FUNDAMENTALS OF RAAGby

David Courtenay

Adapted from http://chandrakantha.com/

FUNDAMENTALS OF RAG

The rag is the most important concept that any student of Indian music should understand. The Hindi/Urdu word "rag" is derived from the Sanskrit "raga" which means "colour, or passion" (Apte 1987). It is linked to the Sanskrit word "ranj" which means "to colour" (Apte 1987). Therefore rag may be thought of as an acoustic method of colouring the mind of the listener with an emotion. This is fine as a general concept but what is it musically? It is not a tune, melody, scale, mode, or any concept for which an English word exists. It is instead a combination of different characteristics. It is these characteristics which define the rag. Here are the characteristics.

There must be the notes of the rag. They are called the swar. This concept is similar to the Western solfege.

There must also be a modal structure. This is called that in North Indian music and mela in carnatic music.

There is also the jati. Jati is the number of notes used in the rag.

There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana /avarohana.

Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of significance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi and samavadi

There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad or swarup.

In addition to the main characteristics of rag, there are some other less important ones. For instance rags have traditionally been attributed to particular times of the day. They have also been anthropomorphize into families of male and female rags (raga, ragini, putra raga, etc.). There is a tendency to downgrade the importance of these aspects due to their irrational and unscientific nature.

(Remember to check out the Index of Rags)

RAG, RAGINI, PUTRA RAG, ETC.

The concept of "families" of rags is an interesting aspect of Indian music. Over the centuries rags have been ascribed to certain demigods. A natural consequence of such anthropomorphism is that there be a familial relationship between them. Therefore, in the past few centuries there arose a complicated system of rags (male rags), raginis (female rags), putra rags (sons of rags), etc. This was the basis for a system of classification before the advent of modern musicology.

Although this may have been a great inspiration to the painters of the old ragmala tradition, (see example above) it proved to be worthless as a means of musical taxonomy. The obvious problem was that there was no objective way to accommodate the new rags that were coming into existence. Today the that is the basis for the classification of rags.

THE TEN THATS (Thaats)The that (thaat) is the specification as to which of the alternate forms of swar will be chosen. It has been pointed out elsewhere that several of the swar have alternate forms. The permutations of the various forms give rise to numerous scales with vastly differing intervals. Therefore the concept of that is essentially the same as the Western concept of a mode.

(note - The above notation has been normalised to the tonic of C. No absolute pitch is implied)

There are problems whenever one is talking about the number of thats. Generally only ten are acknowledged; twenty are in common usage; while 32 are possible given present concepts of scale construction. This has created a lot of confusion in north Indian pedagogy. Three common scales which are not part of the ten thats are Ahir Bhairav, Charukesi, or Kiruvani.

SWAR

Swar are nothing more than the seven notes of the Indian musical scale. Swar is also called "sur". At a fundamental level they are similar to the solfa of Western music. These are shown in the table below. Two of these swar are noteworthy in that they are immutably fixed. These two notes are shadj (Sa) and pancham (Pa) and are referred to as "achala swar". These two swar form the tonal foundation for all the Indian classical music. The other notes have alternate forms and are called "chala swar".

Indian Swar Western EquivalentShadj Sa DoRishabh Re ReGandhara Ga MiMadhyam Ma FaPancham Pa SoDhaivat Dha LaNishad Ni Ti

Notice that there are two forms of the names of the notes. There is a full version (i.e. shadaj, rishabh, etc.) and an abbreviated version (i.e., Sa, Re, Ga, etc.). The abbreviated name is most commonly used. This is called "sargam".

The swar (notes) are assembled to make the scales. These scales are called "saptak".

The swar have special relationships with each other. Although there are only seven notes they repeat in the upper and lower directions. Therefore, when ascending the scale when one reaches Ni, then the scales starts over with Sa, Re, Ga, etc. This is the upper register. By the same token when one is decsending the scale, it does not stop at Sa but continues down as Ni, Dha, etc.; this is the lower register.

AROHANA AND AVAROHANAArohana and avarohana are the descriptions of how the rag moves. The arohana, also called aroh or arohi, is the pattern in which a rag ascends the scale. The avarohana, also called avaroh or avarohi, describes the way that the rag descends the scale. Both the arohana and avarohana may use certain characteristic twists and turns. Such prescribed twists are referred to as vakra. Such twisted movements are a reflection of the pakad. Furthermore, notes may have different levels of significance; notes may be strong or weak.

VADI AND SAMVADIThe different notes (swar) of the rag have different levels of significance. The note which is strongly emphasized is referred to as the vadi. Another note which is strong but only slightly less so is the samavadi. A note which is neither emphasized nor de-emphasized is called anuvadi. Notes which are de-emphasized are referred to as being durbal, while notes which are excluded are called vivadi.

The concept of vadi and samavadi are particularly problematic for the music student. Although certain notes clearly show importance, the "official" vadi and samavadi are sometimes quite different. In many cases this reflects the fact that the theory was laid down quite a few years ago while the performance of the rags has continued to evolve. In other cases it reflects Bhatkhande's failed efforts to develop a cohesive theory about the structure of rags and the time of day that they should be performed. For whatever reasons, the concept and application of the Vadi / Samvadi theory has become so muddled and irrelevant that there is a growing move to just ignore it entirely.

JATIThe word "jati" or "jaati" literally means a "caste" or "collection; as such it has numerous musical and non-musical usages. In the musical sense it can mean a rhythmic pattern, an ancient musical mode, or the number of notes in a modern mode. It is this latter definition that we will deal with here.

The number of notes in the rag is significant, for not everyone uses all seven notes. Normally, a rag will consist of either five, six, or a full seven notes. A five-note rag is said to be an audhav jati; a six note rag is said to be shadav jati; and one of seven notes is said to be sampurna jati. Furthermore, rags may be mixed jatis. That is to say that there may be different jatis for the ascending and the

descending structures. For instance, a rag which has only five notes in the ascending, but all seven notes in the descending would be called audhav-sampurna

SAMAY - THE TIMES OF INDIAN RAGS

Tradition ascribes certain rags to particular times of the day, seasons, or holidays; this is called samay. It is said that appropriate performance may bring harmony, while playing at different times may bring disharmony. It is said that the great Tansen was able to create rain by singing a monsoon rag.

There is not a universal agreement as to the correctness of samay. There are some musicians who argue that a rag must be performed at the time of day that it is assigned; conversely, other musicians argue that one may play a rag at any time if one wishes to evoke the mood of that time. For instance, if one simply wished to evoke the mood of a monsoon day, one could perform Megh Malhar; even in the middle of summer. The concept of samay is complicated by the fact that there are a number of rags that have different times ascribed by different musical traditions (gharanas).

This question is further complicated by an absence of any scientific process to determine samay. The great musicologist Bhatkhande attempted to develop a description of samay which could be explained in terms of the internal structure. Unfortunately, his system is so awkward and there are so many rags that do not fit his system that his efforts must be considered a complete failure. If one is disposed to follow the system of samay, one can only accept that it is merely a question of tradition. Attempts to justify the concept by looking at the internal structure of the rag have failed.

The concept is further weakened by the influx of rags from south Indian music. Many years ago Carnatic musicians and musicologists abandoned the concept of samay. It seems that it did not fit into their rational, scientific system. The result is that when Carnatic rags enter the Hindustani system, they come stripped of any conventionally accepted timings.

PAKAD OR SWARUP

The pakad or swarup, is a defining phrase or a characteristic pattern for a rag. This is often a particular way in which a rag moves; for instance the "Pa M'a Ga Ma Ga" is a tell-tale sign for Rag Bihag, or "Ni Re Ga M'a" is a telltale sign for Yaman. Often the pakad is a natural consequence of the notes of arohana / avarohana (ascending and descending structures). However, sometimes the pakad is unique and not implied by the notes of the arohana /avarohana. It is customary to enfold the pakad into the arohana / avarohana to make the ascending and desending structures more descriptive.

Sometimes the pakad involves a particular ornamentation. A good example is the peculiar andolan (slow shake) that is found in Rag Darbari Kannada. This particular andolan slowly oscillates around a komal Ga which is so low that it is almost a shuddha Re.

Not every rag has a clear pakad. For instance some peculiar rags may be defined simply by their modal characteristics. This seems to be a growing trend, especially for new rags which are coming into Hindustani sangeet from other sources.

DRONES IN INDIAN MUSIC

The drone is an essential part of traditional Indian music. It is found in classical music (both North and South), folk music, and even many film songs. Sometimes, it is provided by special instruments and instrumentalists; at other times, it is provided by special parts of the melodic instruments. Even many of the percussion instruments are tuned in such a way as to reinforce the drone. Regardless of what provides the drone, it serves a vital function.

Function Of The Drone

The function of the drone is to provide a firm harmonic base for the music. Although this may not be intuitive, it is not difficult to understand. A contrast between Indian and Western music is a good way to illustrate the drone's function.

The tonic in Western music is implicit in the scale structure. There are amazingly few modes used in Western music, so the mind unconsciously looks at the intervals between the notes (e.g., whole-step, whole-step, half-step, etc.), and uses this structure to identify the tonic. The numerous modes used in Indian music make this process nearly impossible. Since virtually any combination of intervals may be found, it is clear that another process for identifying the tonic must be used.

It is the drone which functions to unambiguously establish the tonic. The continuous sounding of one or more notes provides the harmonic base for the performance. This not only clarifies the scale structure, but actually makes it possible to develop amazingly complex modes. These modal explorations are possible because of subtle, yet profound harmonic phenomena. These harmonic phenomena are very adequately explained in Helmoltzian terms. Different levels of consonance and dissonance result from the physical interaction of the tones of the melody with the tones of the drone (Jairazbhoy 1971).

Components of the Drone

Indian drones may utilize anything from a single note to all of the notes of the scale. The complexity of the drone has an important bearing upon the feel of the performance.

The simplest drone consists of a single note repeated indefinitely. When only a single note is used, it must be the Sa (shadaj) of the piece. Single note drones may be found in folk music

(e.g., ektars) but sometimes they may be found in classical music. A single note is all that is required to define the modality of the piece.

More complicated harmonic effects may be produced by having two notes in the drone. Both Hindustani sangeet as well as Carnatic sangeet tend to use the first and the fifth (e.g., Sa-Pa) as a drone. Folk music on the other hand, permits many other combinations. The dotar for example may be tuned to a variety of intervals.

Occasionally, drones are even more complex. For example, five, six, and even seven-string tanpuras are available that provide far more than a simple Sa-Pa drone. The surmandal contains all of the notes of the scale spread over several octaves. Although these lush drones are available, there is a tendency to use them judiciously; otherwise the performance may become muddy and the modes indistinct.

Drones and Rhythm

Indian music displays a curious overlap between the drone accompaniment and rhythmic accompaniment. It is very normal for instruments, or parts of instruments to be considered to provide either a rhythmic support or a drone. Ektars and dotars may be considered either drone instruments or rhythmic instruments because they perform both functions. The same can be said for the chikari strings of the sitar or the thalam strings of the vina. Even the mridangam and the tabla, which are considered by many to be the ultimate rhythmic instruments, continuously drone the tonic through the performance. We find that instruments whose only function is to drone (e.g., tanpura, surpeti) are few compared to the large number of instruments with dual functions.

The Drone and the Rag

It is appropriate for us to confine our discussion to the use of drones with the various north Indian rags. Heretofore, we have discussed the drone in very broad terms, but it is now appropriate for us to narrow our focus.

In Hindustani sangeet, there is a tendency to think of the drone as a two-note musical device. As a practical matter, it is easy to think of this as being composed of a primary drone and a secondary drone. The primary drone will be (Sa) and there will be one other note as the secondary drone.

It is obligatory that the primary drone be Sa. One may find several different drones of Sa spread across several octaves. For instance, a stringed instrument such as the sitar, may have several strings set to the Sa in different octaves, but at least one Sa must always be present. Just as Sa can never be completely omitted from any rag, in a similar manner, Sa cannot be eliminated from the drone.

The secondary drone is up to the discretion of the artist. If this note is chosen unwisely, it can destroy the entire mood of a rag. Fortunately, an easy rule of thumb is to use the fifth (pancham). This works so often that one seldom has to give it a second thought. Unfortunately, there a a few rags whose performance may be ruined by the presence of the 5th.

Here is an easy way to determine what the secondary drone should be.

1. If Pa is present, one should give preference to it. This is the most common situation.2. If Pa is completely omitted and there is a shuddha Ma, then shuddha Ma is the

preferred secondary drone. This situation is not that common, but it occurs often enough that the musician needs to be aware of it. Malkauns and Chandrakauns are two common examples.

3. If Pa is totally absent and Ma is tivra, then one should tune the secondary drone to either Ga or Dha. Dha is usually preferred. This situation is not very common, but it does show up in rags such as Marwa and Gujari Todi.

This last situation deserves some explanation. One should never use tivra Ma as a secondary drone; the reason for this is simple. Since the interval between Sa and tivra Ma is the same interval as tivra Ma to the higher Sa, it leaves the entire performance ungrounded. The listener tends to get confused as to which is the Sa and which is the tivra Ma. It therefore, leaves the modality of the entire piece in question. A good visual analogy of this situation is the classic "two face / vase illusion"; this is the picture where you can look at it one way and see a vase, or you can look at it another way and see the profile of two faces pointing at each other.

Although tivra Ma is not acceptable as a secondary drone, it is acceptable as a tertiary drone. For instance if one were playing Marwa and there was already a drone of Sa, and Dha, then it would be quite acceptable to add a tivra Ma. The presence of the Dha against the Sa would keep the performance sufficiently grounded so that there would be no confusion from

Conclusion

This page has gone over the drones of Indian music in some detail. At first, the drone may appear to be trivial, but it really is not. The drone is necessary to define the modality of the piece. Sometimes this is very simple. Other times, it requires a rather sophisticated understanding of the structure of the rag.

NORTH INDIAN MUSICAL NOTATION - AN OVERVIEWIt is well known that Indian music is based on an oral tradition. However, it is often erroneously presumed that this oral tradition precluded any musical notation. This is not the case; musical notation in India extends back to the Vedas. Musical notaton, known as swar lipi has existed in India from ancient Vedic age up to the modern internet age.

Historical Overview

The history of Indian musical notation is very rich. Musical treatises have appeared througout Indian history going all the way back to the Vedas.

The Vedic hymns were typically sung in three notes. The central note was referred to as the "swarita". This was the default state and needed no notational element. The upper note was called the "udatta". This was denoted with a small vertical line over the syllable. The lower note was called the "anudatta" and was denoted with a horizontal line underneath the syllable.

The Sangeet Ratnakar is a musical treatise written in the 13th century by Sharangdev. It is replete with well notated musical examples.

Musical notations were used in a variety of texts through the next few centuries. They were in many languages and a variety of scripts.

Modern musical notation may be said to have begun with Vishnu Digambar Paluskar at the turn of the 20th century. Paluskar's notational system was used by music colleges in Northern India for the next few decades. An example of Paluskar's notation is shown below:

Although Paluskar's system was precise, it was difficult. It was soon to be replaced with an equally precise system, but one which was more intuitive. This system was introduced by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Today it is his system which has become the standard. An example of Bhatkhande's notational system is shown below:

There are a few other minor systems that may sometimes be found. One of which is Western staff notation. Although this makes Indian music accessible to Europeans and Americans, it has a poor acceptance within India (this will be discussed later). Another is the system in use by the Ali Akbar College. There are probably other minor systems as well, but any notation other than Bhatkhande's is marginal and may be discounted. They clearly do not have a wide acceptance.

Basics of Bhatkhande Notation

Let us become familiar with the particulars of Bhatkhande's notational system. The previous example is reshown below with annotations to make it easier to follow:

The above example was taken from Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati - Kramak Pustak Malika (Volume 4) (Bhatkhande, 1985). However we must not forget that Bhatkhande's system does not specify a script, therefore it can be written in other scripts such as the Roman script.

The above example shows two lines of a sthai in rag Basant. We see that there is a melody line with the corresponding lyrics underneath. This particular example is in tintal so the four vibhags are delineated with vertical lines. The clapping arrangement is shown with the numbers underneath each line. (Some authors place these symbols at the top.) There are also occasional grace notes which may be indicated.

The Bhatkhande system is a model of elegance and simplicity. The basic notational elements are shown in the figure below:

The above example was taken from Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati - Kramak Pustak Malika (Volume 4) (Bhatkhande, 1985). However we must not forget that Bhatkhande's system does not specify a script, therefore it can be written in other scripts such as the Roman script.

The above example shows two lines of a sthai in rag Basant. We see that there is a melody line with the corresponding lyrics underneath. This particular example is in tintal so the four vibhags are delineated with vertical lines. The clapping arrangement is shown with the numbers underneath each line. (Some authors place these symbols at the top.) There are also occasional grace notes which may be indicated.

The Bhatkhande system is a model of elegance and simplicity. The basic notational elements are shown in the figure below:

Musical Notation and the Internationalization of North Indian Music

There have been two overall approaches to the internationalization of north Indian music notation. One approach is to translate everything into staff notation, and the other is to use a Bhatkhande notation, but shift the script to Roman script.

The use of staff notation for Indian music is a very controversial issue. It is true that staff notation has the widest acceptance outside of India. This is no doubt a major advantage. Unfortunately, the use of staff notation distorts the music by implying things that were never meant to be implied.

The biggest false implication of staff notation is the key. Western staff notation inherently ties the music to a particular key. This is something that has never been implied in Indian music. The key is

merely a question of personal convenience. Material is routinely transposed up and down to whatever the musician finds comfortable. Over the years a convention of transposing all material to the key of C has been adopted; unfortunately, this convention is usually not understood by the casual reader.

One other problem associated with staff notation is the implication of equal-temperament. This clearly is not implied in Indian music.

Staff notation is not the only approach to the internationalization of North Indian music, simply writing in Roman script is the another approach. There are advantages and disadvantages to this.

The biggest advantage of writing Bhatkhande notation in Roman script is that it does not distort the original material. Since Bhatkhande's notation was never actually tied to any particular script, it is arguable that this is really no change at all. Furthermore, the widespread acceptance of Roman script, even in India, means that it has a wide acceptance.

However, the use of Roman script / Bhatkhande notation is not without its deficiencies. The biggest problem is that it absolutely requires a firm understanding of the structure and theory of North Indian music. The practical realities of international book distribution and more especially the Internet, means that information should be instantaneously accessible. One should not expect a casual visitor to a website, or a musician browsing through a music book, to invest the energy required to master the Bhatkhande notation.

An easy way to promote the internationalization of North Indian music is with a combined notation. An example of the basic structure of rag Lalit in a combined notation is shown below:

Rag Lalit

Let us look at this example in greater detail. We see that it starts with the staff notation. This is an approximation of the Bhatkhande notation shown below it; in this particular example there are two sections. the first section is the ascending structure of Lalit while the second section is the descending structure.

This notation presents all of the clarity of Bhatkhande notation as well as the instant accessibility of staff notation. This is the reason why we use this extensively throughout this site.

GAYAKI - NORTH INDIAN VOCAL MUSICThe vocal tradition is especially strong in Indian music. It goes without saying that the song is probably the most ancient form of music. Vocal music occupies a considerable part of the Natya Shastra.

One may argue that the Vedas, especially the Samaveda, is the oldest musical text in India. It is true that the Samaveda is written in a crude musical notation. However, it is probably more appropriate for us to look at contemporary music.

Contemporary musical forms are built up from very well defined structures. These structures such as a primary theme, a secondary theme and other elements form a structured framework in which a largely improvised system of music can work.

There are many genres, some old and some new. Dhrupad and dhammar are some of the oldest in use today; they go back to the Mogul era (circa 16th century). Equally old, but stylistically quite different, is the tarana; this is based upon meaningless syllables. More modern (by Indian standards) are the highly improvised kheyal, dadra, and thumri. Another classical style is the tappa of Punjab.

Most of the classical songs of north India are devotional in nature, but there are a few genre which are especially oriented toward religion. Most notable is the bhajan, dhun or kirtan for Hindus, the kawali (qawali) for Muslims, and the shabad for Sikhs.

Not all the music is serious, for there are also many popular genres. The gazal is one style which is known for it rich poetic, and romantic content. the Hindi geet is basically just a song. Undoubtedly, the most popular is the film song.

There are also a few genres which are oriented specifically toward musical education. The most notable example is the lakshan geet. In this style the words of the song actually describe the rag which is being performed. Another genre which is used for pedagogic purposes is the swarmalika. This style uses the sargam of the piece instead of words.

India also has a rich tradition of folk music. These will vary from region to region.

MODES AND SCALES IN INDIAN MUSICThe scale forms the basis of all music. This article will look at the differing concepts of scale in both the North and South Indian systems of music.

It is well known that Indian music is based upon the concept of seven notes (sapta swar). Theses notes are: Shadj, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Dhaivat, and Nishad; yet they are commonly abbreviated to Sa, Re (Ri), Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni. The positions of these notes may vary considerably, therefore there should be a way to describe these scales. This is called "mode" in English, "that" in Hindi and "mela" in the south Indian languages.

The concept of that or mela extends back to Bharat's time, where it was referred to as "jati". There were 18 jatis, 11 of which were said to be mixed, while seven were called "shuddha". The term Shuddha in Sanskrit means "pure". The term shuddha was applied because they were all related by a simple process of modulation known as "murchana".

Murchana is easily understood by the following illustration. We see that if we start with a scale, in this case Bilawal-Dhirashankarabaranam (natural scale), we may produce a number of other scales by simply shifting the tonic. This fundamental relationship is why the ancients called them "Shuddha".

THE PROCESS OF MURCHANA (Modulation)

Bilawal-Dhirashankarabaranam

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa * * * * * *

Kafi-Kharaharapriya * Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa * * * * *

Bhairavi-Hanumantodi * * Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa * * * *

Kalyan-Mechakalyani * * * Sa Re Ga Ma' Pa Dha Ni Sa * * *

Khammaj-Harikamboji * * * * Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa * *

Asavari-Natabhairavi * * * * * Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa *

(nonexistent) * * * * * * Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

An important conceptual shift occurred somewhere between 1000ad and 1500ad. The process of relating scales by murchana (e.g., shuddha jati) was downgraded and the process of relating scales by an alteration of the internal intervals (e.g., mixed jatis) was adopted. This shift was probably precipitated by two events. First was the fixing of the interval for the 5th. We see from the previous illustration that it was possible to have a "Komal Pa" (i.e., diminished 5th). When it was no longer acceptable to have this komal pancham, the system was forced to change. Another disadvantage of this system was that after modulation, the scale would have to be slightly retuned because the intervals on each position were not exactly the same. For whatever reasons, the process of looking at scales as a function of internal intervals became the new paradigm for Indian musicologists.

The master of this new paradigm was Venkatmukhi Swami who is very important to the South Indian musicians. In 1660 he published his Chaturdandiprakashika in which he outlined his system of 72 mela. This process is demonstrated quite simply in the following illustration. We see in the chart that there are 6 permutations of both the lower and upper tetrachords. When we multiply them together we get 36 different combinations. These 36 are then doubled by the use of tivra ma (augmented 4th) to yield 72 different combinations. This is the origin of the 72 mela.

VENKATAMUKHI SWAMI'S APPROACH TO SCALES

Lower Tetrachord Upper Tetrachord

Sa Re - - Ga Ma Pa Dha - - Ni Sa

Sa - Re - Ga Ma Pa - Dha - Ni Sa

Sa - Re Ga - Ma Pa - Dha Ni - Sa

Sa Re - Ga - Ma Pa Dha - Ni - Sa

Sa Re Ga - - Ma Pa Dha Ni - - Sa

Sa - - Re Ga Ma Pa - - Dha Ni Sa

This process is very effective in providing a theoretical base for south Indian music. It is clear, scientific and unambiguous. However the situation is a bit different in the North.

Hindustani sangeet has been slow to develop a scientific approach to scales. It would seem easy to simply adopt the 72 melkarta system; unfortunately this is not so easy. We see in the previous illustration that the last two permutations of each group of tetrachords contain chromaticisms which are not possible in the Northern system. Therefore, when the disallowed permutations are removed, we get 32 possible scales instead of 72. This 32 that system seems to be the clearest approach to north Indian scales. Unfortunately it is seldom used.

Most musicians follow the system laid down by V.N. Bhatkhande. To his credit we must say that prior to his work, the theoretical system was even worse. It was dominated by archaic concepts of rag, ragini, putra rags etc. This may have been quaint and colourful, but it was worthless as a scientific system. Bhatkhande was brave enough to abandon the raga-ragini approach and introduce a scientific system of that (i.e., mela). Unfortunately his numbers were off. He seems to have been well aware of the 32 possible modes produced by the previous process, however, he took an unfortunate decision in his treatment of unutilized thats. Whereas Venkatmukhi Swami took the position that he had "discovered" new melas, Bhatkhande took the view that these thats were irrelevant and cast them out. This would have been excusable if he had stopped there, but unfortunately he continued to cast out thats, even some in common usage. Of more than a dozen modes in use during his time, Bhatkhande arbitrarily decided that he would use only ten.

The consequence of this arbitrary decision was unfortunate. Today about 20 modes are in common use, but music teachers go through the futile attempt to cast the rags into 10 scales. Such attempts are arbitrary, unscientific and weaken the theoretical background of the average music student. There is a movement in many places to rectify the situation. It does no great violation to the system to increase the number of thats, and this is exactly what many musicologists are doing. But it may be a long time before this is the norm.

This article has shown how important scales are in Indian music. They may be called scale, that, or mela but conceptually they are all the same. They describe the character of the seven notes. Over the last few millenniua, India has seen numerous approaches to scales, but today India has two. There is the north Indian system based upon 10 thats and the South Indian system based upon 72 melas.

RAG BHAIRAVI

Ragmala Painting of Rag Bhairavi (Sirohi-Rajasthan circa A.D. 1725)

Description

This rag is the main representative of Bhairavi That. It has traditionally been performed in the early morning hours. However, due to the fact that performances lasted all night, it has now become common to consider Bhairavi to be the finale. Today this rag is performed at any time provided it is the concluding piece. A few common songs in this rag are, "Babul Mora Naihar Chutohe Jai", "Jyot Se Jyot Jagate Chalo", and "Laga Chunari Me Dag Chupaun Kaise". Please check Film Songs in Rags (Bhairavi).

There are two approaches to the performance of Bhairavi: Shuddha Bhairavi and Sindhi (Sindhu) Bhairavi. In Shuddha Bhairavi, only the notes of Bhairavi That are used. In Sindhu Bhairavi, all of the swar, both komal and tivra are used. These are opposite extremes in philosophy. Contemporary practice tends to flow somewhere in between these two approaches, although the degree seems to be a question of individual artistic interpretation.

The Vadi / Samvadi system is generally discounted by modern musicologists; those who still adhere to this theory find Bhairavi to be particularly problematic. The vadi is usually

considered to be Ma and the samvadi is usually considered to be Sa. However, Ga, Dha, and Pa have also been suggested as important notes.

Arohana

Avarohana

Jati

Sampurna - Sampurna

Time

Early morning or conclusion of performance

That

Bhairavi (Phrygian)

Pakad

Drone

Sa - Pa

RAG CHANDRAKAUNS (a.k.a. CHANDRAKOSH)

Description

Chandrakauns is a very beautiful and striking rag. It is also surprisingly easy to perform. One should keep in mind, that there are actually two versions of Chandrakauns. There is an old obsolete version, and there is the modern version.

The name Chandrakauns is interesting. The prefix "chandra" means "moon". Although the etymology of the term "kauns" is obscure, it generally is used to represent five note rags. There are several forms of both pronunciation and spelling, Chandrakosh is the second most common pronunciation.

Old Form - This is an example of how quickly rags can change. Where a century ago, this might have been the only form that you would hear, today you will probably only hear this in old recordings. The old form as was mentioned by Bhatkhande has the structure:

This form of Chandrakauns has a strong feel of Bhageshree about it.

Modern Form - The modern and most widely accepted version of Chandrakauns is an audav rag that is essentially identical to Malkauns with one small change. In Chandrakauns the Nishad is shuddha rather than komal. At first glance, one would think that the shift from the komal Ni to the shuddha Ni would make this rag more harmonically balanced and have a much more mellow feel. However we must remember that the mind performs a musical inversion where the Madhyam is perceived to be the tonic. With such an inversion, the shift from komal Ni to shuddha Ni actually increases the feeling of tension. It is this tension that is the characteristic "massala" which makes Chandrakauns so strikingly beautiful.

For quite some time Chandrakauns has been a popular rag for the lahara. The lahara, also known as the naghma (nagma), is a repetitive melody used in the accompaniment of tabla solos and in kathak pieces. Bollywood in turn has picked up on this, and has further reinforced the association by frequently using Chandrakauns based laharas in scenes that depict traditional tawaifs (an Indian version of the geisha) and traditional kathak dances.

Here are the characteristics of Chandrakauns:

Arohana

Avarohana

Jati

Audav -

Time

Late Night

That

Not one of Bhatikhande's 10 thats, but some suggest that it is Kafi

Pakad

Drone

Sa - Ma