufactured goods, may be of little relevance to the low-income countries. There is an obvious need, therefore, to devise different detailed solutions for the different problems of the various categories of countries and to avoid prescribing panaceas which may provide attractive slogans but no real solutions.

I would like to turn now to the role of OPEC member countries in the cooperation with other Third World nations through the dif- ficult years to come. Since some OPEC members initiated their aid programs in the 19601s, their role has generally been seen as providers of funds on concessional terms. This is certainly a role which some of them will continue to play as long as they are in a position to do so. However, it cannot, and should not be envisaged as the only role to be expected from these countries in a lasting and balanced framework of cooperation.

I shall not attempt to dwell here in detail on the aid record of OPEC member countries. The target ratio of 0.7% of ODA to GNP was greatly exceeded (fourfold) by OPEC donors as a group, as early as 1975. In the more relevant case of the so-called surplus Arab countries, the target was exceeded in that year by more than 22 times by Qatar, 20 times by the United Arab Emirates, 11 times by Kuwait and 6 times by Saudi Arabia. In 1979, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Iraq ranked at the top of the list of world donors, in terms of ODA as a percentage of GNP. In fact, six OPEC countries have consistently been on the list of the main ten world donors in terms of the proportion of net disbursement to GNP since 1975. Two of these countries (Saudi Arabia and Kuwait) are among the top seven donors on the basis of absolute amounts of concessional aid. No need to recall here that not one OPEC country is sufficiently developed or industrialized to use its aid to secure external markets for its products or to ensure control over the sources of the primary commodities needed lor its industries. Nor do we have to point out that the figures

used to measure OPEC aid and to compare it with OECD assistance are greatly deflated in favour of the OECD group, for many technical reasons which we have elaborated on other occasions I/.

It must only be stressed that the high level of OPEC aid has been provided out of deep concern for the welfare of the South and the need for fostering self-reliance among its countries. OPEC countries are continuing their efforts to foster solidarity and enhance aid efforts through new initiatives. In early 1980, these countries substantially modified the Agreement Establishing the OPEC Fund, converting it from an international account of tempo- rary character to an on-going international agency for development finance with open-ended resources which so far exceed US$4 billion.

Some OPEC members (Algeria and Venezuela) are now calling for a substantial increase in the Fund's resources (up to US$20 billion) and for the restructuring of its capital base to enable it to borrow from the capital market.

Furthermore, OPEC's Long-Term Strategy Committee has already adopted a proposal advanced by Iraq for the establishment of a new global fund for energy and development to be financed by both the industrialized and OPEC countries. The amount contributed by the industrialized countries to that Fund would depend on the annual rate of inflation as reflected in the price increases of manufactured goods, food and services exported by them to the Third World. The amount to be contributed by OPEC countries would, on the other hand, reflect the total oil price increase, due to inflation, of the cost of oil exported to other Third World countries. Other Third World countries will not be required to participate in the financing but will be full members of the proposed Fund.

More recently, Iran also proposed an aid plan to immediately reimburse Third World countries on a grant basis for the financial burden resulting from OPEC oil priceincreasesthrough a new OPEC Fund to which member countries would pay 10% of the increase in their oil revenues (on the assumption that the oil imports of the Third World countries account for about 10% of total OPEC oil exports). This Fund would be managed by a joint committee of OPEC countries and oil importing Third World countries.

Although it may be premature to predict the outcome of these different proposa-1s they stand as evidence of the continuing concern of OPEC countries for the financial problems of other Third World

I/ See, e.g., I. Shihata, OPEC As A Donor Group, 1980; and Shihata & Mabro, The OPEC Aid Record, 1979 (OPEC Fund Publications).

.p

nations. They should result in greater aid flows from all sources and, hopefully, in new international arrangements more res- ponsive to the aspirations of the Third World.

In addition to concessional flows, the so-called "surpluses" of some OPEC countries have been successfully recycled to both industrialized and Third World countries through private commercial banks and international financial institutions. Despite an earlier outcry about the possible difficulties involved, lending by commercial banks has been especially important in meeting the needs of the Third World countries. In fact, in 1974-75 the recycling of these surpluses through the financial markets and the IMF's oil facility enabled many Third World countries to maintain a relatively strong economic growth. For example, among the oil importing Third World countries, the largest borrowers from rhe private banks are reported to have recorded real GNP growth .if 5.3% in l975 l/. In 1979, concern was again expressed about the inability of the commercial banks to recycle the OPEC sur- uluses, but the process was in fact relatively smooth and bank lending expanded by about 24%, nearly as high as the 26% increase recorded in1978 2 / . According to the Bank for International Settlements, in l979 a great part of the OPEC countries' deposits dith Western Banks (estimated at 80%) were recycled to Third

countries.

is we pointed out, the worsening external debt situation of the .Third World countries and the increasing exposure of commercial ~anks in these countries may slow down the private bank lending co them in the 1980fs, though not to the exaggerated extent reflected in general reports earlier this year. This situation calls for new initiatives to encourage the private banks to sus- tain their important role, and to enable international institu- Â¥clan to shoulder a greater responsibility in the recycling process. Unfortunately, instead of searching for new initiatives, it has been suggested by certain circles that the time has come for OPEC countries alone to lend their funds directly to other 'Third World countries. In simple terms the argument suggests Lliat lending to the Third World countries has become t-oo risky for Western banks, but should nevertheless be good enough for W E C lenders.

/ Murgan Gua ran ty & T r u s t , o p . c i t . p . I . I n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Wo* Development R e p o r t , 1980, t h e m i d d l e income c o u n t r i e s of L a s t A s i a , t h e - < X - i l i c a c h i e v e d a GNP g rowth r a t e of 87 i n 1970-80 ( a g a i n s t 7 . 7 % i n 1 9 6 0 - 7 0 ) and t h e L a t i n American and C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r i e s a c h i e v e d 5.8Z i n 1970-80 ( a g a i n s t 5.77 i n 1960-70) op. c i t . , p . 99.

I Duvclopinent. Commit tee , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l C a p i t a l M a r k e t s - Recen t Develop- ~ , i_ -nL i ~ ~ i d hear-Term P r o s p e c t s and D e v e l o p i n g Coun t ry Acces s t o C a p i t a l -.. - p p-

: f i i rk rL ; " -. -- (DC/80-16, 15 August 1980). p . 3 (mimeo) .

Banks and investment companies owned or controlled by OPEC countries have in fact mushroomed in recent years (their number is now at least ten times larger than in 1974), and are becoming in- creasingly involved in operations in the Third World countries I/. Therefore, a more constructive approach would be to study the ways these institutions could expand their exposure in the Third World countries without runninq greater risks than they would normally accept for their investments in the rest of the world.

The issue of risk also applies to other private banks. Two years ago, during a seminar organized by Chase Bank, I suggested that private banks should consider establishing a collective insurance scheme to protect themselves against the remote possibility of default by Third World countries 2 / . (I say "remote" because, as far as I know, of all Euromarket loans in the form of bonds there have been only 19 cases of default, of which 18 are accounted for by private US borrowers and one by a Japanese company).

The idea is simply to replace the self-insurance sought individually by banks through the higher spreads they impose on Third World countries, by a collective insurance pool whereby risks would be uniformly shared by the participating banks, at lower cost to each participant. A proposal for an international safety net arrangement was subsequently made by the Chairman of the Deutsche Bank to enable banks to share liquidity, when required as a result of delays in payment. The Governor of the Bank of Greece has also advocated the creation of an international loan insurance fund which would be financed by governmental and certain inter-governmental financial institutions. It is hoped that prac- tical measures of this type will soon be taken to lessen the risk of increased bank exposure in the Third World countries.

I wish to submit here another idea, since I am addressing a group of distinguished governors of Central banks who, I am sure, believe as much as I do in the importance of self-reliance in development. The idea simply involves the creation by the Third World countries of collective mechanisms for guaranteeing their

l/ I t h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t Arab banks a l o n e h a v e l e n t o r CO-managed son< - ;S$40b w o r t h o f commerc i a l l o a n s ~ n d i c a t i o n s be tween 1977-79, o f w h i c h US$32b went t o ~ h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . S e e Rehman Sobhan. " I n s t i t u t i o n : - i I Mechanisms f o r C h a n n e l i n g OPEC S u r p l u s e s w i t h i n The T h i r d World", T h i r d World Q u a r t e r l y (Vol . 2, No. 4 , O c t o b e r 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 735.

2 1 T h e l e c t u r e was p r i n t e d i n t h e J o u r n a l of Ene rgy a n d Development (Vol. TV, --p---

No. 2 , pp . 291-303), u n d e r t h e t i t l e "OPEC Aid , t h e OPEC Fund, and Cuup t r . ! ?

t i o n w i t h Commercial Development F i n a n c e S o u r c e s " and h a s r e a p p e a r e d i n s e v e r a l o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s .

foreign debts. These mechanisms could take the form of joint loan guarantee corporations or even of institutionalized regional swap arrangements by which liquid assets would be made available to each participaLing bank when needed to meet obligations towards third parties. Details could be worked out to ensure that the implementation of such schemes would benefit all participating countries.

We must stress that providing loan financing should not be the sole purpose of recycling. Recycled funds must be put to optimum use to meet the needs of development as well as the structural adjustments needed over the coming decade to reduce the balance of payments deficits, increase investment, especially in indi- genous energy resources and food production, and reduce the menacing population growth rates. These goals cannot be left to the private lending institutions; the official bilateral and multi- lateral lending institutions must shoulder a good part of the responsibility.

As you well know, the World Bank has responded to the long stan- ding request for program financing and has reoriented part of its activities to its new "structural adjustment loans" and towards larger involvement in the energy sector. However, the initiative in these new areas should not be carried out at the expense of the other sectors. Therefore, these efforts must be matched by the availability of additional resources through a wider use of the World Bank's capital base and additional substantial replenish- ment of IDA resources. One may note here that the management of the World Bank has already proposed a substantial increase in the level of the bank's operations in the immediate future.

It must also be noted that the IMF has now authorized lending of up to 600% of a nation's quota over the next three years, which amounts to virtually tripling past borrowing rates and raising its total lending to about US$7-10 billion annually. Yet, to play an effective role in meeting the needs of the Third World countries, the IMF will surely have to accelerate the process it has already started by adapting its conditionality to the conditions of the Third World countries, and by easing the supply constraints in these countries' economies.

To allow for a more balanced, mutually beneficial pattern of cooperation among OPEC and the rest of the Third World countries, four other areas of future cooperation seem particularly promising. Although some progress has been made in these areas, they will have to be studied in detail to remove existing obstacles and pave the way for a significant expansion. They are (a) direct investment; (b) trade; (c) labor migration; and (d) technical cooperation.

First, there is definitely wide scope for direct investment of OPEC funds in other Third World countries on a commercial basis, especially in the form of joint ventures and similar arrangements. Several Arab member countries of OPEC have already set up joint ventures for projects in the Arab world. Similar schemes have recently been organized in other Third World nat-ions, and there exists great potential for a significant expansion of such activities. Some economists in OPEC countries are tending toward the view that the investment of OPEC funds in Third World countries may provide a brake aqainst world inflation and therefore aqainst the erosion of the real value of OPEC savings. They strongly argue that the mere placements (deposits and purchases of financial instruments) of OPEC funds in industrialized countries, which do not represent new real investments, could easily lead to a net loss in the real value of the assets involved. Investing the funds in new real investments in the Third World, where they have their greatest potential, would, on the other hand, protect their real value while adding to the real wealth of the world and dis- couraging inflation I/.

However, it must be stressed that while there are good investment opportunities for OPEC funds in the Third World, particularly the Asian countries, the climate for such investment is not always encouraging. For example, a recent study by an Indian scholar suggests considerable scope for OPEC equity investment in joint ventures with Third World country Governments and private sources, but cites as a serious reason for lack of progress on this front the lack of confidence on the part of OPEC investors in the mana- gerial talent and the market environment of many of these countries. The study concluded that institutional and policy rnecha- nisms aimed at creating confidence would greatly facilitate the transfer of OPEC surpluses to the Third World 2 / . The potential for direct investment in the Third World is in fact hampered by physical and institutional constraints. The aid efforts of OPEC and other donors could no doubt help unblock these bottlenecks, by combining the soft financing of infrastructure projects with the commercial financing of new investments. A frank exchange of views between the holders of surplus funds and the countries in need of their investments should be followed by effective measures to facilitate such investments for the benefit of both parties.

Second, although trade between OPEC and other Third World countries has increased considerably since 1973/74, there is room for greater expansion. The value of OPEC exports to other Third World

l / See Hazem Biblawi, "Petro-Surpluses and the Structure of the World Fcono- my", Oil and Arab Cooperation (Vol. IV, No. 4, 19781, (in Arabic); Bibl.iwi & Shafey, Strategic Options of Development for Kuwait, The Industrial Bank of Kuwait Papers, (Series No. 1, 19801, pp. 26-35.

2 1 Rehman Sobhan, op. cit., pp. 729-730.

countries grew at an average rate of approximately 30% per annum in the period 1973/78. At the same time, their imports from other Third World nations, especially Asian Countries, rose siqnificant- ly, at an average rate of 35% per annum I/. OPEC countries have a low level of industrialization and this situation accounts for their meager demand for the raw materials and semi-finished goods of the other countries of the Third World. As their development plans are implemerted, however, this obstacle will be gradually removed. New mect-anisms, including export credit arrangements, should also be developed to ensure greater economic exchange among Third World countries as they continue their development process.

Third, labor migration to 8 Arab OPEC Countries, accounted for remittances to Third World countries, most of which are in the Asia region, amounting to U S $ 6 . 5 billion in 1977 according to the World Bank 2/. Although many benefits are derived by both the labor exporting and host countries, there are also certain social costs to be borne by both sides. Improved planning and management of labor migration is badly needed to minimize such costs and to ensure optimum benefits to the economies of all the countries concerned.

Fourth, there seems to exist scope for much greater technical cooperation between OPEC and other Third World countries. Some OPEC countries could contribute to the development of energy resources in other Third World countries on the strenqth of their acquired experience in the oil sector. An illustration of the useful cooperation in this field could already be found in the technical assistance provided by Indonesia to Bangladesh. OPEC countries also stand to benefit from this kind of cooperation in other sectors given the disparate technical capabilities in various Third World countries and the recent technical achievements of some of them, especially in Asia.

Apart from the areas of possible expanded cooperation between OPEC and the rest of the Third World, OPEC has been using its relative strenqth to gain qround for the reform of international financial institutions and, more generally, for laying a foundation for the long-sought New International Economic Order. Ample evidence of this could be discerned in the active role played by OPEC countries in the relevant special sessions of the UN General

I / (;A1"1', I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e 197811979, Appendix T a b l e H (1979). -~

I / %rid Bank, Interim R e p o r t on Labour ~ i ~ r a t i o n and Manpower i n t h e M i d d l e -- , i s t d a d North A f r i c a , (Washington: 1979), p . 19. . . -- - . - -

Assembly and i n t h e C I E C ( t h e P a r i s C o n f e r e n c e ) . Some f r u i t s of t h e s e e f f o r t s have a l r e a d y m a t e r i a l i z e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fund f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Development (IFAD) and t h e Common Fund a s new i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s where T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s have t h e s t r o n g e r s a y I/.

The c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s o v e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of IFAD was r e a c h e d a f t e r OPEC c o u n t r i e s p l e d g e d , t h r o u g h t h e OPEC Fund, t o c o n t r i b u t e more t h a n 4 0 % of t h e i n i t i a l r e s o u r c e s , p r o v i d e d T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a s a g r o u p a c q u i r e d two t h i r d s o f t h e v o t i n g power w h i l e t h e non-OPEC T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s remained under no o b l i g a t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o IFAD's r e s o u r c e s . Through t h e l a r g e f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e OPEC Fund and t h e a c t i v e r o l e p l a y e d by OPEC c o u n t r i e s ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n of t h e Agre- ement E s t a b l i s h i n g IFAD, a new c h a p t e r i n t h e h i s t o r y of i n t e r n a - t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s was l a u n c h e d .

The p r o l o n g e d n e g o t i a t i o n s on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e Common Fund qu ickened pace when t h e OPEC Fund, on i t s own i n i t i a t i v e , a g r e e d t o meet t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e Common Fund o f a l l t h e ' l e a s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s ' and t o make a s i z e a b l e v o l u n t a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s F u n d ' s Second Window a s w e l l . The measures wliich were meant t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n and t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e hand o f t h e T h i r d World i n t h i s p r o c e s s have y i e l d e d p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s , d e s p i t e t h e s t r o n g i n i t i a l o b j e c t i o n s o f some i n d u s t r i a - l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t o t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e s on which t h e Common Fund i s b a s e d .

The p r o p o s a l of O P E C ~ S Long Term S t r a t e g y Committee t o e s t a b l i s h a new J o i n t Energy and Development Fund marks y e t a n o t h e r s t e p t h r o u g h which t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s may a c h i e v e a d r a m a t i c deve lopment f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . Other de- t a i l s o f t h e r e p o r t of t h i s Committee a r e i n d e e d b a s e d on t h e same p r i n c i p l e o f r e a l i s t i c a l l y u s i n g t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s ' p o s i t i o n , a s t h e main e x p o r t e r s o f o i l and t h e h o l d e r s of l a r g e sums of f i n a n - c i a l a s s e t s , t o s e c u r e b e t t e r b a r g a i n s f o r t h e u n d e r - p r i v i l e d q e d S o u t h i n i t s a t t e m p t t o improve i t s l o t i n t h e World economic o r d e r .

A l l t h o s e who have t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e T h i r d World a t h e a r t r e a l i z e t h a t a s t r o n g OPEC i s t o t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e T h i r d World a s a whole. The s t r e n g t h o f OPEC r e p r e s e n t s a un ique chance f o r t h e T h i r d World. But we a l l have t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s s t r e n g t h i s b a s e d on t h e t r a n s i e n t phenomena o f e x t e n s i v e o i l p r o d u c t i o n

l/ For more details, see Shihata, ' r h e OPEC Fund and the North-South D i a - - loguel, Third World Q u a r t e r l y (Vol. 1, NO. 4 1 , p p . 28-33.

and t h e r e s u l t i n g a c c u m u l a t i o n o f n e t l i q u i d a s s e t s . Through s o l i d a r i t y among T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , mutua l b e n e f i t s c a n a c c r u e t o a l l b e f o r e t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y i s l o s t . The s u r p l u s e s of t h e o i l p r o d u c e r s s h o u l d b e s e e n , however, i n t h e i r t r u e p e r s p e c - t i v e : as a monetary form o f a d e p l e t i n g a s s e t t h a t d o e s n o t neces - s a r i l y add t o t h e w e a l t h o f o i l p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s . I t i s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , and o f t h e World a t l a r g e , t h a t p r a c t i c a l mechanisms be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e s e a s s e t s i n t o new r e a l i n v e s t m e n t s which would p r o v i d e them w i t h r e v e n u e s i n t h e p o s t - o i l a r e a . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e s e i n v e s t m e n t s a r e implemented i n o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , OPEC w i l l a l s o p l a y a major r o l e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income t o t h e b e n e f i t of t h e p o o r e r c o u n t r i e s . T h i s r e d i s t r i - b u t i o n h a s a l r e a d y s t a r t e d and i s becoming a s o c i a l i m p e r a t i v e on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c e n e . The s o o n e r i t i s a c h i e v e d i n an o r d e r l y manner , t h e h a p p i e r t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h i s p l a n e t w i l l b e .

INTERACTIONS

WORLD CONFERENCE ON THE TRADE UNION ROLE I N DEVELOPMENT

New D e l h i , 18 t o 20 March 1981

The specia l In ternat ional Confederation of Free Trade Unions Conference in H e u Delhi, I'tarc'k 18-20 1381, marks a major stepping-xp o f the ICFTU'c campaign for a new in t e rna t iona l economic and soc ia l order. Afzer t h ree days of i n t e n s i v e debate, t he 250 part ic ipants from 6.3 ICFTU a f f i l i a t e s , f r i e d ? trade union organisations and 7 In ternat ional Trade Secre ta r ia t s agreed on the fol7ouing statement o f i n t e n t uk ich maps out t he p r i o r i t i e s for 1981 and the years ahead.

A statement o f in ten t - the De lh i D e c l a r a t i o n

The w o r l d economy i s i n a severe c r i s i s which w i l l o n l y deepen un less prompt a c t i o n i s taken by governments. W i t h o u t u r g e n t , concer ted a c t i o n t h e a l r e a d y i n t o l e r a b l e p o v e r t y o f 800 m i l l i o n peop le i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d w i l l worsen s t i l l f u r t h e r . Unemployment w i l l r i s e i n b o t h N o r t h and South, i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s and c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n and between n a t i o n s . An i n c r e a s e i n t h e enormous number o f j o b l e s s i n t h e South t h r e a t e n s an e x p l o s i o n o f c a t a s t r o p h i c p r o p o r t i o n s .

B u t these d i s a s t r o u s t r e n d s need n o t become r e a l i t y . There i s an a l t e r n a t i v e . Tha t a l t e r n a t i v e l i e s i n t h e acceptance o f t h e ' one w o r l d ' concept , l e a d i n g t o an i n t e g r a t e d g l o b a l s t r a t e g y f o r ba lanced development. I t i n v o l v e s a change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f economic p o l i c y i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , more e f f e c t i v e development p o l i c i e s f o r t h e peop le o f t h e South, a massive t r a n s f e r o f f i n a n c i a l resources t o deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s , a g l o b a l energy com- pac t , re fo rms i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary system - i n s h o r t , a new i n t e r - n a t i o n a l economic and s o c i a l o r d e r .

THE ICFTU Wor ld Conference on "The Trade Union Ro le i n Development" s i g n i f i e s t h e commitment o f f r e e and democra t i c t r a d e un ions t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n f o r ba lanced development. P o v e r t y anywhere c o n s t i t u t e s a danger t o p r o s p e r i t y everywhere. Trade un ions have a d u t y t o work f o r economic g rowth t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , s o c i a l p rog ress and t h e na r row ing o f t h e gaps between r i c h and poor w i t h i n and between n a t i o n s . The s t r o n g mutual i n t e r e s t between workers i n t h e South and N o r t h i n a programme f o r ba lanced g l o b a l development has always been u n d e r l i n e d by t h e ICFTU - i n f a c t t h i s concep t i s t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r o u r e x i s t e n c e . We a r e happy t h a t t h i s theme has been taken up so s t r o n g l y i n t h e Brand t Repor t .

Main Elements o f a G loba l Programme f o r Balanced Development

i) The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t r a d e un ions i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a new economic and s o c i a l o r d e r based upon t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f freedom o f a s s o c i a t i o n and t h e r i g h t t o o r g a n i s e and b a r g a i n c o l l e c t i v e l y .

i i ) Reform o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o n e t a r y sys tem, i n c l u d i n g a m a s s i v e t r a n s f e r o f f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , i n t e r e s t r a t e ' d i s a r m a m e n t ' and mu1 t i l a t e r a l r e c y c l i n g o f t h e o i l s u r p l u s e s .

iii) A q l o b a l ene rgy programme composed o f a m o n i t o r i n g sys tem f o r o i l s t o c k - h o l d i n g , g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y i n o i l p r i c e s and s u p p l i e s , an e n e r g y f u n d t o e n a b l e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s t o i m p o r t e s s e n t i a l o i l s u p p l i e s a t p r e f e r e n - t i a l p r i c e s , imp roved e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n , a c c e l e r a t e d e x p l o r a t i o n , i n v e s t m e n t i n a l t e r n a t i v e ene rgy s o u r c e s and more e f f i c i e n t use o f f o s s i l f u e l s e s p e c i a l l y c o a l .

i v ) A g e n u i n e t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e Sou th b y b o t h b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i - l a t e r a l measures i n o r d e r t o b u i l d up a l a r g e - s c a l e i n v e s t m e n t i n l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n .

v ) C o o r d i n a t e d measures b y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t o b r i n g a b o u t f u l l employment , g r o w t h i n r e a l incomes, h i g h e r o f f i c i a l deve lopmen t a s s i s - t a n c e , s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e new p a t t e r n o f w o r l d t r a d e and t h e c o n t r o l o f i n f l a t i o n .

v i ) A much g r e a t e r emphas is i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s on programmes t o s a t i s f y B a s i c Needs and i n v e s t i n human deve lopmen t , as w e l l as i n c r e a s e d i n d u s - t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l o u t p u t , w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g g r o w t h and l a r g e - s c a l e j o b c r e a t i o n .

v i i ) An e l i m i n a t i o n o f p r o t e c t i o n i s t t r a d e b a r r i e r s c o u p l e d w i t h s t r o n g e r p u b l i c p o l i c i e s backed by an I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e c o n v e r s i o n Fund a imed a t t h e a d j u s t - ment o f i n v e s t m e n t and employment and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a j u s t and i m p a r t i a l s o c i a l c l a u s e i n t h e GATT, based on I LO i n s t r u m e n t s .

v i i i ) A comprehens i ve programme o f commod i t i es i n c l u d i n g f i n a n c e f o r t h e p r o - c e s s i n g o f raw m a t e r i a l s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s .

i x ) An e f f e c t i v e UN Code o f Conduct on T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s (TNCs) w h i c h r e g u l a t e s t h e r o l e o f TNCs i n deve lopmen t , ensu res t h e f u l l i n v o l v e m e n t o f t r a d e u n i o n s and i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e e x i s t i n g ILO D e c l a r a t i o n o f P r i n c i p l e s on M u l t i n a t i o n a l s and S o c i a l P o l i c y .

TRADE UNION FOLLOW-UP TO THE CONFERENCE

i ) A f f i l i a t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n s s h o u l d i n f o r m t h e i r members o f t h e ICFTU 's p o l i c i e s f o r a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic and s o c i a l o r d e r . S u p p o r t f o r a w o r l d - w i d e c o n c e r t e d programme f o r g r o w t h and b a l a n c e d deve lopmen t s h o u l d f o r m p a r t o f a f f i l i a t e s ' n a t i o n a l campaigns a g a i n s t unemployment and p o v e r t y .

i i ) A f f i l i a t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n s s h o u l d p r e s s t h e i r Governments t o respond p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e recommendat ions o f t h e B r a n d t R e p o r t . The 1981 ICFTU W o r l d Economic Rev iew s h o u l d be used t o r e i n f o r c e n a t i o n a l c e n t r e s ' own p o l i c y p r o p o s a l s f o r g r o w t h and deve lopmen t .

i i i ) T r a d e u n i o n e d u c a t i o n progranimes, e s p c i a l l y i n i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , s h o u l d s t r e s s t h e need f o r a m a j o r e f f o r t t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e deve lopmen t

i v )

V)

v i )

v i i )

o f t h e South. The ICFTU w i l l f o l l o w - u p t h i s w o r l d conference th rouqh seminars and workshops a t the r e g i o n a l l e v e l .

Trade un ions i n deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s shou ld c o n t i n u e t o b u i l d e f f e c t i v e , f r e e and democra t i c o r g a n i s a t i o n s . Tl:ey shou ld s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o ana lyse economic problems and work o u t p o l i c y p roposa ls f o r d i s - cuss ion w i t h Governments.

Trade un ions i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s shou ld seek t o ensure t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l volume o f development f i n a n c e shou ld be c h a n n e l l e d i n t o t r a d e un ion educa t ion and socio-economic p r o j e c t s .

N a t i o n a l a f f i l i a t e s , i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e ICFTU and i t s r e g i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s . shou ld promote t h e i r own development p r o j e c t s . These s h o u l d i n c l u d e p i l o t schemes f o r employment c r e a t i o n ; r u r a l development p r o j e c t s ; b r i n g i n g women and y o u t h i n t o t h e main s t ream o f development; programmes f o r the improvement o f educa t ion s tandards - e s p e c i a l l y l i t e r a c y - v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , housing, n u t r i t i o n , s a n i t a t i o n and h e a l t h ca re .

The ICFTU expec ts t o meet t h e chairman o f t h e proposed Nor th -Sou th Summit i n Mexico C i t y i n October t o p ress f o r a c t i o n on t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e New D e l h i Conference and t h e Brand t Repor t . A f f i l i a t e s i n t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s shou ld a l s o meet t h e i r Governments be fo re t h e Summi t.

v i i i ) The ICFTU and i t s a f f i l i a t e s w i l l seek t o ensure, th rouqh t h e Trade Union A d v i s o r y Committee t o t h e OECD, t h a t t h e f o r t h c o m i n g OECD M i n i s t e r i a l Counc i l g i v e s f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e t r a d e u n i o n p roposa ls f o r a concer ted g l o b a l programme f o r growth and development, and w i l l seek t o s i m i l a r l y i n f l u e n c e t h e Heads o f Governments mee t ing i n Ottawa i n J u l y .

i X )

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x i )

The ICFTU w i l l renew i t s p ressure on t h e U n i t e d Na t ions General Assembly f o r an e a r l y and c o n s t r u c t i v e outcome o f t h e g l o b a l n e g o t i a t i o n on a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r . S i m i l a r l y a f f i l i a t e s shou ld s t r e s s t o t h e i r governments t h e need f o r agreement.

The ICFTU w i l l r e q u e s t e a r l y meet ings w i t h t h e IMF, t h e World Bank and o t h e r i n te rgovernmenta l agencies t o p ress t h e case for g r e a t e r t r a d e u n i o n invo lvement .

The ICFTU E x e c u t i v e Board, th rough i t s Economic and S o c i a l Committee, w i l l r e g u l a r l y m o n i t o r p rog ress on t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f the s p e c i a l h o r l d Conference and r e p o r t t o i t s a f f i l i a t e s .

ARMS, THE ECONOMY, AND EMPLOYMENT */ b y Mike George -

The b u i l d up o f m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t y and t h e m i l i t a r y express ion o f power i s used by n a t i o n s t a t e s f o r i n t e r n a l purposes, such as t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f s o c i a l cohes ion and s t a b i l i t y i n c i v i l s o c i e t y (and sometimes w i t h i n t h e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t i t s e l f ) . Th is u s u a l l y expresses i t s e l f t h rough n a t i o n a l i s m , t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f freedom, economic s u r v i v a l o f t h e n a t i o n and i t s c i t i z e n s . I n postwar y e a r s arms p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f has become i n t e g r a t e d i n t o arguments r e l a t i n g m i l i t a r y preparedness w i t h economic s u r v i v a l . H igh spending on arms and arms p r o d u c t i o n i s i t s e l f now j u s t i f i e d i n terms o f d i r e c t b e n e f i t t o n a t i o n a l economies. M i l i t a r y R&D i s supposed t o ' s p i n o f f ' b e n e f i t s f o r medi- c a l sc ience , o r t h e communications i n d u s t r y . Mi l i t a r y p r o d u c t i o n i s supposed t o make v i a b l e e n t e r p r i s e s which o t h e r w i s e would n o t e x i s t . The e x p o r t o f arms i s supposed t o make a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e balance o f payments.

Yet economists i n a number o f c o u n t r i e s have con tes ted t h i s v iew. They have m a i n t a i n e d t h a t h i g h m i l i t a r y spending damages n a t i o n a l economies. I n t h e USSR t h e m i l i t a r y have f i r s t p r i o r i t y f o r h i g h q u a l i t y s t e e l s and p l a s t i c s , p l u s f i r s t c a l l on t h e b e s t q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n s and s c i e n t i s t s . I n t h e U.S.A. i t i s concluded t h a t areas w i t h a h i g h dependence on m i l i t a r y o r arms produc- t i o n f a c i l i t i e s have s u f f e r e d more economic and s o c i a l d i s t r e s s and d i s l o c a t i o n t h a n o t h e r a reas . I n B r i t a i n no l e s s t h a n 52% o f t o t a l Government research and development expend i tu res i s l o c a t e d i n t h e ' d e f e n c e ' i n d u s t r y , compared w i t h 3:; i n hous ing .

The most comprehensive i n f o r m a t i o n about arms spending and i t s e f f e c t o n na- t i o n a l and l o c a l economies appears i n t h e U.S.A. A r e c e n t U n i t e d Na t ions s tudy on t h e arms i n d u s t r y concluded t h a t n o t h i n g u s e f u l c o u l d be s a i d about t h e impac t o f arms on t h e B r i t i s h economy as r e a l i n f o r m a t i o n was so c l o s e l y guarded .....

I n t h e U.S.A. much r e c e n t work on t h e arms economy has been sponsored b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f M a c h i n i s t s & Aerospace Workers. I n 30 S t a t e s , many o f them m a j o r r e c i p i e n t s o f m i l i t a r y c o n t r a c t s , IAM members s u f f e r a n e t l o s s o f j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s when m i l i t a r y spending i s h i g h . A Pentagon budge t o f $124 b i l l i o n c o s t s t h e m a c h i n i s t s ' u n i o n over 18,000 j o b s i n t h e c i v i l i a n s e c t o r - w i t h a n e t j o b l o s s o f 30,000 jobs a y e a r . The IAM, t h e m a c h i n i s t s ' u n i o n i s supposed t o be t h e ma jo r b e n e f i c i a r y o f arms spending i n t h e U.S. I n genera l , eve ry a d d i t i o n a l 31 b i l l i o n o f Pentagon spending causes a n e t l o s s o f 11,600 j o b s i n t h e U.S.

A p a r t from t h e jobs q u e s t i o n , severa l U.S. researchers m a i n t a i n t h a t h i g h arms spending i s i n f l a t i o n a r y . F i r s t l y because most m i l i t a r y c o n t r a c t s o p e r a t e on

* / Mike George i s a R e s e a r c h Fe l low and A c t i n g Co-o rd ina to r a t t h e N . E . - London P o l y t e c h n i c o f t h e C e n t r e f o r A l t e r n a t i v e I n d u s t r i a l and Technolo- g i c a l Systems.

a c o s t - p l u s b a s i s ; a r e c e n t r e p o r t by t h e General Accoun t ing O f f i c e showed t h a t 55 ma jo r Pentagon p r o j e c t s c o s t 70% more t h a n was o r i g i n a l l y es t ima ted - 4 7 1 o f which was a t t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y t o bad p l a n n i n g and mismanagement i n t h e c o n t r a c t e d c o r p o r a t i o n s . Secondly because m i l i t a r y spending pre-empts spen- d i n g on o t h e r goods - goods which a r e a c t u a l l y o f use t o people and t o t h e economy. T h i r d l y because t h e Government borrows h i g h - c o s t money i n the mar- k e t s t o he1 p f i n a n c e m i l i t a r y spending. F o u r t h l y because m i l i t a r y c o n t r a c t o r s a l s o b i d f o r l a r g e sums i n t h e money markets - t e n d i n g t o cause an i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r e s t r a t e s .

F i n a l l y i n t h e U.S. t h e r e i s research on t h e impac t on t h e c i v i l i c a n economy o f h i g h m i l i t a r y spending i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e pre-empt ion o f s c i e n t i s t s , t e c h - n i c i a n s , i nves tmen t and p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s . I t i s argued t h a t mass t r a n - s i t , hous ing and o t h e r c i v i l i a n f a c i l i t i e s have s u f f e r e d because o f t h i s arms i n d u s t r y induced d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e economy.

I n B r i t a i n t h e r e have been t h r e e case s t u d i e s on a l t e r n a t i v e work f o r m i l i t a r y i n d u s t r i e s - a1 t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e MRCA Tornado, t h e C h i e f t a n Tank, and t h e ASW C r u i s e r . I n each case an assessment o f s k i l l s and f a c i l i t i e s has been made, and s p e c i f i c a l t e r n a t i v e s suggested. These a l t e r n a t i v e s i n c l u d e : m i n i n g machinery, i r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r types o f mar ine pumps, a1 t e r n a t i v e energy source equipment, r e c y c l i n g p l a n t s , mar ine eng ines , med ica l techno logy , e t c .

Arms c o n v e r s i o n t h e CAITS/Lucas w o r k e r s ' way

I t has always been t h e i n t e n t i o n t o r a i s e arms c o n v e r s i o n as p a r t o f a more genera l a p p r a i s a l o f c o r p o r a t i o n s ' p o l i c i e s and a c t i o n s and t h e i r e f f e c t s o n work fo rces ; these a p p r a i s a l s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t w i t h shop stewards committees which r e o r e s e n t b l u e and w h i t e c o l l a r worke rs .

The development o f w o r k e r s ' own p lans f o r t h e i r companies i s t h e u l t i m a t e ob- j e c t i v e , and exper ience has shown t h a t , g i v e n a r e a l cho ice , t h e t r a d e un ion - i s t s t h a t have engaged i n t h i s a c t i v i t y have n o t chosen m i l i t a r y p r o d u c t i o n as a b a s i s f o r t h e i r p lans .

The exper ience o f d e v e l o p i n g w o r k e r s ' p l a n s i n m i l i t a r y and arms p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s unavo idab ly r a i s e s many o f t h e economic, s o c i a l and p01 i t i c a l ques- t i o n s covered i n t h i s s ta tement on arms convers ion , n o t i n j u s t a t h e o r e t i c a l way, b u t v e r y p r a c t i c a l l y - f o r t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n i s o f t e n abou t j o b s o r j o b s e c u r i t y .

I n t h i s way t h e r e i s a g rass r o o t s concern and knowledge deve lop ing amongst those people who a r e a c t u a l l y engaged i n arms p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s n o t o n l y r e p r e s e n t s a c r u c i a l s e c t o r o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t d i sa rmers have always sought t o i n f l u e n c e , b u t a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a c r u c i a l f o r c e i.n t h e arms i n d u s t r y .

I n t h i s s o r t o f approach i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i n t e g r a t e : -

The q u e s t i o n o f j o b s and j o b s e c u r i t y i n t h e arms i n d u s t r y . The q u e s t i o n o f a l l o c a t i o n o f resources i n t h e economy. The q u e s t i o n o f c i v i l i a n a1 t e r n a t i v e s t o arms p r o d u c t i o n . The q u e s t i o n o f ' r e a l ' i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s between peoples w o r k i n g i n t h e same c o r p o r a t i o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e more g e n e r a l l y t o o .

The q u e s t i o n o f democracy, and t h e e f f e c t s on democracy o f h i g h m i l i t a r y p repa redness .

Arms C o n v e r s i o n p r o v i d e s a means whereby o r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a n have a p r a c t i c a l i n f l u e n c e and e f f e c t on t h e arms r a c e .

ECONOMICS, DEVELOPMENT AND THE CONSUMER */ ~y Khor Kok Peng -

I n November 1980, t h e Consumers A s s o c i a t i o n o f Penang ( M a l a y s i a ) o r g a n i s e d a Seminar on Economics , Deve lopment and t h e Consumer i n Penang.

The a ims o f t h e Seminar were t o examine:

( 1 Deve lopment as a p rocess w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f b a s i c consumer needs w h i c h a t t h e same t i m e i s e n v i r o n n i e n t a l l y sound and makes r a t i o n a l use o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ;

[ i i ) t h e e x t e n t t o wh i ch t h i s c o n c e p t o f deve lopmen t i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f deve lopmen t s t r a t e g y i n M a l a y s i a and t h e T h i r d Wor ld :

( i i i } economic i s s u e s f a c e d b y T h i r d W o r l d consumers , such as i n f l a t i o n , s h o r t a g e s o f e s s e n t i a l goods, access t o c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s , p o o r q u a l - i t y o f p r o d u c t s , economic c o s t s o f p o l l u t i o n , and t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f b a s i c needs such as f o o d , n u t r i t i o n , h e a l t h and o t h e r s o c i a l a m e n i t i e s ;

( i v ) recommendat ions on how t o imp rove t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e economy so as t o imp rove t h e economic we1 l - b e i n g o f consumers .

$:/ Mr. Khor Kok Peng i s Resea rch D i r e c t o r of t h e Consumers A s s o c i a t i o n o f -- P e n ~ n f i , No. 2 7 , Kelawei Road, P u l a u P i n a n g , Malaysia.

We hoped t h a t t h r o u g h t h i s Seminar many v i t a l and b a s i c i s s u e s o f T h i r d World development c o u l d be b r o u g h t up t o p u b l i c l i g h t and be communicated t o the p u b l i c a t l a r g e .

We a r e p leased t o r e p o r t t h a t t h e Seminar was a g r e a t success. A l t o g e t h e r , t h e r e were 250 p a r t i c i p a n t s , i n c l u d i n g academics, development e x p e r t s , government o f f i c i a l s , t e a c h e r s , t r a d e un ion r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , community worke rs and s t u d e n t s f rom u n i v e r s i t i e s , c o l l e g e s and schoo ls . F o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c l u d e d F r e d e r i c k C l a i r m o n t e f rom UNCTAD, Susan George f rom T r a n s n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e , Col i n Tudge and Z i a u d d i n Sardar f rom New S c i e n t i s t , D e x t e r T i r a n t i from New I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t , and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f ILO, ESCAP and s e v e r a l T h i r d Wor ld community-based o r g a n i s a t i o n s .

A l t o g e t h e r , t h e r e were 100 papers presented a t t h e Seminar sess ions . The main theme o f t h e Seminar was t h e S a t i s f a c t i o n o f B a s i c Needs, and most o f t h e papers r e v o l v e d around t h i s theme. The t o p i c s d i scussed i n c l u d e d p o v e r t y and s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s ; M a l a y s i a ' s over-dependence on f o r e i g n t r a d e ; b a s i c needs problems o f food , n u t r i t i o n , h e a l t h , hous ing and t r a n s p o r t ; problems o f i n - debtedness and c r e d i t faced by t h e poor ; a c r i t i q u e o f p r e s e n t i n d u s t r i a l i s a - t i o n p o l i c i e s ; how farmers and consumers a r e cheated th rough food m a r k e t i n g ; o c c u p a t i o n a l h e a l t h hazards faced by workers ; t h e need f o r an open bureaucracy ; c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t ; a p p r o p r i a t e techno logy and h a b i t a t ; and educa t ion and communications f o r development.

Due t o t h e t o p i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e papers, t h e Seminar r e c e i v e d e x c e p t i o n a l l y good coverage i n t h e newspapers o f f o u r languages (Malay, Chinese, Tami l and E n g l i s h ) i n o u r c o u n t r y . Some papers devoted two e n t i r e pages p e r day t o the Seminar p roceed ings . Because o f t h i s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o b r i n g t h e papers of t h e Seminar t o p u b l i c l i g h t , f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e genera l p o p u l a t i o n .

A t t h e l a s t s e s s i o n o f t h e Seminar, a 46-page r e s o l u t i o n was d iscussed and passed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The r e s o l u t i o n c a l l e d f o r v a r i o u s s teps t o be taken t o improve t h e economic w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e people and c o u n t r y .

GREETINGS AND COMMENTS */ f rom A n i l K. Gupta -

I am sure t h e new y e a r w i l l see IFDA D o s s i e r c r e a t i n g newer m i l e s t o n e s i n i t s j o u r n e y towards more i n t e r a c t i o n s v i s - a - v i s t h e T h i r d Wor ld f rom t h e f i r s t and t h e second w o r l d who " o f t e n " know more abou t t h e T h i r d Wor ld t h e n about t h e i r own w o r l d .

F i r s t l y , l e t me pen a n o t e o f uneasiness t h a t I f e l t on r e a d i n g E l - K h o l y ' s ( D o s s i e r 20) n o t e on E g y p t i a n i n f o r m a t i o n su rvey e t c . some o f t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t s made a r e : -

* / Indian Institute of Public Administration, Indraprastha Estate, Ring Road, - New Delhi-110002, India.

1 ) A new c l a s s o f E g y p t i a n e n t r e p r e n e u r ' t r a i n e d ' by p u b l i c s e c t o r w i t h ' know ledge and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ' i s emerg ins t o a c h i e v e a b r e a k t h r o u g h - e g a r d i n g c o l l e c t i n g , c o m p i l i n g , p r o c e s s i n g and u s i n g (and a l s o d i s s e m i - n a t i n g ' i n f o r m a t i o n on n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s .

i i ) D e c i s i v e r o l e i n d e v e l o p i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e c a p a b i l i t y f o r n a t i o n a l good w i l l be p l a y e d by a l e a d e r s h i p t h a t i s ' e n l i g h t e n e d , cou rageous , d e d i - c a t e d and i n c o r r u p t i b l e ' .

i i i j Such a l e a d e r s h i p c o u l d n o t emerge o u t o f a "backward, i l l i t e r a t e and supp ressed s o c i e t y " .

/ j N a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a l ' e n t r e p r e n e u r ' a r e p r e f e r a b l e o v e r f o r e i g n e r s c o n s u l t a n t s e t c . . .

1 dm a f r a i d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n t e n t i o n s awe n o t o n l y s e r i o u s b u t a l s o e x t r e m e l y dange rous f o r a T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r y l i k e E g y p t - i f t h e I n d i a n expe- n e n c e i s any g u i d e , my s u b m i s s i o n i s : -

U ; The c a p i t a l i s m l e a d by n a t i v e ' e n t r e p r e n e u r s ' who a r e a lways f r o m a c l a s s w h i c h has maximum access t o economic , p o l i t i c a l and r e g i o n a l power , whe the r emerg ing w i t h i n a c o u n t r y o r i m p o r t e d f r o m o u t , d o e s n ' t have a d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e as l o n g as t h e t h e o r e t i c a l pa rad igm o f i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f m a r k e t f o r c e s o u e r a t e .

i n I n d i a Gnandian movement, when he gave a c a l l f o r ' S w a d e s h i ' and s i r nu l t aneous - 1.1 mooted ' t r u s t e e s h i p ' p r i n c i p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r a l l e a d e r s h i p e t c . , e x a c t l y a s i r i i l a r p h i l o s o p h y was a t wo rk . The f o r e i g n t r a i n e d / e d u c a t e d and we11 endowed i r i v i l e d g e d c l a s s o f s o c i e t y sends i t s c h i l d r e n t o p u b l i c s c h o o l , b u t i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r t h e y occupy t n e e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s . I f t h e y o n l y a r e be in^ a l s o askeci t o p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p , w h i c h an ' i l l i t e r a t e and supp ressed s o c i e t y sup- -- - -- -- - p o s e d l y c a n ' t p r o v i d e , I am s u r e t h e n t h e seeds o f f u r t h e r s u p p r e s s i o n o f s o c i e t y a r e b e i n g sown.

I have no h e s i t a t i o n i n s a y i n g so because o u r u n f o r t u n a t e e x p e r i e n c e i s no d i f f e r e n t . I n d e e d ' s e l e c t i v e c l o s u r e ' as Mabogunje , a h i g e r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a o v o c a t e s i n h i s r e c e n t book 'The deve lopmen t p r o c e s s ' i s l a u d a b l e .

Perhdps t h e s o l i t u d e w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l , as he a rgues , f o r even a n a t i o n t o f u l l y r e a l i z e ana e x p l o i t i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , t h e n f o r e i g n a i d (armaments o f i r . t c r n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o r d e a t h f r o m w i t h i n ) m u s t be c a u t i o u s l y l o o k e d a t . B u t t h e n l e t us n o t be n a i v e t o assume n a t i o n a l m a r k e t dom ina ted b y l o c a l b u t e l i t e ' e n t r e p r e n e u r w i l l have l e s s n e g a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e q u i t y o r g r o w t h 1.hii i i i i a r ke t s p e n e t r a t e d by TNCs o r f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s because i n v a r i a b l y i t i s ? o ~ ~ n t j , l o c a l p1 i t e d e v e l o p s r a t h e r a x i o m a t i c a l l y , l i n k s w i t h TNCs o r f o r e i g n C , i , ~ i t d ; j.

~ e ~ o n d l y r e g a r d i n g s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n I n d i a ( D o s s i e r ?0), I t h i n k o n l y a <i.iulT r e f e r e n c e t o a s t u d y ' comn iun i ca t i ng w i t h f a r m e r s ' t h a t I had a l s o s e n t t n /on, w o u l d be r e l e v a n t : we had shown, how p e r c e p t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t by f a r -

I 1; h i g h l y r i s k y and u n c e r t a i n . To d e v i s e such u n i q u e a s s o c i a t i o n s between i f f f . ' r e n t r c c ; l c ; q i c a l v a r i a b l e s l i k e , needs , i n s e c t a t t a c k s , e x p e c t a t i o n o f on-

o f 1 - J I t is , t r i e y i e l d p r o s p e c t s f r o m d i f f e r e n t c r o p s w a t e r , t a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e

e t c , e t c , t h a t d e s p i t e t e c h n o l o g i c a l ' f a i l u r e ' t h e y had succeeded so f a r i n s u r v i v i n g . I f t h e y a r e p o o r e r , i t i s because t h e s t a t e had h e l p e d t h e a l r e a d y b e t t e r endowed i r r i g a t e d f a r m e r s t o grow r i c h e r t h r o u g h f o r e i g n i n s p i r e d and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a r r a n g e d Green R e v o l u t i o n ' .

We have documented s e v e r a l p r e c i s e and t e s t a b l e ' c r u d e ' methods o f i l l i t e r a t e - - --- - -

and supp ressed f a r m e r s w h i c h can b e a t any s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e i r i n f a l l i b i l i t y .

T h i r d l y and m o s t i i i i p o r t a n t l y A I D t h a t D o e s n ' t ( D o s s i e r 20), o r can n o t , 1 was r e a d i n g r e c e n t l y ' F o o d F i r s t ' by Lappe and Co l1 i n s and was i m p r G d b y b o t h t h e i r b r e a d t h and d e p t h . The i s s u e i n d e e d i s -. Power wh i ch d o e s n ' t n a t u r a l l y e v o l v e , w h i c h i s se ldom sha red and wh i ch d o e s n ' t p e r c o l a t e down, w h i c h i s d y n a m i c a l l y r e l a t e d w i t h a t t r i b u t e s l i k e " t h e A P-- i n t e l l i g e n c e . and - - - - r a t i o n a l i t y ' ' -- . - -

and w h i c h w i l l n o t be g r a n t e d by e l i t e f o r e i g n o r i n d i g e n o u s e i t h e r .

One has t o a g r e e w i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s v i ew t h a t o f f i c i a l f o r e i g n a i d r e i n f o r c e s t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t ( e x c e p t , i f I am n o t t a k e n am iss , i n ' some cases by an E a s t e r n supe r p o w e r ' ) . On l y d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e t h e s i s o f Lappe 5 i s , w h i l e a d d r e s s i n g A r re r i cans , t h e y p l e a d f o r some th ing t h a t t h e i r ' s y s t e m ' c a n ' t a f f o r d t o g r a n t . Thus, w i t h o u t c h a l l e n g i n g t h e sys tem t h a t p r o v i d e s p r o f i t a b i l i t y and power t o Amer i can i n t e r e s t , t o hope Amer i can i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l p r e s s t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p f o r chang ing ( o r r e f o r m i n g ) i s a l i t t l e f a r - f e t c h e d . I have n o t much d i s a g r e e m n t M ' t h wha t t h e y r e p o r t . b u t t he in:- p1 i c a t i o n o f t h e i r sugges ted me thodo logy a r e : -

a ) The ' s e e d s ' o f change i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld w o u l d be sown by t h e F i r s t U o r l d .

b ) F i r s t W o r l d can be pe rsuaded by t h e s o c i a l l y c o n s c i o u s ' e l i t e ' who a r e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f p r e s e n t unequa l exchange t o p a r t w i t h scwe o f t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s so t h a t t h e h u n g r y i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld can e a t . (An example o f t h i s m e n t a l i t y was p r o v i d e d by Lappe i n t h e i r book a l s o ?

I am a f r a i d b o t h t h e p r e n ~ i s e s a r e weak; i f n o t t o t a l l y i n c o n g r u e n t . b ; h i l e c e r t a i n l y t h o s e who wan t t o , mus t add ress t hemse l ves t o t h e p rob lems o f t -e for r , i n t h e i r n a t i o n ' s c o n t e x t b u t t h e n l e t t h i s p r o c e s s n o t r a i s e undue hopes i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld .

I have h e a r d Kany l i n t e l l i g e n t ' and ' k n o w l e d g e a b l e ' c o l l eagues o f n i i ne h e r e s a y i n g t h a t i f t h e t o p 20 who consume t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e w o r l d ' s r e s o u r c e s and own niaxiniun; power can be pe rsuaded t o d i s p e n s e w i t h a f r a c t i o n o f i t . , i t w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t g r e a t e r "deve lopmen t " i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld t h a n t h e i r c o l l e c t . i v e i n t e r n a l m o b i l i z a t i o n e t c . ( i t i s t o o w e l l known t o need any e l a b o r a t e repuchc i - t i o n ) .

I t d o e s n ' t need comment; I am v e r y c l e a r o f one thins however : t h e f i c h t a g a i n s t ' h u n g e r ' w i l l have t o be f o u g h t b y t h e ' h u n g r y ' o n l y ; no m a t t e r h t ' e t h e r Marx w i t h o u t b e i n q a p r o l e t a r i a t e h i m s e l f w r o t e such a w o n d e r f u l t r e a t i s e , t h e %%l o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s : -

L e t us n o t d i l u t e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f deve lopmen t t h a t each T h i r d j o t - l d c o u n t r y w i l l have t o e v o l v e t h r o u g h i t s own g e n i u s by p l a c i n g t o o much hope i n r e f o r r i 5 t a t t e m p t s . ' A i d ' o r 'tw A i d ' i s n o t a l w a y s t h e d e c i s i o n t a k e n by a r e c e p i e n t T h i s t r u t h a c c e p t b u t an u n f o r t u n a t e r e a l i t y even a f t e r t& i11< ;

c o g n i z a n c e o f t h e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i t h i n n a t i o n s t a t e s , as Lappc t a l k s a b o u t (A rusha Con fe rence ( D o s s i e r 1 9 ) , i n t h i s r e o a r d was a b o l d s t e p ) .

Anyway, o u r b e s t w i s n e i w i t h Lappe. I t w i l l be w o r t h w h i l e , i f Lappe and h i s c o l l e a g u e s made t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s more e x p l i c i t y and a t t h e same t i m e u n d e r l i n e t h a t t h e y a r e m e r e l y c o l l a b o r a t i n q i n t h e f i g h t f r o m t h e f e n c e , a g a i n s t hunge r . The l e a d e r s h i p w i l l h ? v e t o emerge f r o m " i l l e t a r a t e and supp ressed s o c i e t i e s o n l y " . I w i s h , somebtdy c o u l d p r o v e Marx wrong t h a t r e v o l u t i o n s a r e l e d n o t by l a b o u r e r s b u t t h e c o n s c i e n t i o u s e l i t e .

h i s h i n g y o u once a g a i n a v e r y happy New Year . P l e a s e convey rry g r e e t i n g s t o a l l y o u r c o l l e a g u e s .

A NEW WORLD EMPLOYMENT PLAN

An alternative Dutch view

H a v i n g seen t h e summary o f t h e p r o p o s a l on "a new w o r l d employment p l a n " b y T i n b e r g e n and t h r e e o t h e r Dutchmen i n t h e A p r i l i s s u e o f Deve lopment Forum, I w o u l d l i k e t o r e t u r n t o t h e IFDA D o s s i e r 21 where t h e comp le te p r o p o s a l was p r i n t e d , f o l l o w e d b y a r a t h e r i l d commentary by I g n a c y Sachs. T h i n k i n g o f t h e p r o g r e s s r e p o r t f r o m t h e T h i r d System P r o j e c t ( IFDA D o s s i e r 1 7 ) , I am s u r p r i s e d t h e p r o p o s a l has n o t me t s t r o n g e r i n t e r n a t i o n a ~ c i s m u n t i l now. So l e t me r a i s e some o b j e c t i o n s a g a i n s t i t .

1 ) B e f o r e e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e p r o p o s a l I wan t t o s t r e s s t h e ommiss ion i n t h e IFDA D o s s i e r as w e l l as Deve lopment Forum o f any i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e aca - demic and p o l i t i c a l backg round o f t h e f o u r a u t h o r s . Mr. T i n b e r g e n may be i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y known as an economis t , b u t t h e p r o m i n e n t r o l e o f t h e t h r e e o t h e r s i n e s p e c i a l l y D u t c h p o l i t i c s may be l e s s w e l l - k n o w n and seems t o me r e l e v a n t i n t h e c a s e o f such a h i g h l y p o l i t i c a l p r o p o s a l .

2 ) The backg round o f t h e a u t h o r s , as economis t s and p r o m i n e n t s o c i a l demo- c r a t s , may e x p l a i n t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t why t h e y a d h e r e t o t h e i d e a s o f i n t e r - dependence and m u t u a l i n t e r e s t s , w h i c h g o t t h e i r m o s t e l o q u e n t a d v o c a t e s s o f a r i n t h e B r a n d t Commiss ion. A l t h o u g h t h e s e i d e a s a r e c o n c e i v e d by some a s a n e c e s s a r y i n s t r u m e n t t o make t h e ( W e s t e r n ) i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s a g r e e upon c e r t a i n c o n c e s s i o n s t o T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s , I c o n s i d e r them p r i m a r i l y a way t o d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e m a j o r c o n t r a s t s i n t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d economy.

. -. . - ----p

1 l!n;o Ruyter, De Perponcherstraat 102, 2518 SZ The Hague, The Netherlands

Pleas f o r l a r g e - s c a l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l income t r a n s f e r s t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e more o f t e n d i c t a t e d by t n e need i n t h e Nes t o f new markets than by t h e need t o a l l e v i a t e t h e massive p o v e r t y i n those c o u n t r i e s . I n t h a t manner T h i r d Wor ld i n t e r e s t s a r e once aga in s u b o r d i n a t e d t o Western i n t e r e s t s , which i m p l i e s p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s and consumpt ion p a t t e r n s i n t h e West rema in un- changed. L i k e w i s e i t seems t o me r e a c t i o n a r y t o advocate t h e i n c r e a s e o f e x p o r t s by T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , i n so f a r as t h e main argument i s t h a t these c o u n t r i e s have t o compensate t h e o i l p r i c e r i s e . T h i s way one l o s e s s i g h t o f t h e fundamental causes o f t h a t r i s e and p ressure on t h e West t o end i t s waste o f energy i s reduced.

3 ) The o t h e r p o l i c y t h e p roposa l p r o v i d e s fo r , i n comb ina t ion w i t h t h e i n - come t r a n s f e r s t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , i s " p o s i t i v e a n t i c i p a t o r y s t r u c t u r a l r e a d j u s t m e n t of i n d u s t r i e s i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s " . A p p l y i n g i t t o t h e marke t economies o f t h e Nor th , I t h i n k t h i s p o l i c y i s i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e way these economies work. An a n t i c i p a t o r y p o l i c y o f read jus tmen t r e q u i r e s a government t h a t r e a l l y s t e e r s t h e economy. Even i f t h e governments i n v o l v e d would be w i l l i n g t o do so - and most o f them a r e n o t - they a r e j u s t unab le

t o implement such a p o l i c y as t h e i r r o l e i n t h e economy i s a secondary one. However t h e a u t h o r s d o n ' t b a s i c a l l y q u e s t i o n t h e system o f t h e wes te rn marke t economy, wh ich makes i t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h i s p roposa l t o be taken s e r i o u s l y . Moreover t h e degree o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n on t h e l e v e l o f governments i s so l i m i t e d t h a t a n a t i o n a l re -ad jus tmen t p o l i c y i n t h e sense o f t h e p r o - posa l i s doomed t o f a i l u r e .

E s p e c i a l l y Dutch s o c i a l democra t i c p o l i t i c a i n s shou ld know b e t t e r i n t h i s r e s - p e c t . I n t h e Dutch government which was headed by Mr. Den Uyl and i n wh ich Mr. Pronk was t h e M i n i s t e r f o r development c o - o p e r a t i o n (1973-77) , an e x p e r i - ment was s t a r t e d i n a n t i c i p a t o r y r e - a d j u s t m e n t p o l i c y . The idea was t o o f f e r government s u p p o r t t o en t rep reneurs who would be w i l l i n g t o r e - a d j u s t t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Ne ther lands i n such a way t h a t T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s would g e t more o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o process t h e i r raw m a t e r i a l s themselves. The program became a complete f l o p . Very few companies t o o k up t h e o f f e r and t h e ones t h a t d i d g e n e r a l l y cons ide red t h e government money as a way t o f a c i l i t a t e a r e - a d j u s t m e n t process they were p l a n n i n g f o r t h e i r own reasons anyhow.

4 ) An i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r s d o n ' t q u e s t i o n t h e p r e v a i l i n g marke t economy system i s t h e i r emphasis on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r on t h e b a s i s o f " c o m p a r i t i v e advantages" . Though i t has been modern ized by such p e o p l e as O h l i n , t h e d o c t r i n e o f compara t i ve c o s t remains an e s s e n t i a l e lement o f c l a s s i c a l l i b e r a l i s m , t h a t i s s t i l l p ropp ing up t h e c o n t i n u i n g i n - c o r p o r a t i o n o f p a r t s o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld i n t h e system o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a - l i s m .

I d o n ' t see how t h e gap between N o r t h and South can be narrowed by t h e N o r t h s p e c i a l i z i n g i n know ledge- in tens ive a c t i v i t i e s and t h e South i n l a b o u r - i n t e n - s i v e a c t i v i t i e s , b u t maybe t h e p roposa l d o e s n ' t a im a t na r row ing t h e gap, maybe t h e a u t h o r s j u s t accep t t h e gap i s go ing t o widen. Whatever t h e i n t e n - t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r s may be, I hope t h e y a r e aware t h e i r p roposa l can v e r y w e l l be used as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r , as i t develops on t h e b a s i s o f i n p a r t i c u l a r p r i v a t e t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . As p roducers o f raw m a t e r i a l s , T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e s t i l l t h e " fa rmers " o f t h e wor ld , b e i n g underpa id i n compar ison w i t h t h e p roducers o f f i n i s h e d p r o -

duc ts . The p roposa l d o e s n ' t a l t e r t h a t f a c t . I t o n l y moves t h e c o n t r a s t t o t h e l e v e l , where t h e producers o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o d u c t s oppose those o f ( semi - ) f i n i s h e d s i m p l e r p r o d u c t s . I n t h i s way i t r u n s p a r a l l e l w i t h a s h i f t t h a t i s t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g system anyhow and opposes those who want t h e N o r t h t o r e a l l y share i t s techno logy and know-how w i t h t h e South. I t l o o k s l i k e t h e a u t h o r s want T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s t o do t h e d i r t y b a d l y p a i d work i n t h e wor ld , l i k e f o r e i g n l e g a l and o f t e n i l l e g a l worke rs a r e do ing t h e d i r t y j o b s w i t h i n t h e wes te rn i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s .

5 ) Of course i t i s commendable t h a t t h e a u t h o r s a r e concerned abou t t h e em- p loyment a l l ove r t h e w o r l d . However, t h e y tend t o s h i f t t h e problem o f g row ing unemployment i n many c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s o f t h e N o r t h on t o t h e T h i r d World, f o r t h e y c l e a r l y a im a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e o f i m p o r t s f rom t h e West by T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s . To a l a r g e e x t e n t t h e causes o f t h i s unemployment have t o do w i t h t h e wes te rn s o c i e t y i t s e l f : t h e marke t f o r c e r t a i n p r o - duc ts hav ing reached i t s s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t , i n a b i l i t y o f t h e government t o r e - a l l o c a t e means o f p r o d u c t i o n t o p r o v i d e p r o d u c t s and s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e s t i l l

needed, au tomat ion as a r e s u l t o f h i g h l a b o u r c o s t , env i ronment problems e t - c e t e r a . T h a t ' s why I t h i n k t h e s o l u t i o n s a r e t o be found p r i m a r i l y w i t h i n t h a t same s o c i e t y .

6 ) A l though t h e f o u r a u t h o r s i n c l u d e h i g h l y exper ienced p o l i t i c i a n s , t h e i r p roposa l bears a r a t h e r one-s ided economic c h a r a c t e r . T h i s f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n a s t r i k i n g s i m p l i c i t y abou t i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n making. How i s i t f o r i n s t a n c e p o s s i b l e t o expec t t h e New World Employment Plan, t h a t s t i l l has t o be fo rmu la ted , w i l l be ready f o r imp lementa t ion i n t h e m i d d l e o f 1983?

M a i n l y d e a l i n g w i t h economic r e a l i t i e s , t h e p roposa l b a r e l y e n t e r s i n t o p o l i - t i c a l r e a l i t i e s . The r e l a t i o n s between N o r t h and South a r e t r e a t e d as an economic i s s u e and a lmos t any p o l i t i c a l r e f i n e m e n t i s l a c k i n g . The South o r t h e T h i r d Wor ld i s no homogenous e n t i t y n o r i s t h e N o r t h o r t h e West and w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e t o be made as w e l l . As a r e s u l t t h e r e i s a m y r i a d o f i n t e r e s t s i n v o l v e d . The p o l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s f o r i n s t a n c e between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Western Europe a r e n o t i r r e l e v a n t f o r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f governments and peop le i n T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s and s h o u l d be taken i n t o account , i f one wants t o t a l k abou t an e s s e n t i a l t h i n g l i k e Wor ld Employment. One cannot t a k e o u t one problem - i n t h i s case employment - and l o o k f o r an answer, w h i l e l e a v i n g a s i d e t h e r e s t . I f one does, t h e e f f o r t r i s k s t o be f r u i t l e s s .

(iheo Ruy te r work ing i n a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t o f Osaci, Amsterdam, on Dutch a g r i - bus iness and t h e T h i r d World, b u t w r i t i n g t h i s o u t o f pe rsona l i n t e r e s t ) .

' N O WOMAN NO C R Y ' 1 / by Ann R . M a t t i s -

U n i t e d S t a t e s c a l l i n g f o r Miss Ann M a t t i s "

"Yes t h i s i s she" . . . . 2:00 a.m.

"Go ahead p l e a s e "

"Hm hmm. Yu hear seh The Man dead"

' C i o . Which man?"

"Mar1 ey dead today. "

30: so m?! 5riqs to s a y r igh t now, t h e y got so ."inch thhqs to say and c e r t a i n l y a t l e a s t i n s i d e Jamaica, enough w i l l be s a i d abou t t h i s ' g r e a t Jamaican' i n t h e days t o come t h a t I h e s i t a t e t o add t o t h e songs o f p r a i s e t o t h e i n i m i t a b l e Bob Mar ley . I n a d d i t i o n I s u b s c r i b e t o t h e t e n e t t h : k ? k 2::

1 . No s u r f e i t o f accolades c o u l d render adequate homage t o t h i s p e r s o n i - f i c a t i o n o f e x c e l l e n c e , t o t h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a n a t i o n . Fa r be i t f o r me t o t r y t o d e i f y a ' s t a r ' t o i n v e s t Mar ley and h i s work w i t h t h i n g s which were n o t and a r e n o t t h e r e o r were perhaps never i n t e n d e d - t o l e n d ' s o c i a l s i g n i - f i c a n c e ' t o the work o f a man who p r a c t i s e d h i s c r a f t and who, q u i t e s i m p l y , d i d so b e a u t i f u l l y and w e l l . However, a sma l l c e l e b r a t i o n may be p e r m i t t e d t o say thanks f o r t h e exper ience .

&S p wsi:..-, vcqgae music he presaged would grow and s e t t h e peop le f r e e f rom t h e i r burdens and bondage. Some m i g h t b e tempted t o moot t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e and may even propose any numerous a l t e r n a t i v e f u n c t i o n s o f reggae, f rom a medium o f c u l t u r e , t o music by which t o make l o v e , th rough t o , i n t h e case o f many Europeans - who d o n ' t know A f rom R a s t a f a r i - music t o w r i g g e l t o and s h o u t RASTAFARI.

Never the less , f o r anyone who b e l i e v e s i n t h e power o f i deas , t h e r e i s no doub t t h a t t h e words and music such as Bob M a r l e y was capable o f l i v i n g , c o u l d w e l l s e r v e i n u n s c h a c k l i n g a peop le . T r u c u l e n t i n l y r i c s u t t e r e d amaz ing ly i n t h e mos t d u l c e t o f tones a g a i n s t a b a s i c p u l s a t i n g rhythm, Mar ley has s u s t a i n e d , u n i t e d , s t reng thened , l e n t hope t o and caused numerous Jamaicans t o dream.

B u t a wa lk th rough t h e s t r e e t o f c i t i e s such as Dakar, New York, Rome serves t o d i sabuse my i n i t i a l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t one has t o be Jamaican t o comprehend t h e i n e f f a b l e b e i n g wh ich i s Mar ley . Mar ley be longs t o t h e oppressed u n i v e r - s a l l y and e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e T h i r d Wor ld. M a r l e y belongs t o anyone who has e v e r f e l t p a i n , who has ever found themselves talk-in' bl'kes, who has ever f e l t t h e hand o f t h e , h x p r e s m , who has ever f e l t like bombing a church a m A:? ~p:,t h ^ i : h c the p i m z c h c ~ is Lying. I n this p e a t j';{iuye IJOU f7a'^i'^ j 'myct

I/ Ann M a t t i s o f J ama ica was a member of t h e S e c r e t a r i a t team d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f IFDA. She now works w i t h t h e S o c i e t y f o r I n t e r n a - t i o n a l Development ( P a l a z z o d e l l e C i v i l t s d e l Lavoro , 00144 Rome, I t a l y )

A : , S and t o o o f t e n i n t h e absence o f h i s t o r y books i t i s t o those p r i s t i n e rhythms o f Bob The Man Mar ley t h a t many Jamaicans owe t h e i r knowledge and r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r p a s t . I t i s t h a t knowledge and r e c o g n i t i o n which made a Michael Manley v i c t o r y p o s s i b l e i n Jamaica. That i s what made even momen- t a r y u n i t y p o s s i b l e i n a p e r i o d o f i n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l s t r i f e when he c a l l e d f o r or.e .'eye, cnc !ear",, te ' s gst r.opetker c r d :eeL azr because, :J<- F:; ~<Y:c-J hou G 2nd them a pc uork ;/.is c>? . , . b5.z L)@ dTak ~ e g p Z e c z ~ a k c < z s r t , mm zogether 2y.J rwke i c uork.

Some grew up w i t h Marcus Garvey, we grew up w i t h Bob Mar ley . We a r e -, ,; F?,:.- - , * .

1 . 7 1 - I . , ; v who check out re2. s ~ : ~ ~ c i o v , ,cL;:ig~ I J ~ Y

agains t nati.0,: and ask uhers Hd it all beai'iz uhen ui:? it c;-. . - ;x:Ã -i. sce-s t o t a l d e s t r > : i c ~ i o ~ the o ~ L y s?: ,~r iox .

Not always, b u t w i t h h e l p f rom people such as Mar ley , uc k o u 1~17ere uc ' r e - .

going, ue knou where ue ' r e :row . . . tuo rhousand gears Q hz.sr.oy'1 cmki',: not be uiped w a y so e a s i l y . I n t h e T h i r d Wor ld o u r exodus i n t o t r u l y independent n a t i o n s beg ins when we manage t o emancipate (our se loes ) J'ro,ny vento l s laver$ , when we accep t t h a t n o w but ourse lves can free c z r minds . . . uhm yci- J o K ' ~ . Let them fool you or even try t o school you, when we stand firir, and a s s e r t ue ' V @ got a mind of our m.

I f T h i r d Wor ld c h i l d r e n were t a u g h t naught e l s e i n school t h e y would do w e l l t o be in fo rmed o f t h e b a s i c t r u t h s o f Mar ley - t o somehow be i n f e c t e d w i t h h i s energ ies , h i s p resc ience , h i s hope, t h e y c o u l d indeed p r o c l a i m , we have been schooled. Among h i s c r i e s : ch i ld ren ge t yena' cult-nre and don ' t stay there and gesture . . . don ' t you forget uho you are and where you stand in the s truggle , and remember, uhat has been hidden from the wise and prudent, been revealed t o t he babe and suekLing and even though so ma"h have been said , so l i t t l e been done (and) they s t i l l k-i l l ing t he people, though t h e r e i s too much confusion, so much f ru s t ra t i on , be assured t h a t t h e day s h a l l come when not one of my seeds shal l s i t on a s i d ~ ~ 1 a 7 . k and beg your bread. Ne'Jer ler. a p o l i t i c i a n grant you a favour, he w i l l u h a y s ucmi t o control g m fnre i~er and even though you m i g h t n o t have no f r iends i n h i& soci- and so, ue no knou how ue and them a go uork it ou t , remember even the b igges t man you e v w d iJ . see uas once a baby ... so ge t up stand up, stand up for y o w r i g h t s . V h G c they f i gh t i/ou d o m , stand f irm . . . for someone w i l l have t o pay for the tn- nocent blood that &hey shed everyday and d 7 e ~ the r a i n fall i t don ' t fall on one man's house-top, remember t h a t . F u r t h e r , even though down there i n t he ghet to , rhey s u f f e r ... I and I hang on i n there and. I and I nau leggo. Many more w i l l have to s u f f e r , many more u H l have t o d i e - don ' t ask me uhy. P i t y t h e l i v i n g t h a t M a r l e y ' s u n c t i o n s w i l l no l o n g e r ease t h e s u f f e r a t i o n .

B u t these a r e words - s t e r i l e and l i f e l e s s w i t h o u t t h e rhy thm which i s Mar ley , d i m i n i s h e d w i t h o u t i t s i n d o m i t a b l e source . However, c o n f i d e n t t h a t d f ' l c I'm gone, every th ing 's gonna be a l r i g h t , ... ue uon ' t shed no t e rns , up found a way t o e a s t m a y the fears . Won't you he lp t o s ing these songs of fr-&m, redemption songs.

We ' l l never be b lue , no matter what rages, changes w e ' l l be forever.

WO YO WO Yo WO YOYOYO WO Yoyoyo. Jah l i v e s .

( A l l t h e words i n i t a l i c s a r e t a k e n f rom t h e works o f Bob Mar ley , excep t f o r D i s y a m u s i c ' wh ich i s f rom P e t e r Tosh) .

MATERIALS RECEIVED LOCAL SPACE

. H i l k k a P i e t i l a , Women - an a l t e r n a t i v e movement on a g l o b a l s c a l e ? (The F i n n i s h UN A s s o c i a t i o n , U n i o n i n k a t u 45B, SF 00170, H e l s i n k i 17, F i n l a n d ) .

. John Knesl , The p o t e n t i a l f o r s m a l l - s c a l e s e c t o r , u r b a n - a g r i c u l t u r e and ecosystem development i n T h i r d World c i t i e s (535 Eas t 1 4 t h S t r e e t , Apt . 4F, New York, NY 10009, USA), 4 pp.

. P ie r re -Andre J u l i e n e t Jean-Louis S a s s e v i l l e , C o n t r i b u t i o n s a un nouveau paradigme du developpement i n t e g r e ( L a b o r a t o i r e d ~ o o n j o n c ~ e ~ s p e c t i v e , - 24 Rue du Docteur Marcon, 83150 Bandol, F rance) , 22 pp.

. Vinod Vyasulu, A l t e r n a t e development s t r a t e g i e s f o r Koraput ( I n d i a n I n s t i - t u t e o f ~ a n a g e m e n t T 3 3 , Lang fo rd Road, Bangalore-560 027, I n d i a ) , 23 pp.

. Wench E a r t h Eide and Dr . F i l o m i n a Steady, E v a l u a t i o n i n an A f r i c a n c o n t e x t : s p e c i a l emphasis on t h e woman producer and rep roducer - some t h e o r e t i c a l con-

pp--.----- - s i d e r a t i o n s ( 1 n s t i t u . e f o r N u t r i t i o n Research, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oslo, Norway),17pp.

. H a r i Mohan Mathur , Rura l development i n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s : an a n t h r o - p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e (Government o f I n d i a , Department o f Personnel , T r a i n i n g D i v i s i o n , New D e l h i i10001, I n d i a ) , 14 pp.

. Ri t a D ixon-Fy l e, Technology, "Another Educa t ion" a n d development i n A f r i c a (30, r u e des B o s s o n s ~ l ~ x ~ e ~ , ~ w i t z e r l a n d ) , 10 pp.

NATIONAL SPACE

. Ernes to M. Va lenc ia , The debate on t r a n s n a t i o n a l s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : A r e v i e w ( T h i r d Wor ld ~tud-er, C o l l e g e o f A r t s and Sciences, U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , D i l iman , Quezon C i t y , Me t ro Man i la , P h i l i p p i n e s ) , 6 pp.

. Eduardo C. T a d w , A c r i t i q u e o f development p a t t e r n s i n Mindanao ( T h i r d World S t u d i e s C e n t e r , m e g e o f A r t s and Sciences, U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p - p ines, D i l i m a n , Quezon C i t y , Me t ro Man i la , P h i l i p p i n e s ) , 4 pp.

. P i e r r e Pasca l lon , I n t e r r o g a t i o n s s u r 1e determin isme du d@veloppement ( U n i v e r s i t e de Clermont, Facul t e des s c i e n c e s - 6 c ? % o ~ e s , B.P. 54, 41 Boule- v a r d Gergovia, 63002 C le rmont Fer rand Cedex, F rance) , 8 pp.

. A.K. Ventura, Parameters o f underdevelopment ( S c i e n t i f i c Research C o u n c i l . P.O. Box 350, K i n g s t o n 6, Jamaica, W . I. ) , 16 pp.

. A j i t Roy, Government and b i g bus iness i n I n d i a (Cen t re f o r Educa t ion & Documentation, 3 Suleman Chambers, 4 B a t t e r y S t r e e t , Behind Regal Cinema, Bombay 400 039, I n d i a ) , 10 pp.

GLOBAL S P A C E

. L.A. Derno i , Towards a new s t y l e i n Nor th -Sou th r e l a t i o n s : t h e example o f a l t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m (!,.T.) ( I n s t i t u t e fur Zukun f t s fo rschung GmbH, G iesebrech t - s t r a s s e 15, 1000 B e r l i n 12, R.F.A.) , 10 pp.

. H. Leo Theuns and Amina Rasheed, A l t e r n a t i v e approaches t o t e r t i a r y t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s (Development Research I n s t i t u t e , T i l b u r g U n i v e r s i t y , The N e t h e r l a n d s ) , (Cen t re d i S t u d i T u r i s t i c i , F lo rence , I t a l y ) , 16 pp.

. J.A. Karunaratne, E x p o r t process zones and t h e buccaneer ing f r e e e n t r e p r i s s i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s : w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o S r i Lanka (Depar tment o f Eco- nomic H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f Stockholm, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden), 7 pp.

. Jean-Louis T roup in , La B e l g i q u e f a c e a l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n du t iers-monde, esqu isse d ' u n e s t r a t e g i c a l t e r n a t i v e d ' a d a p t a t i o n ( U n i v e r s i t e C a t h o l i q u e de Louva in , 1ns t i t%t d ' e t u d e des pays en developpement, 19, r u e des Wal lons, 1348 Louvain- la-Neuve, B e l g i q u e ) , 10 pp.

(Development Educa t ion Forum, Lu the ran Wor ld F e d e r a t i o n , Geneva).

I FDA DOSSIER ' JUNELAGE' , .

Â¥.L;" c,.; ;-e;;.~csants 'ng oun subscription and one f u r t h e r one so t h a t a , . , , , . P : s s b e ay rece'l.de your Dossier f ree f o r one year. Why , -,,I , '!y/ i.v p r m o t e this t y p e of jumehge?

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

LOCAL SPACE

. L16conomie s o u t e r r a i n e ( P a r i s : La Documentation f r a n c a i s e , No. 400, 24.10.80) 40 DD. Cf . a l s o R a f f a e l e de Graz ia , ' C l a n d e s t i n e employment: a problem o f o u r t i m e s ' , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour Review ( V o l . 119, No. 5; S-eptember/October 1980) , pp. 549-564. The I t a l i a n Counc i l f o r S o c i a l Sc iences ( V i a l e Mazz in i 88, 00195, Rome) i s p l a n n i n g t o o rgan ize , i n t h e f a l l o f 1982, an i n t e r n a t i o n a l symposium on t h e ' underg round economy' ( c f . IFDA D o s s i e r 19 ) .

. Women i n t h e 80s (London: Counter I n f o r m a t i o n Serv i ces , A n t i - R e p o r t No. 28, S p r i n g 1981 ( 9 Poland S t r e e t , London W1, UK).

. A l b e r t M e i s t e r , L ' a u t o g e s t i o n en u n i f o r m e (Toulouse: P r i v a t , 1981), 306 pp.

. Branko Horva t , 'Search ing f o r a s t r a t e g y o f t r a n s i t i o n ' , Economic A n a l y s i s and w o r k e r s ' management ( V o l . XIV, No. 3, 1981), pp. 311-324.

. J a r o s l a v Vanek, 'Yugos lav ia as t h e pa thbreaker f o r t h e g l o b a l s o c i e t y ' , Economic A n a l y s i s and w o r k e r s ' management ( V o l . X I V , No. 4, 1981), pp. 445-463 (P.O. Box 611, 11000 Beograd, Yugos lav ia ) .

. I v a n Laca, 'The League o f communists and se l f -management ' , S o c i a l i s t t h o u g h t and p r a c t i c e ( V o l . X X I , No. 1, 1981), pp. 38-48 ( T r g Marksa i Engelsa 11, 11000 Beograd, Yugos lav ia ) .

. Bruce Stokes, H e l p i n g ou rse lves , Loca l s o l u t i o n s t o g l o b a l problems (New York: W . W . N o r t o n & Company, 1981) A Worldwatch I n s t i t u t e book d i s c u s s i n g w o r k e r s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n , consumers' energy, h e a l t h .

. C a r l o s Rojas, Land re fo rm: i t i s t h e answer? A Venezuelan peasant speaks (San F r a n c i s c o : IFDP, 1981) 18 pp (2588 M i s s i o n S t r . , San F ranc isco , CA 94110)

. Dav id C. Kor ten, 'Community o r g a n i z a t i o n and r u r a l development: a l e a r n i n g process approach , 'Pub l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Review (September 1980) , pp. 480-510.

. World H e a l t h Forum, a new q u a t e r l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h e a l t h deve lop - ment p u b l i s h e d by t h e WHO (1211 Geneva 27, S w i t z e r l a n d ) . Pub l i shed i n A r a b i c , Chinese, E n g l i s h , French, Russian and Spanish, t h i s new q u a t e r l y , i n t e n d e d f o r a broad audience, w i l l 'encourage d i s c u s s i o n on h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c s ' .

. Hazel Henderson, ' D i s s e c t i n g t h e d e c l i n i n g ' p r o d u c t i v i t y ' f l a p ' , Techno- l o g i c a l f o r e c a s t i n g and s o c i a l change (No. 18, 1980) , pp. 93-112. -

. Ignacy Sachs, ' Les temps-espaces de developpement ' , Diogene (No. 112, octobre-decembre 1980), pp. 80-95 ( 1 r u e M i o l l i s , 75732 P a r i s , F rance) .

N A T I O N A L SPACE

. S e r g i o B i t a r ( c o m p i l a d o r ) , C h i l e : l i b e r a l i s m 0 economico y d i c t a d u r a p o l i t i c a (Lima: I n s t i t u t e de Es tud ios Peruanos, 1980) 182 pp.

. S e r g i o B i t a r , ' F u t u r o l o g i a p o l i t i c a : Que se ra de t i, C h i l e , de s e g u i r todo a s i ' , Separata de A n a t i s i s (Afio I V , No. 33, A b r i l 1981), 8 pp. (Crescen te E r r a z u r i z 1711, ~a-de C h i l e ) .

. V i c e n t e Navarro, 'Genocide i n E l S a l v a d o r ' , Mon th ly Review ( V o l . 32, No. 11, A p r i l 1981), pp. 1-16 (62 W 1 4 t h S t r e e t , New York 10011, USA).

. Edber to M. V i l l e g a s , Notes on t h e l a b o r code and t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e indus - t r i a l w o r k i n g c l a s s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , mimeog., 21 pp., and

. Rober to T i g l a o , The p o l i t i c a l economy o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s Coconut i n d u s t r y , mimeog., 63 pp., T h i r d Wor ld S tud ies , Rm 428, C o l l e g e o f A r t s and Sciences, U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s System, D i l iman , Quezon C i t y , Me t ro M a n i l a , P h i l i p p i n e s .

. From t h e I n s t i t u t e o f l a b o r s t u d i e s a t t h e N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f Lesotho, Maseru Campus, P r i v a t e Bag, Maseru 100, Leso tho) :

- J.B. K. Kabur ise, The l a w and t h e m i g r a t o r y l a b o u r system: t h e case o f Lesotho, rnirneo, 23 pp. - T.V. Ramahapu, The c o n t r o l l i n g mechanisms o f t h e mine compound system i n South A f r i c a , mimeo, 29 pp. - Frank B a f f o e , The economics o f m i g r a t o r y l a b o u r e x p l o i t a t i o n i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a : i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r m i g r a n t s and s u p p l i e r c o u n t r i e s , mimeo, 16 pp.

. Hazel Henderson, The p o l i t i c s b f s o l a r age (New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1981) The new book of Hazel Henderson outlines the needed reconceptualizing of major political issues in the industrialized nations during the 1980s and beyond. This new politics lies beyond all the old economic formulas and must deal with the massive transition now underway as these societies, both market-oriented and centrally-planned, shift from unsustainable non renewable resource use and the confrontations of the dying Age of Petroleum, to the renewable energy and resource-based economies managed for long-term, sustained-yield productivity of the dawning Solar Age.

THIRD WORLD SPACE

. Abdelkader Sid-Ahmed, L'OPEP, passe, p r e s e n t e t p e r s p e c t i v e s ( A l g e r : O f f i c e des pub1 i c a t i o n s u n i v e r s i t a i r e s , 1980), 550 pp. Avec un a-ropre de Mohamed Bed jaou i e t une p r e f a c e de P h i l i p p e de Seynes.

. Brahim Brah im i e t a1, Aspects de l ' i n f o r m a t i o n au Maghreb ( A l g e r : Cen t re maghrebin d ' e t u d e s e t de recherches a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s , 1980), 266 pp.

GLOBAL S P A C E

. Inga Thorsson, 'Disarmament i ssues and p r o s p e c t s ' , Mainst ream ( V o l . X I X , No. 33, I S A p r i l 1931) , (F -24 Bhagat Singh Market , New D e l h i , I n d i a ) .

. Jan Prank, ' V o r t n Soutn d i a l o g u e ' , T h i r d World Q u a t e r l y ( V o l . 3, No. 2 ) , pp. 189-2C9.

. Ka th l een Newland, Refugees: t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l p01 i t i c s o f d isp lacemen? (Worldwatch Paper No. 43, March 1981) .

. UNCTAD s e c r e t a r i a t , 'The deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d economy', OPEC r e v i e w ( V o l . I V , MO. 3 , Autumn 1980) , pp. 65-84.

. C o i i n Norman, M i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s a t work : p r o d u c t i v i t y and j o b s i n t h e w o r l d economy (Washington: Worldwatch Paper 39, 1980) , 64 pp.

. Juan Rada, T h e i m p a c t o f m i c r o - e l e c t r o n i c s (Geneva: I L O , 1980) , 110 pp.

. R ichard G e r s t e r , ' S w i t z e r l a n d and t h e r e v i s i o n o f t h e P a r i s Conven t ion ' Journa l o f World Trade Law ( V o l . 15, No. 2, M a r c h / A p r i l 1981), p p . 111-123. -- .p

. Jean-Jacques Servan-Schre ibe r , Le d e f i mond ia l ( P a r i s : Fayard, 1980) D i s c u t a b l e e t s t i m u l a n t . P u b l i e egalement en al lemand, p o r t u g a i s , espagnol, a n g l a i s , f i n l a n d a i s , i t a l i e n , j apona is , arabe, no rveg ien , h o l l a n d a i s , h i n d i .

. Lars A n e l l and B r i g i t t a Nygren, The d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s and t h e w o r l d economic o r d e r ( L o n d ~ n : Frances P i n t e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1980) , 218 pp.

Bernard Wood e t a1, Canadian a i d and t h e envi ronment , The p o l i c i e s and

. The envi ronment and t h e Ne ther lands Programme f o r B i l a t e r a l Development c o o p e r a t i o n (The Hague: I n s t i t u t e o f S o c i a l S t u d i e s , 1980) . Sound environmental management will only be possible if competing and sometimes conflicting claims on natural resources can clearly be defined and brought into better harmony. Improved performance in conservation and management requires insight into the complex interaction between man and environment to be accom- pdnied by mechanisms and instruments with which to enhance capacity for action. The main domains of concern of the report is the natural and man-made environ- ments, particularly in rural areas. The report focuses on three areas considered relevant for analysis and action, 1) the structure and dimension of Dutch aid; 2 ) methodological. guides to a functionally-integrated analysis of the state of, and trends in the environment in Third World countries, guides which are tested out in country-specific inventories (Bangladesh, Colombia, Egypt, Sri Lanka, Upper VoLta) included in the annex of the report; 3 ) discussions on the concept and issues of the problems of the environment in relation to development.

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ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT I N GRENADA

( c o n t . f rom page 2 )

The r e v o l u t i o n i s a l s o a c u l t u r a l o n e . Change b e a r s on p e o p l e ' s m e n t a l i t y . On t h e b a s i s o f endogenous v a l u e s - b l a c k power i s an i m p o r t a n t i d e o l o g i c a l s o u r c e of t h e New J e w e l Movement - and t r a d i t i o n s o f p e o p l e s ' s t r u g g l e , a new s e n s e o f s e l f c o n f i d e n c e and d i g n i t y i s b e i n g enhanced .

Tha t s e l f - r e l i a n c e - e s p e c i a l l y i n food p r o d u c t i o n - i s a c o r n e r - s t o n e o f t h e p r o c e s s does n o t imply a u t a r c h y . On t h e c o n t r a r y , Grenada h a s e s t a b l i s h e d c o o p e r a t i v e l i n k s w i t h a number o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , Cuba t o s t a r t w i t h , and a l s o A l g e r i a , I r a q , L ibya , S y r i a , Venezue la , a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e European community. The New J e w e l Movement i s a member o f t h e S o c i a l i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l

T h i s i s h i g h l y d i s t u r b i n g f o r t h o s e who b e n e f i t f rom t h e o l d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r , and t h e most powerfu l c o u n t r y o f t h e p l a n e t d o e s n o t f i n d it shamefu l t o t r y and p r e v e n t European c o u n t r i e s t o h e l p t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a i r p o r t , n o r t o mount a v i c i o u s d i s i n f o r m a t i o n campaign on one major TV ne twork .

We w i l l have much more t o s a y on Grenada. What we wanted t o s h a r e immedia te ly w i t h o u r r e a d e r s i s o u r c o n v i c t i o n t h a t Grenada i s moving t o w a r d s a n o t h e r development i n t h e most h o s t i l e geo- p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ; t h a t i t d e s e r v e s t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s u p p o r t o f a l l t h o s e , i n d i v i d u a l s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s and governments , who a r e committed, o r a r e p r e p a r e d t o g i v e a c h a n c e , t o a g e n u i n e , p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d p r o c e s s o f deve lopment . Marc N e r f i n

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