Fundamental Rightsand

Their Enforcement

UDAI RAJ RAI, PhD (London), LLM (Allahabad)

Formerly: Krishna Iyer Chair ProfessorNational Law School of India University (NLSIU), Bangalore;

Visiting Professor, National University of Juridical Sciences (NUJS), Kolkata; andProfessor, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law, Gorakhpur (UP) University

New Delhi-1100012011

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND THEIR ENFORCEMENTUdai Raj Rai

© 2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this bookmay be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission inwriting from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4432-7

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana-124507.

Dedicated toThe memory of my Parents and

to that of my Wife

v

CONTENTS

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xxi

Table of Cases xxiii

Introduction 1–11

I.A Eclectic Nature of the Document 1I.B How Fundamental are the Fundamental Rights? 2I.C Political and Civil Rights 4I.D Group Rights 4I.E Rights Rooted Respectively in Equality and Liberty Values 7I.F Right Granted to Persons, Citizens or Some Specified Group 7I.G Specifically Enumerated Restrictions on Rights 8I.H Are There Any Unenumerated Rights? 10

CHAPTER 1 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS I:FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 12–144

Part I Article 19 Rights in General 121.I.A An Overview of Articles 19 to 22 121.I.B The Rights Guaranteed under Article 19 131.I.C Corporations and Article 19 Rights 141.I.D Reasonableness of Restrictions 17

1.I.D(a) The Nature of the Right Infringed 181.I.D(b) Nature of the Interest Sought to be Protected 201.I.D(c) The Extent and Urgency of the Evil Sought to

be Remedied 211.I.D(d) The Disproportion of the Imposition 231.I.D(e) Prevailing Conditions at the Time 261.I.D(f) Procedural Safeguards 261.I.D(g) Reasonableness of Restriction, Not of Law 29

Part II Freedom of Speech and Expression 311.II.A Introductory 31

vi Contents

1.II.B Free Speech Justifications 31Free Speech: Categories 35

1.II.C What does the Right Commote? 351.II.C(a) Symbolic Speech 361.II.C(b) Commercial Speech 381.II.C(c) Freedom of Information and Right to Know 421.II.C(d) Right Not to Speak 621.II.C(e) Election Speeches 641.II.C(f) Speech Right of Government Servants 67

Part III Free Speech: Limitations 72Section A: Content-based Limitations 721.III.A(a) Introductory 721.III.A(b) Internal and External Security and Maintenance

of Order 721.III.A(c) Freedom of Speech and Administration of Justice 861.III.A(d) Freedom of Speech Versus Decency and Morality 1011.III.A(e) Freedom of Speech Versus Reputation and

Privacy 1111.III.A(f) Other Limitations on Speech Right 118Section B: Content-neutral Limitations 121

Part IV Special Problems of Media Freedom 1261.IV.A Introduction 1261.IV.B Institutional Position of the Media 1271.IV.C Permissibility of Prior Restraint 1291.IV.D Speech and Business Elements Mixed 1321.IV.E Problem of Concentration in the Media: Print Media 1341.IV.F Electronic Media 1381.IV.G Access to the Media 1401.IV.H The Press Council 1431.IV.I Article 19(1)(a) in Cyberspace 143

CHAPTER 2 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS II: REST OFARTICLE 19 RIGHTS 145–213

Part I Assembly, Association, Movement and Residence 1452.1.A Right of Assembly 1462.1.B Right of Association 150

2.1.B(a) Positive Right Includes the Negative Right 1502.1.B(b) No Right of Recognition 1512.1.B(c) No Interference in the Composition of

the Association is Permissible 1532.1.B(d) The Issue of Concomitant Rights 1552.1.B(e) Declaring an Association Unlawful 156

2.1.C Movement and Residence 1592.1.C(a) Externment Order to Deal with an Emergency

Situation 159

Contents vii

2.1.C(b) Externment Order as a Substitute forthe Measures Prescribed in Cr.P.C. 161

2.1.C(c) Surveillance 1672.1.C(d) Miscellaneous Cases 168

Part II Profession, Occupation, Trade and Business 170

2.II.A Introductory: Nature of the Right Protected 1702.II.A(a) Basic Principles 1702.II.A(b) Saghir Ahmad & Rickshaw-Pullers Cases 1722.II.A(c) Sodan Singh and the Rest 174

2.II.B Res Extra Commercium 1772.II.B(a) The Principle 1772.II.B(b) RMDC Case 1782.II.B(c) Liquor Trade Cases 1792.II.B(d) Fatehchand Himmatlal 182

2.II.C Restrictions 1842.II.C(a) Labour-Management Relations 1862.II.C(b) Restrictions on Slaughter of Animals 1922.II.C(c) Consumer Protection 1952.II.C(d) Licensing 203

2.II.D State Monopoly 210

CHAPTER 3 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS III: MEANINGOF LIFE AND PERSONAL LIBERTY 214–273

Part I Judicial Detour: Gopalan to Maneka 215

3.I.A A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras 2153.I.B Post-Gopalan Developments 223

3.I.B(a) Meaning of Personal Liberty 2233.I.B(b) Applicability of Article 19 226

3.I.C Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India 2303.I.D Summing up and an Evaluation 235

Part II Right to Life: Its Meaning and Content 239

3.II.A Introductory 2393.II.B Right to Life: General Scope 2403.II.C Exclusively Constitutional Rights 242

3.II.C(a) Right to Education 2423.II.C(b) Right to Livelihood 245

3.II.D Rights which are Simultaneously Constitutional andOrdinary Legal Rights 248

3.II.D(a) Sanctity of Life and Limbs 2503.II.D(b) Right to Live in a Pollution-free Environment 254

3.II.E Some Other Interests Struggling to be Recognised asRights 257

viii Contents

Part III Meaning of Personal Liberty 2613.III.A The Core Meaning of Personal Liberty: Right against

Unlawful Arrest and Detention 2613.III.B Right to Go Abroad 2633.III.C Privacy 2633.III.D Individual Autonomy as a Privacy Right and its Many

Manifestations 2673.III.D(a) Restitution of Conjugal Rights 2693.III.D(b) Interference with Procreative Liberty 2703.III.D(c) Right to Die 270

3.III.E Is Property Right Part of Personal Liberty 272

CHAPTER 4 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS IV: PUNITIVEDEPRIVATION OF LIFE AND PERSONALLIBERTY 274–330

Part I The Three Guarantees of Article 20 2764.I.A Guarantee against Ex Post Facto Laws 276

4.I.A(a) An Innocent Act cannot be Made CriminalRetrospectively 277

4.I.A(b) Prohibition against RetrospectiveEnhancement of Punishment 280

4.I.B Guarantee against Double Jeopardy 2824.I.B(a) Prosecution 2834.I.B(b) Prosecuting and Punishing More Than Once

(for the same offence) 2884.I.B(c) Prosecuting and Punishing for

the Same Offence 2884.I.C Privilege against Self Incrimination 290

4.I.C(a) Introductory 2904.I.C(b) Meaning of ‘To be a Witness’ 2934.I.C(c) Meaning of Compulsion 2974.I.C(d) To Whom and When is Protection Available? 302

Part II Protection against Arrest and Detention 3084.II.A Right to be Informed of the Grounds of Arrest 3084.II.B Right to Consult and to be Defended by a Legal

Practitioner of One’s Choice 3094.II.C Production before the Magistrate 3104.II.D Reach of the Rights against Arrest and Detention 312Part III Residuary Features of Fair Procedure 3144.III.A Impartial Tribunal 3144.III.B Right of Appeal 3164.III.C Free Legal Assistance 3174.III.D Bail 3184.III.E Speedy Trial 321

Contents ix

4.III.F Miscellaneous Issues 3274.III.F(a) More Stringent Rules for Crimes Related to

Terrorism 3274.III.F(b) Standard of Proof 3284.III.F(c) Plea Bargaining 3304.III.F(d) Polygraph Test 330

CHAPTER 5 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS V: PREVENTIVEDETENTION, DEATH SENTENCE ANDPRISONERS’ RIGHTS 331–407

Part I Preventive Detention 3325.I.A Introductory 3325.I.B An Overview of the Constitutional Scheme on Preventive

Detention 333

5.I.B(a) Allocation of Legislative Power 3335.I.B(b) Fundamental Rights as Limitations on

Detention Power 3365.I.C Duration of Detention 339

5.I.C(a) Preliminary 3395.I.C(b) The Meaning of ‘Such Detention’ in

Article 22(4)(a) 3395.I.C(c) Can the Period of Detention be Extended

Beyond Three Months Only If the MaximumPeriod is Prescribed 340

5.I.C(d) Cases and Circumstances in Article 22(7)(a) 343

5.I.D Communication of the Grounds of Detention and Right toMake Representation 3485.I.D(a) Meaning of Grounds 3495.I.D(b) Meaning of Communication of Grounds 3555.I.D(c) Representation and Its Consideration 357

5.I.E Limitations of Other Fundamental Rights 3635.I.E(a) Article 14 and Preventive Detention Law 3645.I.E(b) Article 19 and Preventive Detention Law 3655.I.E(c) Article 21 and Preventive Detention Law 366

5.I.F Judicial Review 371

5.I.F(a) Detaining Authority Required to Apply HisMind 373

5.I.F(b) All Relevant Facts Must be Considered 3765.I.F(c) Non-Existent or Irrelevant Grounds 3775.I.F(d) Mala Fides and Colourable Exercise of Power 3795.I.F(e) Satisfaction of the Detaining Authority 381

Part II Death Sentence and Its Constitutionality 384

5.II.A Principal Contentions of the Contending Sides 384

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5.II.B Applicable Law 3855.II.C Cases: Constitutionality of Death Sentence 386

5.II.C(a) Jagmohan Singh v. State of UP 3865.II.C(b) Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab 3875.II.C(c) Mithu v. State of Punjab 389

5.II.D Problems Arising from Delayed Execution 3905.II.E Article 21 and Mode of Execution 392

Part III Prisoners’ Rights 3945.III.A Introductory 3945.III.B Some Pre-Maneka Pronouncements 3945.III.C New Philosophy of Prison Administration 3965.III.D Right against Unjustified Use of Bar-Fetters 3985.III.E Right against Unnecessary Hand-Cuffing 3995.III.F Right against Being Kept in Solitary Confinement 4015.III.G Humane Conditions of Living 4035.III.H Payment of Wages to the Prisoners 4045.III.I Article 21 and Substantive Reasonableness 405

CHAPTER 6 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS VI: FREEDOMOF RELIGION 408–449

Part I Secularism 4106.I.A Secularism: Its Meaning and Nature 4106.I.B A Secular State Presupposes a Secular Society 4116.I.C Roots of Secularism in India 4126.I.D Secularism and the Indian Constitution 412Part II Individual and Denominational Freedom of Religion 414

6.II.A Articles 25 and 26 and Their Interrelationship 4146.II.B Rights Guaranteed under Article 25 416

6.II.B(a) Freedom of Conscience and Right to Profess andPractise Religion 416

6.II.B(b) Right to Propagate Religion 4176.II.C Limitations on Article 25 Rights 419

6.II.C(a) Public Order, Morality and Health 4196.II.C(b) Other Provisions of Part III 4226.II.C(c) Social Welfare and Reform 422

6.II.D Religious Denominations and Their Freedom 4246.II.D(a) Introductory 4246.II.D(b) Meaning of Religious Denomination 4256.II.D(c) Acquisition of Religious Institutions or

Properties Belonging to Such Institutions 4286.II.D(d) Takeover of, or Interference with the

Management of Religious Institutions 430

Fundamental Rights And TheirEnforcement

Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 9788120344327 Author : RAI, UDAI RAJ

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