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Fundamentals of Fortran 90. Basic Building Blocks. Identifiers. An identifier is a name that a programmer creates for items within a program including: variables, constants, and subprograms. Rules for Identifiers. The first character must be a letter. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Fundamentals of Fortran Fundamentals of Fortran 9090
Basic Building Blocks
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Identifiers
An identifier is a name that a programmer creates for items within a program including: variables, constants, and subprograms.
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Rules for Identifiers1 The first character must be a letter.2 The remaining characters may be
letters, digits, or the underscore.3 There may be no more than 31
characters in an identifier.
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Guidelines for Identifiers Capitalize the first letter If the identifier is composed of two
words which have been concatenated (run together) Capitalize the first letter of each word Optionally, place an underscore between
the words Select identifiers that have some
significance to the problem being solved
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Identifiers Valid:
TaxRate Last_Page Radius Not Valid
Time-secs 3rdYear
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Variables
Each variable can store a single value Since computers use several different internal
representations for various types of data, a specific data type must be associated with each variable
The value can be changed while the program is running, but the data type cannot be changed
A variable is a memory location in the primary memory of a computer.
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Data TypesFortran 90 supports five basic data types
Fortran 90 allows a programmer to define additionaldata types to fit a specific application.
INTEGER REAL CHARACTER LOGICAL COMPLEX
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Declarations
A declaration reserves variables (memory locations) for each of the identifiers and associates a data type with each variable
A declaration DOES NOT provide an initial value for any variable
type_name :: list of identifiers separated by commas
Syntax
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Examples of DeclarationsREAL :: A, BINTEGER :: KINTEGER :: NLOGICAL :: IsThereCHARACTER (6) :: W, T, H*17
• W, T and H are character variables
• W and T will hold exactly 6 characters
• H will hold exactly 17 characters
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Default Types
Fortran does not require that variables be declared
If a variable is referenced without being declared, Fortran will give that variable a data type based on the first letter of its identifier I through N ==> INTEGER otherwise ==> REAL
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The IMPLICIT Statement The IMPLICIT statement can be used to
override Fortran’s rules for assigning data types to undeclared variables
Good programming style is to declare all variables in a program
If the statement IMPLICIT NONE precedes the first declaration, the Fortran 90 compiler will ensure that every variable which is used in the program has been explicitly declared
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Writing an INTEGER Value String of digits No commas Optional + or - sign Examples:
21856 -89 0
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Integers: Valid & Invalid Valid
234 +236 -225 0
Not Valid 5- --5 17.0 14,555
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Writing a REAL Value (1) Fixed Point Form ( xxx.xx )
String of digits with decimal point No commas Optional + or - sign Valid Real Values:
-54.873 0.0 6.5 18.0 0.56 NOT Valid Reals:
12,345.67 12
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Writing a REAL Value (2) Floating Point Form
Analogous to scientific notation Basic form: fEn
Fixed point real ( f ) “Mantissa” letter E integer exponent ( n )
Interpretation f*10n
Examples: 6.57E-3 for 0.00657 -45.6E4 for -456000.0 0.7206E+3 for 720.6
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Writing a Character Value Two forms
‘string’ “string”
Either form can be used Examples
“This is easy” ‘What is your name?’ “That’s all folks”
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Declaring a Constant
This variant on the basic declaration is used to give a symbolic name to a constant
The use of declared constants is considered to be a better programming practice than writing the value of the constant in the code itself unless the constant is an integral part of a formula and will never change value or precision
type_name, PARAMETER :: name = value
Syntax
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Examples Using PARAMETER
INTEGER, PARAMETER :: NumStates = 50
REAL, PARAMETER :: PI = 3.14159
CHARACTER (*), PARAMETER :: Prompt = “next>“
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Assignment Statement Syntax
target_variable = expression
Syntax
The value represented by the expression on the right hand side of the equal sign is stored in the target variable, replacing its previous value
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Assignment Statement Uses
Store a specific value in a variable N = 32 ; X = -3.5 ; W = ‘cat’
Copy a value from one variable to another T = N
Store a computed value in a variable X = 3.5 + W
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Numeric Conversions on Assignment
INTEGER :: K, N, MREAL :: W, C, Y
N = 6.8
X = 53
K = -6W = K
Y = 7.8M =N
Integer value 6 will be stored in N (truncation rather than rounding)
Real value 53.0 will be stored in X
Integer value -6 will be stored in KReal value -6.0 will be stored in W
Real value 7.8 will be stored in YInteger value 6 will be stored in M
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Character Padding and Truncation on Assignment
CHARACTER (5) :: A, BCHARACTER (8) :: C
A = ‘frog’
B = “elephant”
C = B
frog’ will be stored in A (padded out to five characters with blank at end)
Note: The symbol ’ represents a blank space
eleph will be stored in B (extra characters are truncated from the right end)
eleph’’’ will be stored in C (B contained eleph which must be padded to 8 characters)
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Numeric ExpressionsA numeric expression is any mathematically valid sequence of operators, operands, and parentheses.
An operand is a constant, variable, or value returned by a function.
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Arithmetic Operators
+ add- subtract* multiply/ divide** exponentiation
A**B means AB
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Result Types The result type is determined for each
mathematical operation The type is based on the type of the
operands If both operands are INTEGER, the result
is an integer If at least one operand is REAL, the
result is a real number
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Precedence Rules Evaluate subexpressions in parentheses Determine the value returned by any
function call Evaluate ** (right to left)
2**3**5 is the same as 2**(3**5) Evaluate * and / from left to right Evaluate + and - from left to right
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Precedence Rules All exponentiations are performed
first; consecutive exponentiations are performed from right to left
2 ** 3 ** 2 = 2 ** 9 = 512 All multiplications and divisions are
performed next, in the order in which they appear from left to right.
10 / 5 * 2 = 2 * 2 = 4
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Precedence Rules The additions and subtractions are
performed last, in the order in which they appear from left to right 10 + 8 – 2 + 3 = 19
Another example 2 + 4 ** 2 / 2
2 + 16 / 2 2 + 8 10
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Characteristics of the / Operator If numerator and denominator are integers,
the quotient is truncated to an integer• 23/5 is 4 rather than 4.6
If either the numerator or denominator is a real number, the quotient is a real number
• 12/9.0 is 1.3333• 3.6/1.2 is 3.0• 8.6/2 is 4.3• 23.0/5.0 is 4.6
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Characteristics of the ** Operator
If B is a nonnegative integer, Fortran uses repeated multiplication to evaluate A**B
If B is a real number, Fortran uses the expression eB*ln(A) to approximate A**B. Ex. (-4.0) ** 2.0 is undefined, because the
logarithms of negative values are not defined.
Consider A**B
31
Type Conversions
Using both integers and reals in a computation is a poor programming practice.
Fortran provides some type conversion functions to convert a value to a different data type.
Type conversions should be used to avoid mixed data types in an expression.
The original value is not changed, but the converted value is placed in a temporary (unnamed) variable.
32
Type Conversion Examples
INTEGER ==> REAL REAL ==> INTEGERINTEGER N
REAL X
N = 15
X = 3.7 * REAL(N)X = 3.7 * 15.0N is unchanged
INTEGER K
REAL Y
Y = 2.8
K = INT(Y) + 5K = 2 + 5Y is unchanged
33
A Few FunctionsA good programmer makes use of functions that are providedas part of the programming language. Fortran 90 has an extensive collection of intrinsic functions. (See Appendix D)
SQRT(X) Preferred to X**(0.5)
ABS(X) Absolute value
SIN(X), COS(X), TAN(X) Angles must be in radians
EXP(X) eX
LOG(X) ln X
LOG10(X) log10X
MOD(A,B) A mod B
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Form of a Program ------------ Header portion ------------- Initial comment block PROGRAM statement --------- Specification portion --------- IMPLICIT NONE Type specification statements -------- Execution portion ------------ READ, PRINT, and assignments -------- Ending portion --------------- END PROGRAM statement
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Structure of a Line of Source Code
Maximum of 132 characters. Can begin anywhere on the line. Two or more statements can appear on a single
line if they are separated by semicolons. Blanks can be inserted to improve comprehension. A comment can appear at the end of the line. If a statement label is used, it must appear first.
A label is an unsigned integer with at most 5 digits. If a statement is too long, place an ampersand, &,
at the end and continue on the next line.
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Comments
Everything from the exclamation mark (!), to the end of the line is a comment
A comment can appear on a line by itself or at the end of some other line Comments are included in a program to provide a person with
information about the program Comments are ignored by the compiler
! comment
Syntax
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The PROGRAM Statement
Provides a name (identifier) for the program Optional but strongly recommended Required by most programming standards Must be the first statement, but can be preceded
by comments
PROGRAM program_name
Syntax
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The END PROGRAM Statement
This is the only required statement Must be the last line in the source code file program_name must match that on the
PROGRAM statement Omit the program-name if there is no
program statement
END PROGRAM program_name
Syntax
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The STOP Statement
Causes the program to stop its execution at that point
More than one STOP statement can be included
This statement is not required, but is recommended by some coding standards
STOP
or STOP n !n is an integer value
Syntax
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Simple Input (list-directed)
input_list is a list of variables which will receive the values that are read
Each READ statement begins reading a new line of data A READ statement can read more than one line of data
READ *, input_list
Syntax
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Simple Output (list-directed)
output_list is a list of items to be printed character string literals will be printed exactly variables will have their values printed
Each PRINT statement starts a new line of output Fortran will use its internal rules to determine the
location and appearance of values on each line
PRINT *, output_list
Syntax