Funding mechanism of thrust areas of higher education in ...unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000885/088555eo.pdf · The aim of the different research projects under this theme is to

This report, directed by Bikas C. Sanyal, HEP, is part of the Institute's research on "The role of educational planning

in the decision-making and implementation process"

П Е Р Research Report N o . 82

Funding mechanism of thrust areas of higher education in India

G . D . Sharma, Bikas C . Sanyal

A study undertaken jointly by the H E P / U G C / N I E P A

Paris 1990

International Institute for Educational Planning (Established by Unesco)

Funding mechanism of thrust areas of higher education in India

The views and opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of Unesco or of the IffiP. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco or IIEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

The costs of this study have been covered through a grant-in-aid offered by Unesco and voluntary contributions made by several M e m b e r States of Unesco, the list of which will be found on the inside back cover of this volume.

This volume has been typeset using IIEP's computer facilities and has been printed in IIEP's printshop.

International Institute for Educational Planning 7 - 9 rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris

© Unesco 1990

Acknowledgement

In the conduct of the study, the authors have drawn on the academic, intellectual and information resources of several scholars and organisations. Though it is difficult to include all of them, mention of some of them m a y be made here. T o begin with, w e gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to the late Professor Madhuri R . Shah, w h o was the Leader of the Research Group and contributed a great deal from the beginning of the study until its completion. W e also thank Professor Satya Bhushan, Deputy-Leader of the Group for his constant encouragement and academic leadership. W e are also indebted to all the scholars, eminent scientists and educationists w h o interacted with the members of the research team individually as well as in groups and provided insights for the conduct of the study. W e express our thanks to the various organisations, namely, Department of Electronics, Department of Environmental Sciences, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Bio-technology, Indian Council of Social Science Research and Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the sample universities which provided data and information and also co-operated in the conduct of the study.

W e wish to gratefully acknowledge the help provided by the two other members of the Research Group, Professor Anita Banerjee and M r . R . K . Chhabra. W e are also grateful to the reviewers of the earlier drafts of the study including the members of the Working Group of the H E P Governing Board for their comments and suggestions. W e thankfully acknowledge the research assistance rendered by Dr. Gulab Jha, Project Assistant, Sh. M . M . Rehman, Dr. (Mrs.) Kausar Wizarat and the secretarial assistance of Mrs . Sushma Asija, Shri Manohar Lai and Shri Ravindra K u m a r Sharma. W e also thank Shri Assim Dabas for providing word-processing help in bringing out the manuscript of this study, and M s . J. Collins of the H E P for her editing work.

v

Foreword

The main object of the Institute's research programme is to advance the understanding of the social, economic and political dynamics of educational development and thus to contribute to a body of knowledge that is relevant to the tasks of planning the development and reform of education.

Educational planning, today, can in no sense be viewed merely as an exercise in forecasting adjustments between supply and demand. It is a process that is based on exchanges and negotiations in the overall strategy of development among all the different actors involved in the educational sphere (teachers, students, parents, administrators, specialists and politicians) as well as among all the other social actors (the family, the workplace, voluntary associations, trade unions, etc.). It is for this reason that the research programme of the International Institute for Educational Planning in the previous M e d i u m Term Plan (1984-89) included as one of the three major themes: the role of educational planning in the decision-making and implementation process. The research was directed to answer the following questions:

- H o w does educational planning operate in practice, both in its technical and social aspects? H o w can it be m a d e to serve the decision-making process better, by improving the information base and communication amongst the "actors" in the educational system (in its widest sense?)

The aim of the different research projects under this theme is to determine the nature of the relationships between planning and decision-making, on the one hand, and between planning and decision-implementation strategy on the other. Three objects of the analysis delineate the general scope of the work on this theme: the planning process, and particularly the setting of objectives; the mobilisation of resources and particularly the resource allocation process; lastly, the information base and the evaluation of techniques.

vu

T h e present study belongs to the second category, i.e. the mobilisation and allocation of resources. T h e study particularly emphasizes the funding m e c h a n i s m for strategic disciplines (called "thrust areas") in higher education in India.

It specifically attempts to identify the interplay of different forces, both internal and external to the higher education system, o n the m e c h a n i s m of resource allocation and the influence of this m e c h a n i s m o n the role of higher education for national development . In doing so, it tries to identify the role of (1) n e w k n o w l e d g e generated at the international level, (2) political manifestos based o n local needs for e c o n o m i c development and (3) the agencies, groups and individuals affiliated to the thrust areas, in developing these disciplines within an institution of higher education in India.

A s a pre-requisite to any such analysis, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the nature and importance of the issues for each actor in order to assess correctly the actor's arguments, m e a n s to exert pressure and form of alliances and m o r e generally the actor's strategy. A r g u m e n t s m a y b e grouped into different categories according to whether they refer directly to the decision under study (advantages, d rawbacks , feasibility, consequences, etc.), and thus form part of the explicit rationale, or according to whether they seek to m e e t the fears/negative reactions of other actors and thus correspond to their implicit interests or again, according to whether they refer to notions of authority and so-called political choice. N o t all the actors necessarily have access to the entire g a m u t of possibilities and their bargaining p o w e r will depend o n the socio-political context and their level inside the hierarchy.

T h e higher education system in India is o n e of the largest in the world. Its scientific and technological potential is o n e of the m o s t important in the developing world. T h e country has successfully launched several deve lopment plans and has a c o m p l e x m e c h a n i s m o f resource mobilisation and allocation, including a central funding m e c h a n i s m e.g. the University Grants C o m m i s s i o n . It w a s thought that a study o n the funding m e c h a n i s m in selected thrust areas of higher education in India could contribute to the k n o w l e d g e base o n the c o m p l e x relationship be tween planning and decision-making.

viii

The study was a joint undertaking between H E P , the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), and the University Grants Commission, N e w Delhi.

The study has benefited from the contributions of a steering committee consisting of the late Professor Madhuri Shah (former Chairman, University Grants Commission, India, Leader), Professor Satya Bhushan (Director of the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, Deputy leader, then Leader), Professor Anita Banerjee, Professor of Economics, Jadavpur University and M r . R . K . Chhabra (former Secretary, University Grants Commission). Dr. G . D . Sharma (Senior Fellow and Head, N I E P A , Technical Co-ordinator) and Dr. Bikas С Sanyal (Co-Director of the H E P project). The last two, however, were responsible for implementing the study.

IX

Contents

Acknowledgement v

Foreword vii

Chapter! - Introduction 1

Chapter IL - Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: The apex level 14

Chapter III. - Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: Sub-apex level (funding agencies) 46

Chapter IV. - Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: The delivery system 106

Chapter V . - Inferences and suggestions for future response

140

References 157

XI

Chapter I

Introduction

T h e premises

It is already evident that the last part of 20th century i.e., the remaining 10 years and the early 21st century i.e., 25 years, will be unique and extra-ordinarily important from the point of technology applications and advancement, for both the developing and developed economies in the world. The applications of electronics and computronics in the late 60s brought about a major change in service and production industries. The application of bio-technology, genetic engineering and super conductivity in the late 20th and in the beginning of the 21st century, is likely to bring about a major change in agriculture, manufacturing and service industries, h u m a n health and energy resources. A n d there is a likelihood that it will significantly change the international and national dynamics of development, as the importance of the physical capital variable is replaced by h u m a n capital and R & D efforts in science and technology. This will also tend to alter the traditional economic relationship between developing and developed countries, wherein demand would shift from comparative advantage in supply of finished and raw material goods to comparative advantages in technology. Future international trade is likely to be in technologies. If

1

Funding mechanisms of thrust areas of higher education in India

this happens, it will be imperative for the developing countries to develop a Science and Technology base and acquire competitiveness in technologies.

T h e need for the study

The development of a Science and Technology base among the developing countries as compared to developed countries leaves m u c h to be desired. India, one of the developing countries, where investment in Science & Technology has increased from 0.23 per cent of G N P (at factor cost and current prices) in 1958-59 to 0.96 in 1985-86, has increased its stock of Science and Technology personnel from 188 thousand in 1950 to 3139 thousand in 1985, (and it is estimated will have a stock of 3809 thousand in 1990.1 O f the 3139 Science and Technology personnel, only 60 thousand are engaged in R & D . This does not compare very favourably with a few selected developed countries in both market and non-market economies. There are, as of 1986, 12, 5, 5 and 3, thousand Science and Technology personnel engaged per million of population in the G D R , Japan, U S S R and U S A respectively as compared to only 140 Science and Technology personnel per million of population in India. In fact, the percentage of R & D expenditure of all the developing countries put together accounts for only 6.2 per cent of total expenditure on R & D in the world. Likewise R & D scientists in developing countries account for 11 per cent of total R & D scientists in the world. The figures for enrolment of students in higher education (which is the source of development of S & T personnel) though significantly increased in India from 174 thousand in 1950-51 to 357 thousand in 1985-86, yet the percentage enrolment in higher education (20-24 years age group population) compared poorly with a few selected developed countries namely, G D R , Japan, U S A , U S S R . The figures for these countries (for 1983) are 30, 30, 56 and 21 per cent as compared to only 9 per cent for India.2

1. Government of India, Department of Science and Technology, N e w Delhi, 1989.

2. Basic educational data (version 2.03), NIEPA, N e w Delhi, 1988 and Unesco Statistical

Yearbook 1988

2

Chapter I

These facts indicate an urgent need for understanding the phenomena of development of a technology base in general and for selected areas in particular.

T h e formulation of the p r o b l e m

Science and technology applications and advancement in a nation depends on the technology base in terms of S & T personnel, supplies and infrastructure for the application and production of technology and finally commercialization of technology, and also the demand for technology and R & D products. The technology base in turn depends on: (a) capability of the higher education system to develop knowledge, manpower, R & D and skills for R & D applications; (b) infrastructure, supplies and (c) the response of industry either in public and private sectors to operationalise the R & D results.

Since the field of technology is so vast, it would be advisable to: (a) select some thrust areas; (b) develop these areas through education and R & D efforts; (c) implement them; and finally (d) acquire comparative advantage in selected technologies. This could be possible, if the higher education system of the country and its development is geared to building up the required human resources for a S & T base and for the R & D work.

Institutions of higher education, therefore, play a vital role in developing knowledge, technical k n o w - h o w and skills and imparting them to people so as to enable the development of identified thrust areas and through these the planned process of development. However, the role of institutions of higher education is greatly influenced by the resource allocation mechanisms, the magnitude of resources allocated and their utilization for promoting the identified thrust areas. These in turn are also influenced by the stages of economic development and the development policies of a country.

It is, therefore, important to k n o w the nature and the extent of influence exercised by these factors on the mechanism of allocation of resources and the magnitude of resources allocated to higher education, and in turn, the effect of utilisation of such resources and finally the effect of all these factors put together on the role of higher education in building a technology base for national development. This relationship could be stated as follows:

3


Stage of National Development and the Policies of Development of -the country

Mechanism of Utilisation Resource of resources Allocated and the Magnitude — of Resources Allocated to Higher Education

Role of Higher Education in National Development

In the light of the above formulation, it would be of great interest to k n o w : h o w has the system of higher education helped the development of a technology base, particularly in the selected areas? H o w have the mechanisms of decision-making and resource allocation, their utilization, and the negotiating actors and forces helped or not helped higher education to play its role.

Such knowledge would assist in removing the snags, if any, in the planned process of development of higher education as well as national development. A s there are not m a n y studies in India dealing with these aspects, the present study would help in meeting this need.

Objectives of the Research

The principal objectives of the research are to: (a) identify the role of institutions of higher education with regard

to development policy issues, i.e. h o w are institutional responsibilities established and to what extent is actual allocation of resources consistent with the original policy prescriptions;

(b) examine the interplay of different forces, both internal and external on the mechanism of resource allocation and in turn its influence on the role of higher education for national development;

(c) generate a knowledge base for planning and implementation strategies for higher education so as to enable it to play an effective role in national development.

4

Chapter I

In concrete terms, it is proposed to address the following research questions:

I. Questions related to b a c k g r o u n d issues

(a) W h a t is the 'explicit rationale' of the importance of these thrust areas? W h a t is the role of these thrust areas in national development?

(b) W h o are the main actors in the series of negotiations in selecting criteria of importance and in selecting the programmes?

(c) H o w are 'implicit expectations' shaped by the interests of actors like the politicians, bureaucracy, teaching staff, institutions etc., in the choice of programmes and allocation of resources for the implementation of these programmes? H o w is the explicit rationale reconciled with implicit expectations? In what w a y do they internalise the educational policy of the country?

(d) W h a t role does planning play in the process of this reconciliation?

IL Questions related to resource flows

(a) W h a t are the different sources of funding of the selected programmes? H o w are they selected and mobilised? W h a t criteria do the funding agencies apply in the allocation of resources? H o w do they monitor the utilisation of resources? W h a t role does the information mechanism play in this process?

(b) T o what extent is the allocation of resources flexible as far as the executors of the programmes in each institution are concerned?

(c) W h a t problems are encountered in the development of the selected programmes?

5


(d) W h a t inferences can be drawn from the above analysis for planning of higher education in general, and specially for mobilization, allocation and utilization of resources so as to m a k e the implementation of programmes more cost-effective and efficient?

T h e conceptual f r a m e w o r k of the research

Historical and contemporary socio-political and economic factors play a role in determining the broader policies of national development. The organisational structure, its operational mechanics, the persons involved in it and their interests significantly influence policies and their implementation. These factors also influence the policies for higher education and its role in national development. The implementation of these policies and their effectiveness is significantly influenced by the mechanism of resource allocation and magnitude of resources allocated to higher education and effectiveness in their utilisation.

The mechanism of resource allocation is also influenced by the factors mentioned above. Knowledge of the interplay of these factors in influencing the role of higher education in the process of national development is, therefore, crucial for proper planning of the higher education system. S o m e of the factors which influence this process m a y be put in the following three broad categories: I. The international context: N e w k n o w l e d g e , generated at the international level plays an important role in defining the context of the subject. Successful experiences in respect o f contents, m e t h o d s o f instruction, research and extension also play a role. A b o v e all, international competition in scientific and technological d e v e l o p m e n t m a k e s it imperative for the country to develop the thrust area. II. The local needs: A s ment ioned above , political manifestos are most ly based o n local needs for deve lopment w h i c h require n e w skills and h u m a n resources expected to b e supplied b y the introduction of n e w subject areas or further deve lopment of existing areas in teaching, research and extension. III. Interests of individuals and power groups: In the selection of the thrust areas, the agencies, individuals and groups affiliated to the thrust areas play a very important role. Their negotiating skills, personal relationship with the resource allocating authorities and decision-makers

6

Chapter I

on the choice of areas and their implementation play a significant role. It is in this process that the linkage of a programme with national development is either reinforced or weakened.

Knowledge of the interplay of these factors m a y be generated by studying some selected thrust areas in higher education which are expected to accelerate the process of national development.

Thrust areas

B y 'thrust areas' w e m e a n subject areas of teaching, research and extension which are emphasised in the relevant institutions of higher education so as to meet the country's needs for h u m a n resources and k n o w - h o w for socio-economic and cultural development. There is an explicit mechanism for determining these thrust areas which starts with political manifestos of ruling party(ies) at the central or state level in a broad sense, is retained or adapted as the expert bodies of the party or the government start identifying programmes or activities in which different agencies, private and public, including the institutions of higher education participate.

The expert panels of agencies like the University Grants Commission, and the relevant government ministry/department consist of academic experts, w h o are responsible for the structure, content and methods of instruction, research and extension, those w h o would administer the programmes in an institution and those w h o would use the products of the institutions in the form of h u m a n resources as well as the ' k n o w - h o w ' generated for the development of the country.

It would be interesting and useful to identify the relative importance of the factors, discussed in paras I-III of the conceptual framework, in the choice of a thrust area and the linkage of this choice with development programmes in higher education of the country. This m a y also allow us to identify the mechanism for selecting criteria of importance for the thrust areas. The above leads us to the following working hypotheses:

7


W o r k i n g hypothesis

T h e first working hypothesis of our research is that the national development strategy does not always determine the choice of a thrust area in an institution of higher education of the country and that there is more than one actor in the negotiating process for the choice of a thrust area.

The second working hypothesis which follows from the first is that a plan is not arbitrary. It is based on a series of negotiations of different social actors whose role in it deserves to be identified to m a k e a plan implementable to a satisfactory extent. Through representation in the panels and individual submissions to powerful authorities, the teaching, research and extension staff and their views influence the preparation of the plan. Such a plan often reflects the result of reconciliation of conflicting interests and points of view. It could be useful for a planner to k n o w h o w this reconciliation takes place in concrete cases so as to identify the discrepancies between objective and subjective characteristics in the choice of a programme.

T h e third working hypothesis is that a thrust area is often funded from various sources, especially w h e n its development is expected to lead to skills and k n o w - h o w needed for producing the products and services which are not only domestically but internationally useful. It would indeed be useful to verify the hypothesis that in so far as a discipline can contribute to the development of a national economic and social objective, it is easy to mobilise resources. However , the sources of funding could have their o w n criteria for allocating resources, given their particular economic and social interests.

T h e fourth working hypothesis, as in the choice of programmes, is that local needs and vested interests play a significant role in the allocation of resources for a programme which changes the importance the programme might have in the development strategy of the country.

The fifth working hypothesis is that an organisation: (a) which has specific objectives; (b) where direct monitoring and control are exercised; (c) where individual initiatives are well recognised - has more effective utilisation of resources than those which do not have these characteristics.

8

Chapter I

The sixth working hypothesis is that flexibility in rules, regulations and procedures of resource mobilisation and allocation, as well as proper orientation of the persons interpreting the rules and regulations concerning allocation of resources, lead to greater efficiency in allocation and utilisation of resources.

Research m e t h o d o l o g y

The following methodology was proposed for testing the working hypotheses:

(a) Paradigm T h e Indian economic and social framework, where the State positively intervenes in the developmental process and at the same time encourages interested individuals/groups to contribute to it through economic/social policies, is considered as a basic frame of reference. T h e priorities and importance of thrust areas were examined on the basis of Indian economic and social developmental policies. T o assess efficiency in allocation and utilisation of resources, factors such as (a) process of decision-making and resource allocation to thrust areas by apex and sub-apex level agencies, (b) use of resources by universities and finally (c) their contribution to national development were taken into account.

(b) Approach T h e approach of scientific empiricism to analyse the issues under study has been followed. Inferences were drawn on the basis of quantitative and qualitative facts through deductive techniques.

(c) Identification of thrust areas T h e following thrust areas, given their importance for socio-economic development, have been identified by the research group for analysis: (i) Agriculture with emphasis on rural development; (ii) Bio-technology including Genetic Engineering; (iii) Environmental Sciences; (iv) Electronics and Computer Sciences, and (v) Regional Studies (Studies concerning the development of

different regions of the country).

9


The areas listed at (i) - (iii) mainly concern Agricultural development, which is one of the major priorities of development policy in India. The other major concern, keeping in view technological development, is electronics. The fifth thrust area, namely Regional Studies is important, given the commitment of India to the philosophy of growth with justice, which envisages that the benefits of agriculture and technological developments should be fairly distributed among different regions of the country. Several other thrust areas of national importance could have been considered by the group, but given the time and resource constraints and the fact that a great deal of efforts have been m a d e by the University system in India to promote these thrust areas through research, training and extension, the scope of the study has been limited only to the above thrust areas.

(d) Global and in-depth analysis The study utilised both global and in-depth analysis. Global analysis demonstrated the importance of thrust areas in the developmental strategy of the country and the magnitude of resources allocated to these by different Ministries, Departments and other funding agencies (both internal and external) through universities and other institutions of higher education. In-depth analysis of the mechanism of resource allocation, the magnitude of resources allocated, their utilisation and finally their impact on development process will be based on selected universities in India.

(e) Identification of universities Considering the different characteristics of universities and their participation in the development of the identified thrust areas, the following universities were selected for the purpose of in-depth analysis:

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (IIS) Bañaras Hindu University, ( B H U ) Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi (JNU) Jadavpur University, Calcutta (JU) Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai ( M K U ) Poona University, Poona (PU) B o m b a y University, B o m b a y ( B U )

10

Chapter I

Kashmir University, Srinagar ( K U ) Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar ( H A U )

The statutory status of these universities is as follows: State Unitary: J U , H A U Central Unitary: B H U , J N U State Affiliating: P U , M K U , B U , K U University equivalent: IIS (under the U G C A C T )

(f) Data/information base background analysis Quantitative and qualitative data o n aspects of importance and the place of identified thrust areas in the developmental strategy of the country were obtained from national higher education policy, science and technology policy, 5 year developmental plans and from the documents pertaining to status of economic and social development.

(g) Situational analysis Longitudinal as well as transversal data has been obtained for situational analysis. Data consist of the following components: (1) Data on the resources allocated to the selected thrust areas and the associated delivery system of different sources of funding including the U G C . The relative role of institutions of higher education in the selected thrust areas is emphasised. (2) Data on the relative importance of the selected factors and the negotiating processes, choice of the programmes of mobilisation, allocation and mechanism of monitoring the utilisation of the resources allocated. (3) Data on extent of utilisation of resources for the different programmes, especially with reference to the teachingAearning process and physical facilities, including the equipment. (4) Data on the relationship between the programmes selected and the socio-economic needs for skills in the selected areas for the country's development. (5) Data on the usefulness and utilisation of the products of the programmes, especially in terms of h u m a n resources and R & D output.

Information/data on : (a) mechanism, processes, funding agencies the magnitude of resources allocated to the thrust areas; (b) the mechanism of utilisation and accountability of resource use; (c) the

11


impact of thrust areas on developmental processes was obtained from relevant organisations/institutions and users from their records and through structured questionnaires specially designed for the respective bodies/groups.

The following sources of data and methods of data collection were identified for this purpose:

(i) Funding Organisations like U G C , I C A R , D S T , CSIR, I C S S R , I C U R / C M R and International Funding Organisations, Private Trusts. A set of two questionnaires one for the funding organisations and the other for members of decision-making bodies was sent to obtain necessary information/data.

(ii) University/University Departments: T w o questionnaires namely, one for the University Department dealing with thrust areas and the other for graduates in the respective thrust areas were sent to obtain necessary data/information.

(iii) Users: a questionnaire was sent to industrial and other establishments to obtain data/information regarding the use of research and trained personnel in respective thrust areas.

V i e w s of eminent scholars

Besides the above sources of data/information, the views of distinguished scholars in the identified thrust areas were obtained.

Period of study

The period covered for in-depth analysis is 1980-85 (VI Five Year Plan Period). However, some relevant data for the respective thrust areas were also obtained from the date of beginning of work in each area.

T h e s c h e m e of analysis

The problem under study could be analysed either: (a) from the delivery system (universities and institutions) then

sub-apex bodies (the funding agencies) and finally apex level bodies (political and planning discussion and resource allocation bodies);

12

Chapter I

(b) from apex to sub-apex and then delivery systems; or (c) by integrating analysis of these levels in this study, keeping in

view structures and processes of resource allocation in India, the scheme of analysis indicated at (b) has been adopted.

13

Chapter II

Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: the apex level

S o m e conceptualization

Historical and institutional forces, contemporary social and economic situations and group interests play a significant role in determining the developmental thrusts of a nation. Historical and institutional forces and group interests are often shaped by ideological paradigms. Interplay of these forces and interest groups also brings about shifts in paradigms. In a nation where several paradigms play their role in the form of historical and institutional forces and interest groups, and quite often in contradictory ways, it is very likely that conceptualisation of planning and implementation of developmental thrusts win become blurred and it m a y give rise to a state of ambivalence, where the guiding paradigm seems to be determining the policy and programmes of developmental thrusts, but the actualisation/ implementation m a y or m a y not conform to programmes and policies and finally - the outcome m a y or m a y not be that envisaged by the guiding paradigm.

Coupled with the internal dynamics of a nation, in an open society, international forces in the form of interests of other countries, multinational agencies and multinational corporations also influence, independently and through internal forces, developmental thrusts and their actualisation.

14

Chapter II

Internal as well as external forces therefore, operate as negotiating actors both at macro and micro-levels. The response of a nation to developmental challenges, mechanisms of decision making, resource mobilisation, allocation and utilisation, as well as the stage of development of a nation is therefore shaped by these visible and not so visible negotiating actors. Their influence could be properly channelled, if scientific and systematic planning as well as a mechanism appropriate for decision making and implementation are developed and the progress is continuously watched, keeping in view the guiding paradigm and its logical follow-up. In analysing the response of a nation to developmental challenges, it m a y be pertinent to keep these aspects in view.

T h e background

India before independence had some base in the area of science and higher education in the form of: scientific personnel, institutions of higher education say, 500 colleges both of general and professional education and 18 universities with an enrolment capacity of 100 thousand students. In science and technology, there were a few institutional organisations in the form of the Survey of India (1767) Geological Survey (1851) Indian Research Fund Association (1911) n o w k n o w n as the Indian Council of Medical Research; Indian Council of Agricultural Research (1929) and Council of Industrial and Scientific Research (1942):

India, at the time of independence, was influenced by the paradigm of social justice and socialistic pattern of society, economic development through industrialisation and agricultural development, democratic living with - freedom of speech, faith and religion and the franchise right irrespective of caste, creed, sex and faith. These objectives have been incorporated in the Indian constitution and formed its preamble.

India, had 5,000 years of past history, 200 years of colonial rule with 17 years of struggle for freedom as a socio-psyetiological base and an economy which had a largely traditional m o d e of agriculture and industrial production and had deep rooted disparities and poverty. The steps for development of the country in the given paradigm, therefore, had to interact with the forces of the historical situation. Given this background, the approach for development was a planned one. The

15


planning process took the form of "State Intervention" as well as "Private efforts" for development. This was distinct from a purely market forces approach and centralised socialist planned approach, i.e. a "mixed approach" or "mixed economic framework".

This, therefore, constituted the guiding paradigm for the country. At the apex level, the National Development Council and Planning Commission were set up for decision making on priority and thrust areas and the allocation of resources for the same. Simultaneously, private efforts to develop the nation, with or without State support, were also encouraged and promoted.

A s education and science and technology held the key to the economic and social development of the country, immediately after independence i.e., in 1948, the University Education Commission was set up to suggest the necessary changes in the higher education system. This was followed by another Commission on School Education (1951-52) to suggest the required changes in school education. In the area of science and technology, atomic energy offered a lot of scope for solving the energy problem through technology and since expertise in the form of H o m i J. Bhabha and other scientists was available. The Atomic Energy Commission was set up in 1948.

Hence the approach of development adopted was that of a social process of justice and growth through a model of mixed economic framework where both private enterprise and state planned efforts were to work together. Education and science and technology were considered the keys to this process of development.

T h e developmental response through five year plans

The First Five Year Plan (1951-1955) aimed at: (i) "correcting disequilibrium in the economy caused by war and partition of the country"; and (ii) "all round balanced development of the country which would ensure a rising national income and steady improvement in living standards". In the light of the long-term objectives, the problem of resource mobilisation and deployment was also tackled.

The approach of the plan was, "not to plan within the existing socio-economic framework," but to change this framework progressively and by democratic methods in keeping with the larger ends of policy enunciated in the Constitution. The plan was thus a step in a n e w

16

Chapter II

direction, which involved greater direct responsibility for the State in promoting development and a greater degree of coordination of developmental activities in all economic sectors and at all levels3 . This broad decision of planned need development also involved decisions on the development of education and in particular higher and technical education, science and technology as well as agriculture.

In the area of higher education, plan formulations were guided by the report of the Radhakrishnan Commission on University Education which in turn had favoured, to quote,"reforms of the existing system to enable it to give the best results it was capable of yielding, by reorganisation of University Education."4. It was felt that in spite of great defects", the "existing universities were the only repository of organised knowledge and source of wisdom." Hence the approach was consolidation and modification wherever necessary, as well as providing financial support for strengthening of university education. The First Plan, therefore, aimed at consolidation and dispersal of higher education as well as setting up of rural universities.

With regard to technical education, a Review Committee was set up to suggest measures for training of technical manpower, and until the report was finalised the approach was to strengthen the existing facilities for technical education. Accordingly, during the First Plan R s . 11.72 crores were allocated for higher education and 21.45 crores for technical education.5

With regard to science and technology, the First Plan aimed at concentration, expansion as well as building of n e w institutions to promote excellence in scientific research so as to develop national resources through national laboratories, universities and other institutions. Therefore, a general development of scientific capabilities was considered appropriate rather than emphasis on any specific area within science and technology.

Accordingly, the plan allocated R s . 5.11 crores for science and technology development. O f this amount, the largest sum i.e. of R s . 4.97

3. Government of India, University Education Commission, 1948.

4 . Government of India, First Five-Year Plan, Planning Commission.

5. Rs . 1 crore = Rs.10 millions.

17


million was allocated for development of national laboratories and institutions of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. (CSIR)

O n the agricultural education side, the approach of the plan was to train agricultural skilled workers at the village level and strengthen existing agricultural colleges as well as formulate a plan for organisation of agricultural education research in collaboration with experts from U S A and India. A Joint Committee was set up for this purpose. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research which had already existed since 1920, had responsibility for co-ordinating research at the national level as well as education and research institutions at the central and State level.

The Plan also proposed to set up a few institutions of agricultural education and research at the national and regional level. It also envisaged that institutions at regional and local levels should focus on problems related to their respective areas. The major focus of research in agriculture during the First Plan was on wheat, rice and sugar cane.

D e v e l o p m e n t of institutional m e c h a n i s m and scientific policy

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-1960) aimed at creating a physical capital base by promoting key heavy industries, import substitution industries, along with development of agriculture and other sectors of the economy.

This approach had a greater bearing on the development of higher and technical education as well as science and technology education and research. Accordingly, in order to integrate science and technology development and plan the process of development, a Scientific Advisory Committee ( S A C ) to the Cabinet was set up in 1956.

This Committee advised the Prime Minister and the Cabinet on science and technology issues to promote R & D in science and technology. The Department of Science and Technology was also set up in 1956 to co-ordinate, support and plan science and technology development in the country.

Similarly as provided in the Constitution of India, that the centre will co-ordinate and maintain standards in higher education, the University Grants Commission was set up as a statutory body in 1956 to perform this role as well as to provide financial support to universities and colleges. Higher education and other scientific bodies were linked

18

Chapter II

with S A C - P M through the representation of the heads of these bodies in the Scientific Advisory Committee to Prime Minister and the Cabinet. A clear thrust on science and technology was given by Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958,6 which was adopted under the Chairmanship of, the then Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru w h o had a deep concern for development of India with the help of modern science and technology. This Policy Resolution was the major decision to promote science and technology development through education and research in the country.

The resolution stated that "for the first time in m a n ' s history, technology has given the c o m m o n m a n in advanced countries a standard of living and culture." It also viewed science and technology as a "source of reducing the drain on capital during early and critical stages of industrialisation" as well as "reducing the gap between advanced and backward countries."

It also held the view that "there is a direct relationship between the extent of industrialisation and the amount of resources applied to the pursuit of science." The Resolution pointed out that "it is an inherent obligation of a great country like India to participate fully in the march of science, which is probably m a n ' s greatest enterprise today".

Along with creation of two major institutional mechanisms at the sub-apex level, that is the Department of Science and Technology for S & T development and the University Grants Commission for co-ordination of development of higher education, the focus of the Second Five Year Plan was to develop research facilities in science and technology in the light of important problems in the field of national development. For this purpose, the government attempted to strengthen existing research institutions as well as expand infrastructural facilities for scientific research both in university departments as well as by setting up separate institutes of scientific research.

A sum of Rs . 20 crores was allotted for scientific and industrial research in the programme of C.S.I .R. , 500 research scholarships of R s . 200/- p . m . were instituted for students w h o wished to undertake research in science, engineering and technology.

In the area of higher education, the focus of the plan was on the improvement of standards of colleges and university education,

6. Government of India, Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958.

19


expansion of facilities in technical research and education along with development of education, expansion of elementary education and diversification of secondary education. T o achieve these aims, sums of Rs . 57 crores and 48 crores were allocated to university education and technical education respectively.

A sum of R s . 27 crores was given to the University Grants Commission. The greater proportion of this amount was to be spent on consolidation and increased provision for technical and scientific education in universities. In addition to this amount, Rs . 13 crores was allocated by the programme on technical education for engineering technology at the university and institutions of higher education.

Besides the resources allocated in the central budget for science and technology, the University Grants Commission provided a sum of Rs . 17 crores to universities for research and higher technical education. B y the end of the Second Five Year Plan, India had, in addition to science research departments in 33 universities, 14 national laboratories functioning under C S I R and 18 research institutes and research centres as well as 54 associations in the field of scientific and technical research. Besides development of general higher education, technical education and science and technology, a sum of Rs . 4.6 crores was provided for agricultural education.

Shifting thrusts, e c o n o m i c crisis and plan suspension

The problem of food shortage was also expected to arise, therefore, a plan of increased scope was needed to tackle both industry and agriculture. This required larger external aid. Hence, the debate on the size of the Third Plan (1961-66) was already on, during the middle of the Second Five Year Plan. The then Prime Minister and some professionals in the Planning Commission favoured the larger plan, whereas others favoured a moderate size. However, w h e n the Third Plan was finally approved, it was a moderate one and while keeping the emphasis on basic and heavy industries like steel, fuel, power and machine building industries, it focused on achieving self-sufficiency in foodgrains and increase in agricultural production so as to meet the requirements of industries and export. The plan also emphasised increasing employment opportunities, as well as reducing inequality of income and more even distribution of economic power. Hence, emphasis tended to shift a little

20

Chapter II

from heavy industries to foodgrain production and employment, as both of these problems were becoming critical.

For development of higher and technical education science and technology and agriculture education, the plan emphasised the expansion of facilities, training in science and raising the proportion of science students which had slightly declined during the Second Plan. In science and technical education, special attention was given to areas such as mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering along with fields like mining, metallurgy and other industries.

Accordingly, in the Third Five Year Plan, Rs . 75 crores were allocated for university education including medical and agricultural education and R s . 130 crores for technical and engineering education.

Scientific development to implement directed change was identified as the major approach. Towards this end, emphasis was put on advance actions of training technical manpower along with the general approach of development of science and technology research facilities.

In the areas of technical education, special attention was given to training of: Engineering personnel including craftsmen and teachers, scientific personnel for agriculture, community development and co-operation; personnel in the fields of education, health and welfare programmes; and personnel for administration and statistics. For development of science and technology, R s . 50 crores were tentatively allocated.

It m a y be noted that the period of the Third Five Year Plan faced two major problems. At the beginning of the plan, there was the Sino-Indo war and a severe drought. In this very period (1964) India's first Prime Minister, w h o had a deep commitment to the philosophy of planned process of development and the development of science and technology, died and Sh. Lai Bahadur Shastri took over as Prime Minister. All these events affected the implementation of the plan.

The end of the Third Five Year Plan i.e. 1965 also witnessed war between India and Pakistan. The economy suffered a severe set-back as well as there being uncertainty of foreign credit and country-wide recession, which restricted freedom of choice. Hence long-term planning was suspended for the period 1966-69. In 1969, the planned process of development was resumed and the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) was launched.

21


Education and development: the emerging relationship

The low tempo of economic development as well as the need for increasing productive employment was recognized by the Fourth Plan. Therefore, it was proposed to gear up the tempo of activity to the extent compatible with maintaining stability and progress towards self-reliance.

Accordingly the plan focused on:-(a) increasing productive activities, particularly in agriculture; (b) advancement of technology and dispersal of industrial

enterprises; and (c) helping small and weaker producers to increase employment

opportunity potential. The role of higher and technical education, S & T and agricultural

education was seen as important for quality improvement, manpower training and R & D efforts. Accordingly, the plan while continuing its emphasis on consolidation and improvement in Higher Education, emphasised strengthening of staff library and laboratory facilities. Centres of advanced studies were to be developed further so as to promote excellence in respective areas. It also laid emphasis on expansion and improvement in science education and teacher training, as well as improvement of standards of postgraduate education and research.

In the area of Science and Technology, the central focus was to develop scientific research facilities in the Central State and private sectors. The fruits of the first three plan efforts in the development of scientific and technical research were shown by the saving in foreign exchange to the tune of 211 crores during the period 1966-67 by adopting measures such as substitution of imported raw materials, components, spare parts by indigenously manufactured materials and production of chemicals and chemical products from intermediates and from basic raw materials. This strengthened the belief in science and technology and research and development. Accordingly, the amount of resources allocated to science and technology considerably expanded in the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-73) and it was suggested that by the end of the plan at least 1/2 (0.50) per cent of G N P should be allocated to science and technology as against .43 per cent of G N P at the beginning of the plan. In agriculture also the application of science and technology was the key strategy. Hence agricultural research was accorded an

22

Chapter II

important place and the provision of 55 crores was m a d e under the central sector for agriculture, as compared to Rs . 18 crores during the Second Five Year Plan: a rapid increase. The major areas identified for agricultural research related to dry farming, problems related to harvesting technology and agriculture in humid areas, namely Kerala, Assam, Tripura and Nagaland. Training of agricultural manpower aimed at meeting the likely demands of agriculture in the country. Farmers' education and demonstration programmes also related to technology based production and high yielding varieties. For this purpose an outlay of Rs . 2.5 crores was allocated.

Strengthening the relationship and efficiency in resource use

Though the planning process solved a number of problems, yet some like, poverty, energy shortage, unemployment and need for self reliance were becoming sharper. This further enhanced the competing claims on resources and directed the attention of planners to obtain m a x i m u m return from available resources. This was attempted through optimum use of infrastructural facilities and efficient use of resources in higher education, agricultural education and S & T efforts.

The thrust of the Fifth Plan (1975-79) was, therefore, on removal of poverty and achievement of self-reliance. The whole strategy was related to growth in three leading sectors, namely; agriculture, energy and critical intermediates, and the creation of additional employment opportunities.

In higher education, whereas consolidation and improvement of university and college education continued, emphasis was given to creating more facilities for the weaker sections of societies and particularly in the backward areas. A similar concern was shown for technical education also, in which the effort at consolidation and improvement was carried out through faculty development, replacement of obsolete equipment and diversification of course structures in technical education. A sum of Rs . 290 crores was allocated to Universities and College education and Rs . 156 crores for Technical Education. In the area of Science and Technology, the focus was on restructuring of research programmes as far as practicable into projects with predetermined time spans, cost and expected benefits. Special emphasis was given to aligning research programmes to link them more

23


closely with the plan priorities and promoting quicker interactions between users of research and research agencies so that problems could be more sharply defined and transfer of technology facilitated.

Under this approach, specific emphasis was placed on programmes to control crop disease, yields, dry-farming, agricultural implements, post harvesting technology and so on. The programmes for improving village and rural industries were also to be intensified. T o augment water resource management, an Institute of Hydrology was to be set up during this Plan.

In the area of agricultural education, the major thrust was on strengthening the University level and research in agriculture. Research and education in different fields of agricultural production and animal husbandries were continued to develop farm level technology. Co-ordinated research programmes were suitably strengthened with active participation by agricultural universities in different states.

In addition, n e w research institutions were established for strengthening cotton research and for developing research programmes on farm tools, equipment and machinery. Establishment of n e w agricultural universities formed a part of strengthening university education and by the end of the Fifth Five Year Plan, 21 agricultural universities were set up. Under the collaborative programme, provisions were m a d e for project collaborations with the United Nations agencies.

The Department of Electronics was set up in 1970 and the Electronics Commission was established in 1971, to develop an integrated and self-reliant electronics industry. The endeavour of the department has been to identify thrust areas in consonance with national goals and international developments in this field. Within overall basic resources, it developed programmes which would have a direct impact on society in terms of improving living standards, facilitating day to day activities and, wherever possible, creating employment opportunities.

Co-ordination, linkages a n d n e w thrust areas

Critical areas, namely, energy, agriculture and overall accelerated growth of the economy continued to engage attention in the Sixth Plan (1980-84). Along with these, in the Seventh Plan (1985-90), the emphasis was placed on stable prices, strengthening the public distribution system and reduction of regional inequalities through

24

Chapter II

diffusion of technological benefits to all areas. Following this approach, in the areas of general higher education, technical, agricultural education and science & technology efforts, the emphasis was on optimum use of facilities, co-ordination and linkages with developmental agencies and developing n e w thrust areas to meet these critical needs.

It was felt that extensive and widespread facilities had already been created in higher education and therefore, the main thrust of the Sixth Plan was to co-ordinate them and maximise their utilisation. The research within universities was to be co-ordinated with national science and technology efforts and for this purpose the necessary infrastructural facilities such as sophisticated instrumentation services, computers and libraries were to be made available to universities and colleges during this plan.

In the area of technical education, the plan emphasised (i) consolidation and optimum utilisation of infrastructural facilities; (ii) identification of critical areas and creation of necessary facilities for 2education in emerging technologies in the light of proper assessment of future technological manpower requirements; (iii) improvement of quality of technical education at all levels, and (iv) furtherance of national efforts to develop and apply science and technology as an instrument of the country's socio-economic progress.

It was also proposed to develop facilities for manpower training in areas like computer science, product development, maintenance engineering, instrumentation and the bio-sciences along with centres for advanced studies and research in emerging technologies like bio-conversion, laser technology, micro-processors development and application, fibre optics and optical communications, remote sensing technology, energy systems reliability, engineering and atmospheric sciences. The Sixth's plan outlay for university and higher education and technical education was Rs . 485.75 crores and 277.61 crores respectively.

T o give the necessary thrust to n e w areas, such as the environment, ocean development and non-conventional sources of energy, n e w departments viz; the Department of the Environment, November , 1980, the Commission for Additional Sources of Energy, March, 1981; the Department of Ocean Development, July, 1981 and the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources in September, 1982 were established. Along with these, as per the recommendations of the Scientific Advisory

25


Committee to the Prime Minister, the National Biotechnology Board was established in 1982.

T o deal with problems of unemployment and manpower planning for science and technology personnel, a National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board was set up in 1982 to prepare a range of employment opportunities. In addition, a Technology Policy Statement covering a large number of issues was announced in 1983.

O n the agricultural side, the major thrust was on co-operative research and a national grid for this was established. Agricultural universities had triple functions namely; education, research and extension and some integrated research actions. The linkage between development departments and agricultural universities was also strengthened. Besides research on achieving food sufficiency, the focus was on use of alternative resources of energy like Bio-mass and recycling waste. The plan also emphasised reducing the gap between technology development and diffusion of technology in different areas. T o achieve this, an inter-agency scientific committee parallel to development research programmes of mutual interest was set up, involving agencies like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, CSIR, D S T , Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Social Sciences Research, Indian Meteorology Department, Industrial Water Commission and National Dairy Development Board. International collaboration was also begun to acquire the latest technology from other nations.

The impact

The impact of planning the process of development as well as encouraging private efforts and the growth of institutions of Higher Education m a y be seen in the average rate of growth of the economy which ranged between 2.2 to 5.7 per cent for the period of the six Five Year Plans. The annual rate of growth for each of the plan periods is given in Table 1.

26

Chapter II

Table 1 Annual Average rate of Growth during Plans I-VI

Plan Annual rate of growth (in %)

I

3.6

П

4.6

Ш

2.2

IV

3.3

V

5.2

VI

5.2

However, growth rates fell short of what was expected, say 5 to 6 per cent annually, yet the economy has kept growing and has helped in creating the necessary base for the future major breakthrough in the developmental process. The rate of growth of the economy also influenced the resources for planned development as well as development of institutions of higher, technical and agricultural education and institutions of research and development in science and technology. The magnitude of resources allocated to higher, technical and agricultural education, general science and technology efforts, education in the thrust areas and on research and development over the same period is given in Table 2 .

Table 2 Five-year plan allocations for education, research

and manpower development in selected thrust areas:

Thrust Areas

Agriculture Higher & Technical Education Science & Tech. Electronics Environment Biotechnology

I

N . A .

33.17 5.11

— — —

П

18.21

105.00 17.00 ... ... —

Plans (Plan outlay Rs. Ш IV

55.00

205.00 243.24 50.00 136.00 ... ... —

in crores) V

243.02

448.00 660.90

31.95 — —

VI

532.67

763.36 1704.03*

35.34 5.00

48.08

vn 704.60

681.79 2038.09

223.54 17.00

150.00

* Both plan and non plan together

The table reveals that the amount of resources allocated to agriculture education, higher and technical education and on Science and Technology R & D efforts has considerably increased over the plan period. N e w thrust areas, namely Electronics, Environment and Bio-technology have also been added. These allocations, besides helping quality improvement and research and development in the respective

27


areas, also helped in creating and developing institutions of higher education related to the various areas and increased the capacity of education, training and R & D efforts. The number of institutions in the First and Sixth Five Year Plans are given in Table 3.

Table 3 Number of institutions of higher education in 1950-51 and 1984-85

1950-51 1984-85

Universities General Universities Engineering & Technology Agricultural University Equivalent General Institutions Engineering & Technology Agricultural Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology Colleges Arts, Science and Commerce Engineering & Technology Agriculture Veterinary

27 1 0

0 0 0 0

46 33 20 20

97 3

24

7 7 2 5

3 925 250 61 60

Enrolment and enrolment capacity during these plan periods also increased as indicated below in the Table 4.

Table 4 Distribution of students in higher education by subject, 1950-51

and 1984-85 (figures in thousands)

Subject 1950-51 1984-85

Sciences 36 669 Engineering & Technology 12 159 Agriculture 3 41 Veterinary 1 10

Besides education and training of personnel and R & D efforts in these institutions, separate institutions of research and development were also created, i.e. 12 institutes in science and technology; 20 in the social

28

Chapter II

sciences; 39 in agriculture. In addition, various research and professional associations were supported and encouraged. These all helped in developing the base for broader thrust areas and subjects related to specific thrust areas.

The impact of development of higher education and R & D on national development, cannot, however, be directly estimated and attributed yet its contribution has been widespread and till recently no shortage of technical and professional personnel was felt. So m u c h so that India was able to support the scientific personnel needs of developed countries, namely the United States, U . K . and so on, through migration of such persons to these countries. The shortage of personnel, however is likely to be felt n o w or in the near future w h e n India attempts to develop the nucleus of scientific personnel to undertake R & D efforts in m a n y other selected thrust areas and develop n e w industrial organisations or even to maintain and manage the modern development process. These would require more specialised and diversified capabilities which could be created by following a clear-cut approach on content, processes and delivery systems in higher education. H o w these issues are to be tackled in future m a y be seen in the discussion on the Seventh Five Year Plan and analysis in subsequent chapters on sub-apex level bodies and the delivery system.

T e c h n o l o g y a n d education policies a n d strengthening of linkages

Technology Policy Statement The Technology Policy Statement issued in 1983 in the middle of

the Sixth Five Year Plan, the first such document since the Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958, m a y be considered as the framework for policy and plan formulation on S & T for the Seventh Five Year Plan and subsequent plans.

The Technology Policy Statement was a response to: (a) extension of frontiers of knowledge at increased speed,

opening up of n e w areas introducing n e w concepts which are influencing life styles as well as societal expectations;

(b) diverse technological needs of India as well as need for attaining technological self-reliance;

29


(c) need for clearly defining systems of decision-making o n technology by taking into account economic, social and cultural factors along with technical considerations;

(d) need for indigenous development and support to technology and utilisation of such technology, acquisition of technology through import and its subsequent absorption, adoption and upgrading;

(e) need for ensuring competitiveness at international level in all necessary areas and establishing links between the various elements concerned with generation of technology; its transformation into an economically utilisable form; and

(f) need for ensuring better linkages with financial institutions concerned with the resources needed for these activities and the promotional and regulating arms of the Government.

T h e preamble of the policy statement also implicitly recognises international, historical and institutional forces and vested interest groups which tend to promote unrelated and outmoded technologies. T o quote, " O u r development must be based on our o w n culture and personality. O u r future depends on our ability to resist the imposition of technology which is obsolete or unrelated to our specific requirements and of policies which tie us to systems which serve the purposes of others rather than our o w n , and on our success in dealing with vested interests in our organisations - governmental, economic, social and even intellectual -which bind us to outmoded systems and Institutions."

T h e approach indicated in the preamble is: the need to view technology in a broader sense covering the agriculture and services sectors along with manufacturing. T h e philosophy for promotion and transformation of technology in utilisable form was that of a mixed economic framework which involves the operation of the private, public and joint sectors, including those with foreign equity participation.

T h e aims of the Technology Policy Statement were to: (a) attain technological competence and self-reliance to reduce

vulnerability, particularly in strategic and critical areas, making the m a x i m u m use of indigenous resources;

(b) provide the m a x i m u m gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of society, with emphasis on the employment of w o m e n and weaker sections of society;

30

Chapter II

(c) use traditional skills and capabilities, making them commercially competitive;

(d) ensure the correct mix between mass production technologies and production by the masses;

(e) ensure m a x i m u m development with m i n i m u m capital outlay; (f) identify obsolescence of technology in use and arrange for

modernisation of both equipment and technology; (g) develop technologies which are internationally competitive,

particularly those with export potential; (h) improve production speedily through greater efficiency and

fuller utilisation of existing capabilities, and enhance the quality and reliability of performance and output;

(i) reduce demands on energy, particularly energy from non-renewable sources;

(j) ensure harmony with the environment, preserve the ecological balance and improve the quality of the habitat; and

(k) recycle waste material and m a k e full utilisation of by-products. The Technology Policy Statement also focused on two particular

features, namely, self-reliance and strengthening of the technology base. The phrase "technology base" was used for the first time in clearer and sharper terms. T o quote:

"In a country of India's size and endowments, self-reliance is inescapable and must be at the very heart of technological development. W e must aim at major technological breakthrough in the shortest possible time for the development of indigenous technology appropriate to national priorities and resources. For this, the role of different agencies will be identified, responsibilities assigned and the necessary linkages established."

Strengthening of the technological base

Research and Development together with science and technology, education and training of a high order will be accorded pride of place. The base of science and technology consists of trained and skilled manpower at various levels, covering a wide range of disciplines, and an appropriate institutional, legal and fiscal infrastructure. Consolidation of the existing scientific base and selective strengthening of thrust areas in it are essential. Special attention will be given to the promotion and

31


strengthening of the technological base in newly emerging and frontier areas such as information and material sciences, electronics and bio-technology. Education and training to upgrade skills are also of the utmost importance. Basic research and ¿he building of centres of excellence will be encouraged."

"Skills and skilled workers will be accorded special recognition. The quality and efficiency of technology generation and delivery systems will be continuously monitored and upgraded. All of this calls for substantial financial investments and also strengthening of the linkages between various sectors (educational institutions, R & D establishments, industry and governmental machinery)."

Added emphasis was given to use of technology for solving these problems. Accordingly, keeping in view the Technology Policy Statement, plan thrusts focused on mission directed science and technology efforts. The plan viewed that "mission oriented technology development can foster relevance, provide motivation, and automatically establish organic linkages which are live and working between sectors which otherwise tend to remain compartmentalised and will also introduce the sense of urgency required to meet time targets." All through the policy statement, it has been mentioned that technology development and application should be in harmony with environmental protection and development.

The Seventh Plan also continued emphasis on solving critical problems of development of the country, namely, agricultural production, h u m a n and animal health, water energy, telecommunications, electronics and self-reliance. A steering group on science and technology and the environment was constituted to identify thrust areas under technology missions. The group identified thirteen such areas. Along with these, it also identified agencies and departments concerned.

32

Chapter II

A list of these mission areas and concerned agencies is given below:7

Illustrative list of Science and Technology Missions

SI .No. Missions Main implementing/collaborating agencies/departments

Integrated (R & D ) oilseed Project (self-sufficiency in oilseeds)

I C A R / N T B . D B T (IMD), D O S Ministry of Agriculture

T o increase production and provide security in dryland farming areas through improvement in weather forecasting new uses of space technology for remote sensing and communication agrometeorological services

D S T (IMDVICAR, D C S , Min.of Agriculture and Rural Development

Control/eradication of major by immuno-prophylaxis

N B T B , I C M R , Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilisers and Health

Cattle herd improvement and increased milk production through embryo transplanting technology

N B T B , ICMR, Min. of Agriculture

Linking up of all habitations in the country through the efficient system based on on communications technology, etc.

Dept. of Telecommunication, DST, D O S , I & В D O S , etc.

7. Explanation of abbreviations is given on page 35

33


6. Voice and visual pattern recognition input device development

7. Action plan for prevention of pollution of Ganga

8. Integrated sector control in different parts of the country against malaria, filariasis and other vector-borne diseases

9. Control of Iodine deficiency disorders in Uttar Pradesh

10. Production of immuno-diagnostics- leprosy as a prototype

11. Immunological approaches to contraception

12. Micron technology by 1990

13. Development of thin film amorphous silicon solar cell technology

Dept. of Electronics, D A E (TIFR) Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta

D O E N , Central and State Institutions

I C M R , N M E P , Ministry of Environment and Forests, I C A R , D N E S and State Departments

I D D Eradication Commission, Ministry of Health, Industry, Railways, State Departments

I C M R , D S T , Ministry of Health

I C M R , M I , PGI, Bangalore C D R L , Lucknow, N I H F W , New Delhi

Departments of Electronics, DRDO, DSIR, DOS, DST

Solar Energy Centre, DNES, BHEL, BEL, NCL, Pune, П Т Delhi, IACS Calcutta, N P L New Delhi. University of Pune, DST.

34

List of Abbreviations

A M D BEL BHEL BHU BU CDRI CEL CSIR DAE DARE

DBT DOE DST DOEN DOS DNES

DRDO DSIR GRS/GRF HAU IAC IACs

ICAR ICMR ICSSR IDD IIS IIT IMD JNU KU MKU

Atomic Mineral Division Bharat Electronics Limited Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited Bañaras Hindu University B o m b a y University, Central Drug Research Institute Central Electronics Limited Council of Science and Industry Research Department of Atomic Energy Department of Agricultural Research and Education Department of Biotechnology Department of Electronics Department of Science and Technology Department of the Environment Department of Space Department of non-conventional Energy Sources Defence Research & Development Organisation Department of Science & Industrial Research General Research Scheme Fund Haryaya Agricultural University Advisory Committee Instrument Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science Indian Council of Agricultural Research Indian Council of Medical Research Indian Council of Social Service Research Iodine Deficiency Disorders Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Indian Institute of Technology India Meteorological Department Jawahal University, N e w Delhi Kashmir University, Madurai University,


NAARM

NBTB NCL NIHFW Nil NMEP NPL PGI PU RSIC SAC SERC TTFR USERS

National Academy of Agricultural Research Management National Biotechnology Board National Chemical Laboratory National Institute of Health & Family Welfare National Institute of Immunology National Malaria Eradication Programme National Physical Laboratory Post graduate Institute, Chandigarh Poona University, Regional Sophisticated Instrument Centre Scientific Advisory Committee Science and Engineering Research Council Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Advisory committee for utilising science expertise and retired Scientists

36

Chapter U

Besides this, the major focus of the Seventh Five Year Plan in science and technology was to establish closer linkages among R & D organisations, industrial enterprises, universities, research laboratories and industry. This was sought through representation of science and technology personnel on boards of industrial enterprises, exchange of faculty between university and R & D institutions, mobility of scientists between university, research institutions and industry as well as provision of consultancies for experienced persons in different organisations.

It was felt that there has to be a degree of selectivity and allocation of priorities among different areas. Hence, there should be concentration on carefully selected thrust areas during the plan. It was also mentioned that in some areas, the thrust could be to utilise existing knowledge and capabilities efficiently to meet short term objectives, in other cases, it could involve the generation of k n o w h o w and technology which would be relevant in the plan and in subsequent years.

It further states that, there should be thrust areas where without undue handicaps, it would be possible to work at an international level in the country.

The plan also showed concern for the quality and extent of the technological base in the country. It states that "it would be necessary to establish a mechanism which will enable funds from research stations to be regionally distributed or created for sectors of industry and enable funds from Government as well as from industry, including public and private sectors, to be received and used for engineering research". T h e plan emphasizes that it is necessary to provide at least m i n i m u m critical support in chosen special areas so that viable groups and capabilities could emerge.

B y the beginning of the Seventh Plan, a N e w Education Policy, 1986 was announced. This was followed by a Programme of Action to implement the policy. The main thrust of the policy was to develop h u m a n resources. It emphasised equity, quality relevance and efficiency in the education system and strengthening of open learning systems and training networks to meet the needs of development of h u m a n resources. The Seventh Plan accordingly emphasised:

(i) upgrading of standards and modernisation of all stages of education with effective linkages with the world of work and

37


with special emphasis on science, the environment and value orientation;

(ii) provision of facilities for education of high quality and excellence in every district of the country; and

(iii) removal of obsolescence and modernisation of technical education. The strategies for achieving these objectives include effective decentralised planning and organisational reforms, promotion of non-formal and open learning systems, adoption of low cost alternatives and optimum use of resources, forging of beneficial linkages with industry and development agencies, mobilisation of community resources and societal involvement.

T o meet continuing demand and needs for higher education, a network of facilities is to be provided through open universities, correspondence courses and part time education. Research within the university system is to have due emphasis and to be co-ordinated with national research efforts under the science and technology programmes.

Given the Seventh Plan objective of improvement in productivity, technical education is to play a leading role with balanced development of institutions at all levels. The Indian Institutes of Technology which have been set up as pace-setting institutions, would be further developed as advanced centres of excellence, since the development of interaction between the technical institutions and industry has been conceived as one of the plan objectives. The Seventh Plan outlay for technical education isRs. 681.79 crores.

The focus of the Plan as regards agricultural education was to strengthen the capabilities and base which were created over the period through agricultural universities, research institutions and co-ordinated research projects and extension services. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research operated 18 schemes under the agricultural education programme covering three major aspects, viz; institutional development, quantitative improvement of educational research and manpower development. These schemes would be continued with necessary modifications in the light of experience and n e w advanced centres established for post-graduate agricultural research and education to cover frontier areas in n e w disciplines. Besides this, the plan also emphasised h u m a n resources development and introduction of

38

Chapter II

agricultural management courses in N A A R M 8 to develop appropriate understanding of emerging disciplines.

The plan also laid greater emphasis on organising basic research in the fields of power technologies and of agriculture and allied sectors. With a view to breaking yield barriers in major food crops, reducing dependence on non-renewable sources of energy and developing resistance to pests and diseases in plant and animals, the development of biotechnology was considered necessary. This was to be done under the auspices of the National Bio-Technology Board. I C A R has developed a short-term and long-term programme in Bio-technology including molecular biology.

For weaker sections of society like S C / S T , 9 the plan proposed to continue the schemes meant for development of such farmers living in backward areas.

For agricultural research and education, an outlay of 425 crores in the central sector, 277.17 crores in the State sectors and 2.43 crores in Union Territories totalling 704.60 crores, have been earmarked during this plan.

During the Seventh Five Year Plan a particular term "Environmental Management" is being given greater emphasis. This concept, which involves "Environmental Planning, protection, monitoring, assessment, research, education, conservation and sustainable use of resources," is n o w accepted as a major guiding factor for national development in India.

T o ensure scientific support to the environmental management programme, a major effort aimed at promotion of environmental research and development involving the university system, including agricultural universities, research institutions and voluntary agencies. Accordingly, a programme of institutional development and research involvement of universities was proposed. The programme of institutional development, during the plan, includes full operationalisation of the Himalayan Institute of the Environment and development and setting up of a centre for Environmental Education at Ahmedabad and one for mixed environment studies at Dhanbad. In addition, it is proposed to set up

8. N A A R M = National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management.

9. S C / S T = Scheduled Castes/Scheduled tribes.

39


some more centres/programmes in the fields of mangrove eco-systems, environmental impact assessment, ornithology, wetlands and m a n m a d e eco-systems.

The total outlay during the Seventh Five Year Plan for the sector of environment and ecology is Rs . 427.91 crores. Out of this amount R s . 240 crores has been exclusively earmarked for the Ganga Action Plan.

T o intensify environmental awareness at all levels of Indian society, formal and non-formal educational channels are to be utilised. Under the formal education system it is proposed to have involvement of the educational agencies, in particuclar the N C E R T for schools and U G C for universities. It is further proposed to arrange for comprehensive training and consultancy services besides having facilities for research in environmental management on aspects of relevance to corporate executives, senior planners and administrators.

The major thrust for education, research and manpower training in electronics was to strengthen and support research and training facilities in electronics and computer science in engineering institutions and universities. It was estimated that there is likely to be a demand for larger numbers of electronic hardware and software trained personnel. A very short-term and a long-term programme for developing these capabilities was initiated. Four or five universities have started working on these schemes and it is proposed to have such programmes in a few more universities and engineering institutions.

The seventh plan allocations for development of thrust areas through higher education are given in Table 2.

Conclusions

The Indian response to development of thrust areas in higher education and in turn the development of the country through a planned process reveals that decisions are m a d e at apex level, keeping in view the broader goals of the country, namely, overall development to ensure the well-being of people at large, self-reliance and social justice through redistribution of resources, as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. Over the period of seven Five Year Plans the process of development and emergence of thrust areas has been considerably influenced by the prevailing economic situation which generally revolved around agricultural development. The latter is based on a traditional m o d e of

40

Chapter II

production: an entrenched agricultural class structure and size of holding - lack of large irrigation facilities thereby depending mainly on the monsoon. The solution, therefore, lay in the use of agricultural science and technology and developing irrigation projects. This also involved development of larger infrastructural facilities so far lacking to support the developmental process. Hence, the broad thrust was on development of agriculture science, education and research through agricultural universities, and separate research institutions.

O n the industrial side, along with the development of key and heavy industries, which were largely supported and sponsored by the State, the private sector focused mainly on developing consumer durable goods industries, as this had a more or less assured domestic market. For this purpose, attention was directed more to import substitution rather than the capital goods industry. Since it was held that science and technology were the key to industrialisation, broad thrusts for S & T development were included in earlier plans. The approach was to spread efforts widely because of multiple demands on various fronts. This approach ranged from import substitution to defence needs, as well as to newly emerging areas. This was partly owing to the fact that those w h o are engaged in science and technology also had wider research interests. Hence, a widespread approach rather than concentration on selected key thrust areas. The focus on selected thrust areas became sharper only during the last three plans and more particularly in the Sixth and Seventh Plans, whereas in areas like electronics, the environment and bio-technology an attempt was m a d e to link them with implementing agencies under technology missions and through closer co-ordination with universities and institutions of higher learning.

General higher education and technical education and (other than agricultural science which it was attempted to link with the endeavour on agriculture), seem to have been viewed as general support systems for science and technology, industrialisation and infrastructural and service sectors developmental efforts without specifically establishing close linkages and inter-relationships with other developmental efforts.

Hence, in higher and technical education also the approach was very general i.e. consolidation, quality improvement and expansion of facilities. The growth and development of higher education which was also influenced by historical and institutional forces - in the form of existence of institutions and interests and orientation of faculty which

41


tended to support the existing structure with newer additions. Hence, one observes a continuing theme in various plans about consolidation and quality improvement, the opening of some n e w branches and developing infrastructure and facilities for research and development rather than completely reviewing the whole process of education to link it with the development of the country. It is only during the later plans that more attention was given to science and technology and higher education and it became m u c h more clear and sharp during the Seventh Five Year Plan.

Development of thrust areas in science and technology, the environment and electronics tended to support research projects in the universities or through establishing separate institutions of research in related thrust areas.

S o m e generalisations

Decision-making on identification and promotion of thrust areas takes place through the expression of felt needs in various forums of political leadership. This results in the setting up of expert committees and commissions by government which in turn assess the situation, undertake wider consultations and m a k e recommendations. This is followed by the framing of policy and by several sub apex level bodies planning and developing the relevant areas, creating subjects and projects, and making demands for resources through their ministries. Finally, negotiations and decisions on resource allocation are m a d e at the apex level body i.e. the Planning Commission.

Hence, the model of decision making and resource allocation evolved is that of an interaction with political leadership at the apex and sub-apex level e.g. the national development council and the Parliament at the apex level, professional planners, scientists and educationists through institutional mechanisms, namely D S T , U G C , I G A R , Dept of Environment, Department of Electronics and so on at the sub-apex level in India and in interaction with Administrators at the respective Ministry levels.

In terms of resources, the total amount is indicated by the Ministry of Finance. Its allocation to various developmental sectors both at the central and State levels and to the various sub apex level agencies is

42

Chapter II

negotiated at the Planning Commission level. This mechanism resource allocation at the apex level is depicted in Chart I.

of

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43


Therefore, the actors involved in decision making at the apex level are:

Political leadership and Parliament. Scientific Advisory Committee and professional bodies at the apex and sub-apex level, namely: Planning Commission, D S T , U G C and so on. Administrators - in the form of Ministries and Departments. Ministry of Finance - as indicators of resource position. Professionals and experts within and outside India. Institutional interests and their orientation in the form of historical and institutional forces.

Decision-making on various areas of development and the allocation of resources to them are, therefore, influenced by:

(a) perception of political leadership, which in turn is influenced by their contact with the masses and their understanding of the international developmental scenario;

(b) the professional/expert community which in turn is influenced by their professional m a k e up, and international development in their specialisation;

(c) institutional set-up and the historical forces of development coupled with perception of individuals, regarding educational and scientific development w h o have their o w n institutional interests and characteristics;

(d) outlook, approach and interests of administrative machinery in the form of Ministry and Department;

(e) resource position, which in turn is influenced by the stage of economic development, and which further depends on the planned process of development and behaviour of market forces, individual entrepreneurship, interests of multinational corporations and international support.

These visible and not so visible negotiating actors determine the course of development of science and technology efforts, higher education in particular and other sectors of economic and social development.

This decision making and resource allocation mechanism as well as the negotiating actors, influence the development of thrust areas and their contribution to the national development.

44

Chapter II

The resource position always plays a deciding role in determining the magnitude of resources allocated to thrust areas. The actual allocation is generally less than what was formerly proposed. In the event of scarcity, a general cut is applied and it is left to the sub-apex level bodies to adjust their plan and priorities.

The extent to which these actors/forces play a dominant role in decision making is difficult to discern, as the decision-making model is general rather than detailed and specific in character. The model could be characterised as a "muddling through" model, which occurs where there is no institutional mechanism which scientifically examines the various alternatives and their implications, particularly by taking a comprehensive and long-term view and making their results available to the apex level decision makers. In the case of India, the Policy and Perspectives Planning Division in the Planning Commission mainly concentrated on sectorial models, capital output ratio and investment needs. Hence inputs for decision-making came in fragmented ways and from several sources. This obviously precluded rigorous and comprehensive decisions.

It should not, however, be inferred that no general relationship between these decisions and plan objectives, exists. In fact, there is a great semblance of relationship between plans and objectives but the rigorous detailed strategies and alternatives are lacking to a great extent. This fact is often reflected in delayed response and slow and disparate implementation of various thrust areas. The policy statement of 1983, attempted to correct the situation in the Seventh Five Year Plan.

45

Chapter III

Mechanisms of decision-making and resource allocation: sub-атзех level

(funding agencies)

Institutional m e c h a n i s m and its role

The development and implementation of the plan required an institutional mechanism. For the former, as regards priorities and resource sharing, the National Development Council and S A C - P M Planning Commission were set up at the apex level. T o allocate resources according to the plan priorities and co-ordinate the implementation of plans, a number of sub-apex level bodies were established namely, the University Grants Commission for higher education, the Indian Council for Agricultural Research Development for agricultural education, the Department of Bio-Technology and the Department of the Environment. These sub-apex funding bodies became very important links not only between the delivery system (universities) and the apex level bodies but also between planning and co-ordination of the development of the respective areas and the resource allocation mechanism for the delivery system. While playing the role of planners and co-ordinators, these sub-apex level bodies also acted as negotiating

46

Chapter III

agencies with apex-level bodies through the respective Ministries and Departments on developmental thrust and resource acquisition. A s a link between the apex level and the delivery system, these bodies also reflected the opinions and views on developmental thrusts in the respective areas as well as resource requirements for the same.

Though the problem of development of h u m a n resources and R & D , both in general and in identified thrust areas, could have been tackled through an integrated institutional mechanism, yet, interestingly it did not happen that way. Separate institutional mechanisms were developed for the different areas. This was obviously done to focus special attention on the specific areas, not only on the aspects of education and R & D , but in their entirety. Since these bodies were developed at different points in time and with specific mechanisms for resource allocation, and the approach towards development of the respective areas also varied. In this chapter, therefore, analysis of the sub-apex level agencies, namely U G C , D S T , the Departments of Electronics, Agriculture and the Environment, I C A R and the Indian Council of Social Science Research is somewhat detailed. At the end of this chapter, an attempt is also made to synthesise the variations observed among these agencies.

I. University grants c o m m i s s i o n : genesis and scope

The University Education Commission (1948-49), along with other matters, underlined the importance of "all - India" aspects of university education, i.e. the necessity and desirability for interchanges between universities and the need for national guarantee of min imum standards of efficiency. It stressed bringing university education under a concurrent list under the provisions of the Indian constitution which was then under preparation. However, it was felt by the constituent assembly that it was best to keep education under the state, with certain special provisions, i.e. the responsibility of the Central Government was limited to maintenance and development of standards of higher education throughout India. Thus, the Central Government had to take a direct interest in the affairs of university education.

Accordingly, through the Resolution of the Ministry of Education, the University Grants Commission was constituted in 1952, mainly as an advisory body. This Resolution was modified in 1954 and the scope of

47


the U G C was enlarged from advising to sanctioning grants to universities.

In order to give the U G C a statutory character, and to clearly define its role and function, a Bill was introduced and came into effect from November 1956, which stipulated that the Commission was to take, "in consultation with the universities and other concerned bodies, all those steps as it m a y think fit for the promotion and co-ordination of university education and for the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching, examination and research in Universities. The Commission m a y inquire into the financial needs of universities and allocate and disburse its fund grants for the maintenance and development of central universities or for any other general or specified purpose. It m a y also allocate and disburse out of its funds such grants to other universities as it m a y deem necessary for their development and for any other general and specified purpose". In discharge of its functions under the Act, the Commission was to be guided by such directions as m a y be given to it by the Central Government.

The power of the U G C was enhanced further by the amended Act of 1972, which stated that "no grant shall be given by central government, the Commission or any other organization receiving any funds from central government, to a university which is established after the commencement of the University Grants Commission (amendment) Act, 1972 unless the Commission has, after satisfying itself as to such matter as m a y be prescribed, declared such university to be fit to receive such grants". Another amendment to the Act in 1984, further empowered the U G C to determine the scale of fees charged by colleges and deny grants or recognition, after due inquiry, to colleges which violate the provisions so that it cannot send up any candidates for examination. This was specifically done to place a check on the menace of capitation fees practised by some of the colleges. This amendment also enabled the U G C to set up institutions to provide c o m m o n facilities, services and programmes for a group of universities or for universities in general, to maintain such institutions and provide for their maintenance out of its funds. Thus, the provision enlarged the servicing and implementation role of the U G C . However, the estimates committee of the Indian Parliament has recently identified areas of weakness in its programmes, especially in controlling the mushroom growth of sub-standard universities, decrease in educational investment in general, and the slow

48

Chapter III

reform of examinations. Political pressure and ministry fixed norms are, however, mainly responsible in the first and second problems respectively.

This process of development of the scope and functions of the U G C suggests that the interest of the Central Government in higher education increased over the period. But the basic role of U G C to advise the government on University education, particularly through the planned process of development, was lost sight of and the Commission became more an agency to co-ordinate standards through its quality improvement schemes and promotion of some thrust areas in higher education.

Although the U G C is responsible for university education in general, yet government engineering colleges, Indian institutes of technology, agricultural universities, and medical education, continue to be the responsibility of Central/State Governments. Maintenance of standards in the medical, architecture, and law fields is supervised by statutory bodies like the Medical Council of India, the Council of Architects, the All India Council of Technical Education, while the Indian Council of Agriculture Research looks after agricultural education and research.

M e c h a n i s m of decision-making and resource allocation

The University Grants Commission is supported by subject panels, expert committees and review committees. A brief statement on these bodies/groups m a y be relevant here.

The Commission, is composed of 12 members representing the universities, colleges, and Government and has a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman.

Subject Panels look into developments in the respective subjects and future needs. Here recommendations basically depend on the members ' perception, which in turn is influenced by their o w n expertise as well as national and international development in the given subject. O n e of the limitations of the subject panels could possibly be the lack of discussion on n e w academic inter-disciplinary areas. If individual members of the panel are interested and aware of these developments, he/she m a y raise the newer aspects, yet by and large the focus has remained only on the particular subject.

49


Expert Committees are set up to examine n e w types of proposals submitted by the universities. Their recommendations are then examined by the Commission and decisions taken.

Review Committees: are set up for a specific programme or to review its progress in the universities. This committee submits its report to the U G C thus providing feed back on implementation.

Standing Committees: are also set up on specific matters to advise the U G C .

U G C Secretariat: Besides two professionals and eminent scholars, Chairman and Vice-Chairman, the U G C Secretariat is composed of a mix of professionals, semi-professionals and administrative staff. The professional and semi-professional staff is more oriented towards co-ordination of various committees, panels and bodies as well as looking after the divisions pertaining to various programmes and schemes of the U G C while the administrative and semi-professional staff work jointly on the proposals and sanctioning of the resources on the basis of guidelines, rules and procedures relating to various schemes and general rules and procedures of finance. The information and statistical division collects data and information to provide feed-back on growth and development of higher education. Assessment and sanctioning of resources has also tended to be more on the basis of guidelines, rules and procedures and largely in the form received from the universities and colleges.

The model of decision-making evolved in the U G C reflected the approach of wider consultation through expert committees, subject panels, review committees, and the view points of academic administrators, government bureaucrats and eminent scholars as well as the views of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman and feedback from the Secretariat. Three negotiating actors namely, (1) academic administrators, (2) government bureaucrats, (3) experts or scholars with a professional input from panels and committees and the secretariat of the U G C as well as the Government Secretariat negotiated and m a d e decisions at the Commission level.

The present Chairman of the University Grants Commission, Professor Yash Pal has characterised the U G C in the following words:

"The Commission is not like another office where a number of people with authority, responsibility and some wisdom might take decisions for others. The Commission is basically a co-operative of

50

Chapter III

academics which has to fulfill some responsibilities. Practically all our work is done through panels and committees of a large number of academics over the country. I would estimate that about 7,000 academics are involved every year, in the process of consultation, assessment and aspects of policy formulation. Our real wisdom lies in the wisdom of the people w e work for". A s far as resource acquisition and allocation are concerned,

demands were worked out at the Secretariat by the Chairman and Vice-Chairman with the help of working groups and negotiated at the Ministry and Planning Commission levels. The resources thus acquired by the U G C were allocated to universities and colleges by decisions taken at the Secretariat level on the basis of recommendations of panels and review committees. The organisational model of the U G C is given in Chart II.

Having outlined this mechanism, it m a y also be pertinent to see h o w historical and institutional forces of higher education system and the process of plan development influenced higher education and the thrust areas.

Historical and Institutional Forces: Historically-speaking, modern institutions of higher education during the pre-colonial period were mainly concerned with liberal and social sciences plus a little science, medical and engineering education. Thus, the major part consisted of general higher education. The contents of courses, except for Indian philosophy and religion, mainly derived from the U . K . and western world. The methodology of teaching was lecture-discussion. After independence, content and methodology by and large remained more or less the same, but for some new additions and expansion of the old system. The period 1961-74 was one of tremendous expansion (11-13 percent) of institutions of higher education (colleges and universities) on the pattern of past lines which gave rise to various prototype institutions both in general and professional education. There was no planning of higher education in terms of establishing close linkages with development plans and process, either at the state or at the central level. The system expanded in response to general social pressure and demand for more institutions. The U G C , because of these historical forces as well as the history of its o w n development, by and large focused on ensuring standards through financial support for a quality improvement programme within the given situation.

51

Funding mechanism

s of thrust areas

of higher education in India

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52

Chapter III

S o m e programmes for promoting excellence and linkage with the development process were taken up through schemes like that for 'Centres of Advanced Studies'. This process continued till the early seventies. During the mid- seventies, w h e n signs of graduate unemployment appeared and the relevance of the system was questioned, the issues of restructuring of courses in higher education was raised. However , because of historical forces in the form of existing institutions and faculty orientation, a major change in the system was almost impossible. Besides, the question of relevance tended to be confused with deterioration in quality, the reasons for which were seen in the rapid expansion of higher education rather than in its content and processes. T h e corrective measure, therefore, was seen to be to restrict growth rather than restructure the higher education system. O n e , therefore, observes a recurring theme of consolidation and quality improvement in higher education in various plans.

This view continued to be stressed until the question of linkages and restructuring of courses were taken up in the Sixth and Seventh Plan and in the N e w Education Policy of 1986. Since social pressure for higher education was strong and continues to be strong, restricting the growth of higher education was neither possible nor desirable in the light of the future needs of the country. Historical and institutional forces in the form of the faculty orientation also influenced the inputs provided by various subject panels and committees, as well as through persons involved at various levels in the U G C . Coupled with this, the history of development of the U G C , its nature and functions, severely restricted it in bringing about major structural changes in the system.

It was only in the late seventies and early eighties that restructuring of education and thrust area development were m u c h discussed and several programmes for restructuring of under-graduate educational and science and technology thrusts under S A C C programmes were initiated.

A s observed in the discussion on apex level decisions and resource allocation mechanism, the inputs of policy and resource requirements were negotiated by sub-apex level bodies through respective ministries at planning commission level. Decisions at the apex level, in the absence of any co-ordinating mechanism to relate plan thrusts and implications for higher education, scarcely related to the thrusts projected by the sub-apex level, although the thrust projected by the the sub-apex level bodies had the bearing of general developmental thrusts, as brought in by

53


the presence of U G C Chairman and Vice-Chairman at apex level discussions. But, as stated earlier, because of the sectorial approach at planning commission level and conception of higher education as a general support system, a closer linkage and thrust area approach could not be built into the mechanism of decision-making. Hence, decisions at the sub-apex level tended to reinforce the general developmental approach with some thrusts as envisaged at the apex level.

Resource Mobilisation and Allocation: A s mentioned earlier the U G C prepares its Five Year Plan requirements and submits them to the Planning Commission through the Ministry of Education for allocation of resources. Negotiations at the Planning Commission level finally determine the amount of resources to be given to the U G C . At the time of negotiations, the overall priorities of the plan and the presentation of the case for grants by the U G C significantly influences the amount of resources allocated to the U G C . A n interesting example m a y be cited here.

During the late 1960s and and early 1970s, m a n y specialised research institutions in the sciences, engineering, technology and social sciences were set up. Resources were allocated to these institutions and consequently universities were deprived of major support for development and research. In order to improve support, the then Chairman of U G C , Mrs . Madhuri R.Shah argued that "if enhanced resource are not made available to the university system, even the research institutions and laboratories, which generally get priority in resource allocation, will be starved of suitable manpower as the university system alone produces and is capable of producing such manpower". This argument ensured a good sum for the university system.

Similarly when programmes suggested under the Scientific Advisory Committee were to be promoted, it was argued that if separate allocation for the promotion of thrust areas identified by S A C C were not m a d e available, it would be difficult to support these areas, as the limited resources have to be shared among a large number of universities and colleges. Accordingly, in order to promote the thrust areas as identified by S A C C , additional allocations of resources were made to the U G C .

This enabled the U G C to allocate resources for thrust areas through the university system. Hence, the allocation of funds also depend on h o w well a case was put and argued before the Planning Commission.

54

Chapter III

The main source of funds for U G C is the Central Government, both for the maintenance and development of universities as well as quality improvement programmes and thrust areas development. It m a y be relevant here to spell out the concept of maintenance and developmental grants.

Maintenance Grants: The University Grants Commission invites budget proposals from the respective universities. O n the basis of resources available with the U G C for this purpose, the budgets of each university and college are negotiated through a committee constituted for this purpose and final allocations made . While negotiating the demands of universities, a general view of the progress made by the university in the past and its future plans are taken into account. Subsequently, university expenditures, of course, have to observe laid d o w n procedures.

Developmental Grants: Provision for basic plan and other grants for particular schemes was foreseen and applications to obtain them were invited from the respective universities and colleges. The procedure followed was that the U G C developed guidelines for various schemes and programmes, indicating their purpose and objectives and amount of resources which could be m a d e available. These guidelines were widely circulated among the universities and colleges. This procedure was, however, found to be very time consuming and therefore since 1987-88 the procedure with regard to basic grants to universities has been changed. N o w the requirements of all the universities are obtained in advance and a special committee has been constituted, with w h o m the Vice-Chancellors of the relevant universities discuss their propositions. Afterwards, the amount of resources to be allocated to the respective universities are decided upon. This procedure enabled the U G C to clear up all applications in 4-6 weeks time by continuously holding meetings of 10-15 universities each week.

Magnitude of Resources: Since the inception of the U G C in 1953, up to the end of the Fourth Five Year Plan i.e. 1974, a sum of Rs . 3441 millions was allocated to the Commission. O f this amount, 33% was accounted for by non-plan grants to central universities, equivalent institutions and affiliated colleges of Delhi and 64% was accounted for by plan grants for the humanities and social sciences, science and research, engineering and technology as well as affiliated colleges. The remaining 3% was spent on miscellaneous items.

55


The allocation for the Sixth Plan was Rs . 6545 million, of which 4 0 % was for the development plan grant and 57% for non-plan grants. The remainder was for specific schemes and miscellaneous items. Details of the allocations can be seen in the following Table 5

Table 5 Pattern of Grants-in-Aid by U G C to

University & Colleges, 1953-75,1975-80 and 1980-85

Item

a. Non-plan grant (% of total grant)

b. Plan grant (% of total grant) с Others (% of total grant)

Total Amount Rs. (in million)

1973-75

32.66 64.33

3.01

3441.52

1975-80

45.32 51.59

3.08

3824.1

1980-85

57.00 39.63

3.86

6545.30

It is evident that over the period, the resources at the disposition of the U G C have significantly increased. They have doubled since the First Plan, but the share of plan grants has declined from 64% to 4 0 % and maintenance grants to central universities and colleges have increased from 33% to 57%.

Analysis of data by the purpose for which plan grants were given reveals that science and research, and engineering and technology constituted 14-10 per cent of the total budget of the U G C during the period, while the share for the humanities and social sciences ranged from 8 to 4 per cent, both showing a decline, though that for the latter is m u c h more substantial. However, the rate of decline for Engineering and Technical was similar to the Humanities. (Table 6).

The plan grants for specific purposes over the period of the last five years have almost doubled, but the overall position of various specific schemes in the total budget of the U G C has not changed much . (See Table 7). Over the period of five years 1980-81 - 1984-85 of the total resources allocated to development of science, 21 per cent was spent on special assistance for selected departments and 8 per cent for centres of advanced studies. A m o n g the thrust areas, nuclear science centres accounted for 6 per cent, equipment in in the laboratories and department accounted for 3 per cent and books and journals for 12 per cent. The

56

Chapter HI

staff and buildings accounted for 6 and 5 per cent respectively. T h e rest was allocated to miscellaneous items.

Table 6 Plan Grants by U G C to Universities and Colleges by purpose: 1953-75,1975-80 and

1980-85 (non-plan and other grants)

Purpose 1953-75 1975-80 1980-85

a. Humanities, Social Sciences b. Science and Research c. Engineering & Technical d. Affiliated Colleges e. Miscellaneous schemes

8.08 13.92

8.20 14.51 19.62

5.98 13.16

6.21 9.33

16.22

4.40 10.19 3.97 7.51

11.01

Total (in million Rs.) 2213.86 1947.42 2594.03

Table 7 Plan Grants by U G C to universities and colleges by purpose

for sixth Five-Year plan period (1980-85)

Plan Grants

a. Grants for Humanities and Social Sciences

b. Grants for Science & & Research

c. Grants for Engineering and Technical

d. Grants for Constituent affiliated Colleges

e. Grants for miscellaneous schemes

(Percentage total grants)

(Total - Million Rs.)

(in percentage) 1980-81 1981-82 ]

4.53

9.91

3.74

5.50

17.18

35.36

329.90

5.31

11.06

6.99

3.81

8.98

36.78

397.20

L982-83 1983-84 1984-85

3.31

6.91

3.92

4.44

8.72

27.80

369.20

5.19

14.71

3.54

8.82

8.40

43.94

713.30

3.81

7.90

2.76

11.39

12.88

42.53

784.70

In humanities and social science, centres of advance study accounted for 3 per cent, the department of special assistance 8 percent, the area studies programme 2 per cent, books and journals 33 per cent, and equipment 14 per cent. The staff and building accounted for 16 and 17 per cent respectively. The remainder was spent on other schemes.

57


This suggests that in the sciences, special emphasis was given to selected departments and equipments, whereas in the social sciences, emphasis was on books and journals, and staff and buildings. For details please see Table 8.

Table 8 Grants for the Development of Science and Humanities

and Social Sciences 1980-81 -1984-85

Item of Exp .

Staff Equipment Buildings Books & Journals Centres of

advanced study Special assistance to selected

Departments A . Area studies B . Nuclear sciences

centres Other Schemes

Science Total

(Rs. in lacs)

401.65 2 297.67

826.38 355.54

575.08

1 443.66

393.00 629.69

Humanity & Social Science %

6 33 12 5

8

21

6 9

Total % (Rs.in lacs)

542.24 17 453.39 14 510.35 16

1075.36 33

105.99 3

277.97 8 70.23 2

224.37 7

Thus there was a general approach of development of sciences and social sciences and some specific thrusts on development of centres of advanced studies and provision of special assistance. Through this approach, various subjects and areas which were related to the thrust areas under study, were also promoted, i.e. it was, not a planned and systemic development approach. Subjects like life sciences and genetic engineering which are closely related to the thrust area of bio-technology were promoted. Similarly under engineering sciences, electronics and computer sciences were also developed. In the same way , under general sciences subjects like, botany, zoology, soil conservation, earth sciences and the environmental sciences were developed. Hence, before decisions about the development of thrust areas were taken, some development of thrust area related subjects had already taken place under the general of

58

Chapter III

development of universities. Here it m a y be relevant to describe h o w particular resources have been allocated to the thrust areas under study.

T h e Allocation of resources to thrust areas

N o clearly defined thrust area approach was followed until funding through the S A C programme was introduced by the U G C in the year 1983-84. The schemes for centres of advanced studies and departments of special assistance tended to support new areas of development including some of the thrust areas. The latter, namely electronics, computer sciences, bio-technology, environmental sciences and regional studies were discussed by inter-disciplinary subject panels, expert committee meetings and standing committees on newly emerging areas. The recommendations of these committees along with specific requests from the universities were placed before the commission for its decision. This involved strengthening the post-graduate and research programme under the scheme of special assistance and centres of advanced studies. Electronics and computer sciences was considered by the Commission in 1980-81 when the expert committee report on supporting the Master Degree Programme in Computer Science and Technology at Roorkee University was placed before it. During the years 1981-84 similar proposals were m a d e by Jadavpur, Andhra and Calcutta Universities. The Commission, accordingly, took decisions to support this subject in these universities.

In 1978-79 the Commission also constituted a committee on environmental education to frame guidelines for environmental education. In 1981-82 an expert committee on environmental sciences was constituted, and on its advice, a working group was appointed to prepare programmes in environmental sciences, including forestry and ecology education.

In 1983, for the purpose of promoting bio-technology as a subject in the university, the Commission constituted an expert committee to examine the proposals of various departments. In 1985-86, seven universities were identified jointly by the bio-technology board and the U G C to develop bio-technology education and research.

A s to Agriculture, Rural Development and Regional Studies various proposals submitted by the universities and colleges on the development of the respective areas were assessed by the committee and considered

59


by the Commission for financial support. For rural development, Gandhi G r a m Institute was set up as a university equivalent institution in 1976. Likewise, the Centre for the Study of Regional Development was established at Jawaharlal Nehru University and the Centre of Regional Planning in B o m b a y University. Details of promotion of thrust areas through the department of special assistance and through centres for advanced studies are given in Table 9.

Table 910

Thrust areas in UniversityAnstitutes assisted by the U G C under various programmes

Scheme/Areas

A.

B.

С

D.

A = C A S B=SAP C=DRS D=COSIST

Agriculture

Delhi - Plant Pathology and Embryology 1963

-

-

-

Electronics

A . Calcutta Radiophysics & Electronics 1963

B . B . H . U . Electronics

C . Roorkee Electronics Communication Eng. 1983

D . Calcutta Electro Devices and Micro Electr. Techniques

Centre of Advanced Study Special Assistance Programme Development Research Support Science & Technology Infrastructure Development Programme.

Bio-technology

A.

B . Bio Science 1984 M S U , Saurashtra, B H U , Kerala 1985

C . Bio Science Kerala 1983, Poona Indore FISC

D. BHU, 1983 Calcutta, M K U , NJU, M S U , Poona M K U , NJU, Osmania, Madras, n S C , Bangalore -Power Electro & Remote Sensing Signal & Image Processing, 1983

Hence the promotion of thrust areas was initiated by the universities and on the basis of recommendations of subject panels and expert

10. See page 35 for abbreviations of universities.

60

Chapter III

committees, the Commission m a d e the final decisions on them. A s far as resource allocation is concerned, till 1985-86 resources for various thrust areas were also allocated through the general scheme of development and no clear-cut earmarking of areas or amount of resources was m a d e in advance.

Under the budget heads of the U G C , special categories, namely, computer education for manpower training, bio-technology, environmental sciences, general development and electronics development were introduced. R s . 115,000 were allocated to computer education and electronics in 1985-86. Similar allocations were m a d e separately for other areas in the years 1985-86, to 87-88.

It was in 1985-86 That the old classification of schemes of grants was changed to the N e w Classification which covered development of:

(a) Schemes for the Quality Improvement of Education; (b) Schemes for Quality Improvement of Research; and (c) Schemes for Programmes to reduce disparities, for

improvement of management and development of engineering and technology.

A s a result of allocation of resources to various universities and colleges, under various schemes as discussed above, the thrust area subjects were also promoted and the manpower training facilities through masters degree programmes were initiated. The data show that at present 11 universities are offering bio-technology related subjects like life sciences, biological sciences and genetic engineering. O f these six universities namely, Madurai, B o m b a y , IISC Bangalore, Jadavpur university, B H U and J N U have been identified for promotion of bio-technology in which they offer masters degree programmes. A further seven universities are to be identified for this purpose. Similarly, seven universities are specifically offering environmental science programmes at the masters and diploma levels.

Monitoring and Evaluation: The monitoring of utilisation of resources and developments under various schemes and programmes is carried out through a general procedure of obtaining the details, submission of progress reports as well as review by expert committees and visiting teams. N o system was , however, developed to professionally monitor progress, as well as to assess the ultimate use of m a n p o w e r trained and research carried out, so as to see h o w these programmes have contributed to the process of development of the

61


country. The monitoring mechanism was limited only to the use of resources and submission of progress reports. The analysis of various reports and making the information available to others was not attempted. In the absence of this kind of analysis, no feedback was available to the Commission or to the apex level bodies. Since there was no mechanism either at sub or at apex level which could look into the specific areas of development and make a critical analysis, the process of development continued on past lines and in a disparate way , without being questioned seriously.

Inferences: Given the broad approach of consolidation and improvement of quality in higher education as decided at the apex level, decisions by the the Commission followed this policy as well as introducing some n e w disciplines or branches. Since there was broad thrust on development of general science and technology starting from the Second Five Year Plan, the promotion of science education in the universities and colleges, also acquired an important place in decisions at the Commission level.

The improvement of quality was seen in terms of providing basic support to universities and colleges for development of infra-structural library, and laboratory facilities for faculty improvement. Along with this some centres of excellence in the form of centres of advanced studies in certain disciplines were established. A great deal of financial support to the central universities was given so as to create models of excellence. Thus as for as university education was considered, the decisions of the Commission were mainly confined to providing maintenance support to the central universities and their constituent colleges, as well as development and support to colleges and universities all over the country. The extent of support for these scheme ranged between 100 percent and 50-75 percent of matching grants, the remaining part was to be met by the respective university and college. Besides this, the State universities, and private and government colleges at the State level were mainly supported by the State Government for maintenance and development purposes as well as providing matching grants to universities and colleges for U G C schemes.

During the Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plans some thrust areas, as identified at Scientific Advisory Committee level, were also supported by the U G C through special grants. H o w resources were mobilised and

62

Chapter III

allocated to implement the various schemes is discussed in the following section.

A base for thrust area programmes has been developed but looking into the requirements for trained personnel, particularly in computer sciences where there is a shortage of manpower, the facilities in the university system seem to be inadequate. Attempts have been made during recent years by the Department of Electronics to increase support to universities and polytechnics to develop such programmes, so that manpower needs m a y be met in future. Inadequate facilities in the university system m a y also be the case for other areas. Thus, though the U G C has enabled the university system to develop manpower and a R & D base in most of the general and specific areas, as well as in some of the identified thrust areas, this has not been done through well conceived advance planning. The net effect of this approach has been that it has not been able to produce enough viable groups of specialists in the identified thrust areas. A case which could be cited is that of super conductivity. In India, there are only 50 groups in the university system whereas in a country like Japan where serious efforts in this thrust area have been made , nearly 500 groups are working on n e w breakthroughs.

This phenomenon of the developmental process could be attributed to the decision-making, resource allocation mechanism as well as historical and institutional forces coupled with policy and programme conceptualisation at the apex level. It m a y be important to point out here, that besides the U G C , also the Department of Science and Technology, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, the Departments of Electronics, and Environment allocate resources for development of thrust areas. Hence with a view to presenting a complete picture, it m a y be pertinent to discuss the mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation in these organizations.

II. Depa r tmen t of science and technology

A s stated earlier, it was amply recognised by the then leadership of the country that Science and Technology held the key to economic and social development. Accordingly, at the very beginning of Second Five Year Plan i.e. 1956, the Department of Science and Technology was set up to co-ordinate, support and plan the science and technology development in the country. The major areas of responsibility entrusted

63


to the department included "formulation of policy and guidelines on science and technology, international scientific and technological affairs, S & T entrepreneurship development and all other measures needed for the promotion of science and technology, and their application to the development and security of the nation". It also services the National Bio-technology Board, National Council for Science and Technology Communication and the Science Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (recently reconstituted as Science Advisory Council to the Prime Minister).

Given the importance of this area, the Prime Minister has held the portfolio of the Science and Technology Ministry, assisted by a Minister of State and by the Secretary of the Department. The department, has organised its activities into 14 divisions. O f these, 12 are purely professional divisions and the other two are administrative and financial divisions. In addition, the Department has set up three subordinate offices and 13 autonomous bodies and institutions. The organisational structure of the D S T is given in Chart III.

O n e of the major activities of the D S T is to support research in science in universities as well as through its o w n research institutions and laboratories. It carries out this activity under two specific schemes namely:

(a) Science and Engineering Research Council ( S E R C ) and (b) General Research Scheme ( G R S ) . In 1986-87, in order to have more cohesive approach, these schemes

were integrated and n e w guidelines adopted.

M e c h a n i s m of decision-making and research allocation

The D S T also operates through Standing and Expert Committees like those for G R S and S E R C and Standing Advisory Committees for schemes like (i) Science and Technology applications for rural development and (ii) Promotion and development of technology for weaker sectors S & T for w o m e n , the Advisory Committee for Utilising Scientific Expertise and Retired Scientists ( U S E R S ) , Instrument Advisory Committee (IAC), etc. The composition of some these committees is as follows: G R S with seven members , is an administrative-cum-professional body. The Secretary of D S T is the Chairman and the other 6 members are : the Scientific Advisor to the

64

Chapter III

Minister of Defence; the Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Education Advisor, Technical Ministry of Education, Director-General, I C M R , Director-General, CSIR, and Financial Advisor, Department of Science and Technology.

S E R C has 12 members. Unlike G R S , the members of this Committee belong to various pioneer research institutions. The Secretary of D S T is the Chairman of this Committee also. T o m a k e use of the potential of young scientists in new emerging areas of research, the D S T constituted an Advisory Committee for young scientists. In addition to the Chairman there are nine members; 6 including the chairman are scientists drawn from various universities/institutions and 4 are officials from the Planning Commission, U G C , Ministry of H u m a n Resource Development and D S T .

The Standing Advisory Committee for the Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre (RSIC) has 14 members in addition to the chairman and member-secretary. The Instruments Advisory Committee (IAC) consists of a Chairman, a Convener and 13 members. This committee looks into proposals for equipping the laboratories of various research institutions.

In order to decide on the thrust areas to be promoted, the D S T adopts a procedure of wider consultations with the scientific community in the university, research institutions and laboratories located in different parts of the country. It holds seminars and discussions with 200-500 selected scientists drawn from various fields in which the research activities to be promoted are highlighted. The views of D S T scientists are also expressed here. The suggestions made at these meetings influence the decisions at S A C - P M and are also influenced by the decisions of S A C - P M . This approach enables the D S T to get an idea of possible interests, capabilities, and expectations of the scientific community.

However, this approach does not help m u c h in focusing attention on selected thrust areas. Experts and scientists participating in such meetings suggest virtually all the possible areas related to science and technology and wish them to be included in the list of areas of importance. Thus, though a wide range of areas m a y be developed, yet it precludes the possibility of concentrating on and achieving excellent results in selected thrust areas.

65

Funding mechanisms

of thrust areas of higher education in India

о о о cu о с о 'о ел

с CD

S tí CS О, aj

Q CD •5 О

tí а» о XS

U

^—

Minist S ¿

er of St

'P

2

cretary m

СЛ

66

Chapter III

This approach of wide consultation, the guiding Scientific Policy Resolution 1956, and decisions taken at S A C - P M and Planning Commission level constituted the process of decision-making. In the recent past, the Technology Policy Statement, 1983, and Technology Mission, 1986, which were of course the result of interaction between the views of the scientific community, the priorities of planned development and political leadership, constituted the guidelines for decision-making at the D S T level.

At the interface between broad policy decisions and the delivery system i.e. university, research institutions and research laboratories, stand the various committees of D S T . Decisions on resource acquisition by the D S T and their allocation to the delivery system are channelled through these committees. This model is described in Chart IV.

Decisions on Thrust Areas: During the Sixth Five Year Plan, as discussed earlier, the emphasis of development was on tackling some critical areas like energy, and agriculture as well as overall accelerated growth of the economy. For this purpose, in the areas of Science and Technology, the focus was on co-ordination and linkage with the developmental agencies and developing new thrust areas to meet these critical needs.

Accordingly, in 1981, under the S E R C programme a Thrust Area in life and chemical sciences was identified in a seminar organised for this purpose in Baroda in 1980, where the proposals of nearly 1,000 scientists from India and abroad were considered. A s a follow-up of this seminar, the D S T arranged for a special meeting to discuss the implications of recent research on the frontiers of bio-technology which was likely to have significant immediate impact in m a n y areas of agriculture, medicine and industry. Similarly, thrust areas in physical science were also identified through a special seminar held at IPCL, Baroda during 1981. Genetic engineering was also identified as one of the thrust areas. In 1982, the mechanism of formulating thrust area programmes through Programme Advisory Committees was reviewed. Under the modified mechanism the scientists interested in specific research programmes were invited for discussions with P A C members to develop thrust area programmes. In 1989, S E R C regrouped the thrust areas in life, chemical and physical sciences.

67

Funding mechanism

s of thrust areas of higher education in India

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68

Chapter HI

Methodology of Resource Mobilisation and Allocation: Under this model, working groups for each plan period were set up by D S T , which estimated the resource requirements in consultation with D S T secretariat and experts. These estimates were negotiated at the Planning Commission level through the Ministry of Science and Technology. The amount thus acquired was made available for allocation to research laboratories, institutions and universities. The D S T also negotiated for international funding for S & T development. The amounts thus acquired by the D S T during the period 1980-81 to 1987-88 for various programmes increased from Rs.25 crores to Rs . 178 crores. The annual allocation of resources to D S T is given in table 10.

Table 10 Allocation of resources to D S T (Amount in Crores/10 million)

Total D S T Budget (Both Plan & Non-plan & revenue and capital account together).

1981-82

40.69

1982-83

30.51

1983-84

35.14

1984-85

48.12

1985-86

117.81

The mechanism of resource allocation to the delivery system adopted by D S T m a y be grouped in two categories. O n e was allocation of resources to research institutions and laboratories, the other was funding to universities and research institutions for specific research projects under the S E R C , and G R S and high priority areas schemes.

The mechanism of resource allocation to the delivery system adopted by D S T m a y be grouped in two categories. O n e was allocation of resources to research institutions and laboratories, the other was funding to universities and research institutions for specific research projects under the S E R C , and G R S and high priority areas schemes.

The allocation of resources to the first group was made on the basis of the budget proposals prepared by them and after negotiations at the secretariat level Final allocations were made on the basis of availability of resources and the importance of the programmes proposed.

With regard to funding the second group, a high level committee of scientists ( H L C S ) was constituted to scrutinise and approve various research projects under general research fund.

69


This Committee also discussed major policy issues with regard to service and working conditions of S & T personnel engaged in various research projects and the procedures of recruitment. It also suggested the involvement of one of the senior scientists as a m e m b e r , so as to enable the Secretariat to interact with him as regards day-to-day functioning and so that he could also participate in high level committees.

In 1981 the mechanism for allocation of resources by D S T was also rationalised. Earlier the different mechanisms for providing financial support to research used to operate on an independent individual basis. T o ensure a certain standardisation and commonality of procedures, appropriateness of funding and to reduce delays in consideration, all proposals were brought together under an integrated head in one division. Financial support for research by the Department is provided under three main headings, i.e., the Science and Engineering Research Council ( S E R C ) , General Resource Fund ( G R F ) (scheme) and Intensification of Research in High Priority Areas ( I R H P A ) . The latter was approved under the Sixth Plan.

S E R C was initiated in 1975 to promote research in newly emerging fields of science and engineering, particularly those of an inter-disciplinary nature or involving inter-institutional programmes and to provide encouragement to brilliant young scientists. The Council was reconstituted in June 1981. The following are the major conditions for financial support under this scheme:

(i) projects have to be in thrust areas; (ii) they have been defined through a process of seminars and

consultations with the Scientific Community; and (iii) they have to have demonstrable high scientific value

originality. T h e G R F was set up during 1976-77 to support scientific

programmes, largely of a general nature in the educational sector but which are considered of high quality. Thus the objective is to provide financial research support to Indian scientists on a broad basis irrespective of institution or area of work so that they would not have to seek assistance from abroad, particularly under the specific foreign currency programme. The G R F has helped research programmes in vital areas of agricultural and biological sciences, Health and Medicine, Engineering, Physical and Chemical Sciences. Special encouragement is given to Scientists from States in India which do not as yet have

70

Chapter III

sufficient infrastructure for science and technology. Since 1982 the scheme has been known as G R S .

I R H P A is a relatively new scheme. It was initiated during 1981-82 with an allocation of R s . 1.5 crores for the year. Rs . 15 crores was earmarked for the period 1980-85. The scheme is based on the recommendations contained in the report of the working group for S & T for the Sixth Five Year Plan." The purpose of the scheme is that although with the existing research schemes it has been possible to create enough competence over a broad spectrum of science and technology, there is a need for a major conscious support to a few areas of high priority which have to be identified as of great scientific interest and of national relevance and where a viable programme can be created within available resources.

Such areas m a y be supported by various scientific departments and agencies within their areas of interest, competence and budget provisions, or through special plan allocations. But such national programmes of general interest and importance will be decided upon after discussions in which, apart from the concerned agencies, the Planning Commission and D S T would also participate."

Magnitude of Resources: Funds allocated for the three schemes during the period 1980-86 are given in Tables 11 and 12. It can be seen that the amounts both in terms of rupees as well as percentage share in the total budget of the D S T , increased up to 1984-85.

However, they declined in absolute amount but considerably in terms of percentage share in 1985-86. This could be owing to the fact that more resources have gone to strengthen the CSIR laboratories and other institutions supported by D S T .

Table 11 Funds allocated under G R F , S E R C and I R H P A during

the period 1981-86 (Rs. in crores)

GRF SER IRHPA Total

1981-82

4.00 3.00 1.50 9.50

1982-83

4.00 3.30 4.40

11.70

1983-84

4.50 4.57 5.00

14.07

1984-85

4.50 6.00 8.50

19.00

1985-86

4.00 6.50 5.50

16.00

Source: D S T Annual Reports.

71


Table 12 Share of G R F , S E R C & I R H P A in the D S T budget

during 1981-86 (in percentage)

GRF SERC IRHPA Total

1981-82

9.83 7.73 3.69

21.25

1982-83

13.11 10.82 14.42 38.35

1983-84

12.81 13.01 14.23 40.05

1984-85

9.35 12.47 17.44 39.26

1985-86

3.40 5.52 4.67

14.59

Source : D S T Annual Reports.

Allocation of Resources to Identified Thrust Areas: O f the total amount allocated to various research projects during 1980-86 by D S T , R s . 53 lacs were given to universities and Rs . 63.73 lacs to research institutions for bio-technology and genetic engineering research.

Similarly, as regards the environmental sciences, the allocation to universities accounted for R s . 8.05 lacs, that for electronics was R s . 103 lacs for universities and R s . 116.70 lacs for research institutions. Thus, identified thrust areas are being promoted by D S T both through university and research institutions. However, allocations to research institutions are relatively higher than to universities (See Table 13).

Table 13

Research projects funded by D S T during 1980-86

to universities & institutions (amount in lacs)

Universities

Institutes

Bio-technology

and Genetic Eng.

17.53

68.73

Environmental

Science

1.71

8.05

Electronics

103.01

116.20

Source: List of projects funded by D S T , N e w Delhi.

Monitoring: Monitoring, in general, has been done in two ways , i.e. monitoring the use of financial resources on the basis of given guidelines, rules and regulations and procedures and monitoring of

72

Chapter III

research progress. Research projects receiving less than R s . 10 lacs are monitored through general financial and progress reports.

However, where support was more than Rs . 10 lacs, a monitoring committee was constituted in 1983 for 23 major research projects. T h e main purpose of the monitoring committee was both to review the progress of the project and suggest measures to ensure that objectives are fulfilled. In 1985, the D S T provided a monitoring committee for projects involving even less than Rs . 10 lacs. Coupled with this, in order to evaluate the impact of the projects and their contribution to various sectors of research in the case of G R F , a review is carried out every five years. This review will be useful in assessing the progress m a d e in the past and suggesting directions for the future.

III. Indian council of agricultural research ( I C A R )

Genesis and Scope: I C A R was established prior to independence i.e. in 1929. The emphasis on agriculture was very clear right from the first Five Year Plan. T h e approach was to develop agriculture along with strengthening existing agricultural colleges, as well as formulating plans for organisation of agricultural education and research. In 1956, the functioning of I C A R was streamlined and again in 1975. T h e main purpose of this sub-apex level institutional mechanism was to co-ordinate, support and promote education and research in agriculture and allied subjects as well as apply research outcomes in the field. With this broad purpose in view, the objectives of I C A R were identified as follows:

(i) to undertake, aid, promote and co-ordinate agricultural, animal husbandry and fisheries education and research, and its application in practice, development and marketing by all means calculated to increase scientific knowledge of the subject and to ensure its adoption in everyday practice;

(ii) to act as a clearing house of information not only in regard to research but also in regard to agriculture and veterinary matters generally;

(iii) to establish and maintain a reference and research library in pursuance of the objectives of the Council; and

(iv) to do such other things as the Council m a y consider necessary or conducive to the attainment of the above objectives.

73


In contrast to the D S T , I C A R was set up as an autonomous body -which was considered "essential for effective functioning of a scientific organisation". In order to establish linkages between I C A R and Central and State Governments and international agencies, the Department of Agricultural Research and Education in the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development was constituted. The main functions of the department are:

(i) to look after all aspects of agricultural research and education (including animal sciences and fisheries) involving co-ordination between the central and State agencies;

(ii) to attend to all matters relating to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research; and

(iii) to attend to all matters concerning the development of n e w technology in agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries, including such functions as plant and animal introduction and exploration, and soil and land use survey and planning.

Again, an organisation very similar to D S T , and distinct from U G C , was evolved. The Director-General of I C A R was designated as Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Agricultural Research and Education ( D A R E ) and the Secretary of I C A R as Joint Secretary, whereas in the U G C , neither the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, or Secretary has any formal official position in the Department of Education. This m a y be due to the fact that there is no separate Ministry of Higher Education in the Government. Thus, in the three sub-apex level agencies, different approaches and models of linkage between them and the Government/Apex level body have been adopted.

Like the D S T , I C A R has also established research institutions (35 in number) including three institutions of national importance dealing with various aspects of research and education. In order to strengthen and intensify research on a multilocation and multidisciplinary basis, with the co-operation of central and research organisations, the Council has launched 63 All India co-ordinated research projects, including project directorates and two national level research centres. In contrast to D S T , and more on the lines of the U G C , the Council has taken the responsibility for supporting state level agricultural universities and establishing linkages with them. The Council has also started a National A c a d e m y of Agricultural Research Management ( N A A R H ) for manpower development through orientation and training programmes for

74

Chapter III

those w h o are in agricultural research and management. In addition, it has started a large number of training institutions such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras for first level support personnel.


A s regards decision-making, there is a General Body consisting of 134 members drawn from Union and State Cabinets, agricultural universities and research institutions. The Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of the Council. However, the major policy-formulating, scrutinizing and budget controlling body is the Governing Body of the Council which is headed by the Director-General of I C A R (who is also the Secretary to the Government of India in D A R E as stated). Thus, the post is a combination of two negotiating actors; bureaucrat and professional, which m a y help to reduce the gap between the expectations of these two sectors. The Governing Body includes 3 members of Parliament, eminent agricultural and other scientists of agricultural universities, some directors of I C A R institutes, Secretaries to the Government of India in the Ministries of Finance (Department of Expenditure), Planning and Department of Agriculture, the Chairman of U G C and farmers' representatives.

The Governing Body formulates I C A R policy, scrutinises and approves the research programmes and projects and controls the budget. Recommendations become operative after approval by the President of I C A R .

The Governing Body is assisted by the Standing Finance Committee which examines the proposals, including annual reports of I C A R , and other proposals having financial implications. The N o r m s and Accreditation Committee deals with matters pertaining to agricultural universities and the Regional Committees, which are 8 in number, deal with issues of research and training needs of major agro-ecological regions. Scientific panels and Joint panels are also formed between I C A R and other related research organisations like CSIR, I C M R and I C S S R to establish inter-institutional linkages. (The organisational diagram is given in Chart V ) .

75


Chart V . Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH (Autonomous Body

\ r GENERAL

BODY

1 GOVERNING

BODY

1 DIRECTOR GENE RAL

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SEDUCATION

ADMINISTRATION AND SCIENCE SUPPORTS

/

J SECRET * | UAH

i

ARY TO E

PLANNING COMMISSION RESOURCES

FINANCE COMMISSION RESOURCES

INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES

SECRETARY AT THE SECRETARIAT

STANDING FINANCE COMMITTEE

NORMS OF ACCREDITATION COMMITTEE

REGIONAL COMMITTEE

SC1ENT1 F 1С P A N E L

JOINT PANEL

JT. SECRETARY TO DARE

RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

REGIONAL CENTRES

UNIVERSITIES S COLLEGES

76

Chapter HI

Thus, the 1С A R mechanism of decision-making involves negotiating actors, like professionals, political leaders, administrators from the Finance Department and Planning Commission as well as representatives of the higher education system. Significantly, this body also involves representatives of beneficiaries of agricultural research and development, like farmers. Thus, the mechanism of decision-making of I C A R is distinct from that of the U G C and the D S T .

The process of decision-making involves negotiations between scientific panels, the respective divisions of I C A R and the research institutions and universities. The Five Year Plan proposals are prepared by the respective universities, research institutions and these are negotiated with the respective divisions of I C A R . These negotiated proposals are further submitted in a consolidated form to a Standing Committee and finally to the Governing Body. Negotiations at the first level are mainly a m o n g professionals and administrators either at the delivery system level or at I C A R levels. Further negotiations of the consolidated proposals at the governing body level are among professionals, administrators, representatives of farmers, and U G C and politicians.

Resource requirements as projected by I C A R , are further negotiated at the Planning Commission and Ministry of Finance levels through the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. In this case also, resources finally allocated to I C A R depend on availability and plan priority. International funding of various projects is also negotiated through D A R E .

Magnitude of Resources: Resources allocated by I C A R during 1981-87 are given in Tables 14 and 15. Over the period of six years, the total allocation of resources to I C A R has increased from 91.5 crores to 1735 crores. O f this, agricultural research institutes accounted regularly for nearly 60 per cent of resources but resources allocated to^agricultural education, declined from 14 to 7 per cent during the period. Support to co-ordinated research projects, however, rose from 18 to 24 per cent.

Allocation of resources to universities

The number of universities supported by I C A R increased from only one university in the First Plan to 24 universities in the Seventh. The

77


amount of resources given to them increased from 3 to 52 crores over the period of Six Five Year Plans. Details of the amounts allocated are given in Table 16. The purposes for which grants were given to state universities during the Seventh Plan reveal that infrastructural facilities and faculty development accounted for 45 and 22 per cent of total allocations and that of development of instructional materials for 29 per cent.

Table 14 Indian council of agricultural research allocation of

resources by plan & non-plan for 1981-82 - 1986-87 (in percentage)

Items 1981-82

Agriculture, Animal Science, Fisheries Institutes 59.26 Headquarters including Publication 2.49 All-India co-ordinated research projects 18.34 Agricultural Education 14.21

Total 94.30

Schemes/projects financed by government and other agencies 5.70

Grand Total 100.00 in thousands

1982-83

58.48

2.36

19.20

13.12

93.16

6.84

100.00

1983-84

58.41

2.50

21.12

12.09

94.12

5.88

100.00

1984-85

57.82

2.38

21.33

11.31

82.83

7.17

100.00

1985-86

59.35

2.52

24.11

7.67

93.64

6.35

100.00

1986-87

59.39

3.08

23.62

7.23

93.33

6.67

100.00

Rs.) 915110 1111314 1219818 1437174 1520993 1735134

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Chapter III

Table 15 Number of research projects sanctioned and amount allocated by I C A R

during 1983-84 -1986-87 (based on revised and budgeted estimates)

Purpose Number of Projects Total amount in Rs.100 thousands

Agricultural Engineering ^ 145 106.7 Statistical Schemes 161 69.7 Commercial Crops 142 40.07 Agricultural Education 55 24.09 National Demonstration Schemes 29 61.08 Animal Husbandry 48 357.05

Table 16 Allocation of resources to agricultural universities by I C A R

during second to seventh Five-Year Plans

Plan period

Second plan (1956-60) Third Plan'(1961-65) Annual plans 66-67,67-68 & 68-69 Fourth plans(l969-73) Fifth plan (1974-78) Amount released during mid-term plans 78-79 1979-80 Sixth plan (1980-84) Seventh plan 1985-90

N o . of universities

1 7

9 18 21

21 21 22 24

Amount

300.00 95.01

545.86 2396.51 3020.185

1 203.59 792.13

5 211.005 3 477.26

Support services accounted for only 4 per cent. Thus , nearly half of the total allocations have gone for faculty development and the development of instructional materials and the other half for infrastructure and support services. Please see Table 17.

79


Table 17 Allocation of resources to universities by 1С A R for different purposes during the seventh Five-year plan

Purpose Allocation (In percentage)

Development of Infrastructural Facilities 44.96 Development of Faculty Capabilities 21.89 Development of Relevant Support Services 3.96 Development of Instructional Materials 29.16 Total (Rs. in lacs) 3 662.72

IV. Department of bio-technology

Genesis and Scope: B y the early Eighties, Bio-technology had emerged as one of the major new fields of science and technology, since it has a great potential to solve problems related to medicine, agriculture and industry and is expected to contribute directly to improving the quality of life. In India a base for Bio-technology research had already been developed in the universities and research institutions in the form of life sciences, molecular and cellular b2iology, micro-biology and so on. S o m e recommendations were made in a meeting held in D S T , in order to obtain an integrated view of co-ordination and development of bio-technology activity in the country. These recommendations were discussed in the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet. Following these discussions, a proposal to set-up a National Bio-technology Board ( N B T B ) as an Inter-agency body was worked out, and approved by the Cabinet. The then Prime Minister, Mrs . Indira Gandhi announced the establishment of N B T B in her address to the Science Congress at Mysore in 1982.

This inter-agency apex body was assigned the task of identifying priority areas and evolving a long term plan for the country in bio-technology, as well as initiating and promoting such activities as are conducive for further development of various areas in bio-technology. The Board consisted of D S T , CSIR, I C M R , I C A R , A E , and U G C .

The mechanism for providing financial support to various programmes was discussed in N B T B , and provision for a Core Fund and

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Chapter III

special allocation of funds for various programmes coming under the auspices of participating agencies was agreed. The Core Fund was m a d e up of contributions from participating agencies out of their existing allocations. It was further agreed that N B T B would be a government agency to assess, review and monitor all the plans of different agencies.

In 1982-83, a sum of Rs . 29.5 crores was set aside by participating agencies for bio-technology programmes under their respective agencies' programmes, and a sum of Rs . 5.5 crores was contributed towards the Core Fund which operated under a separate budget head of D S T . Discussions were held with the U G C as regards manpower development. In order to exchange views on various aspects of bio-technology development, workshopAraining courses were organised by 22 research institutions and universities. CSIR set up a n e w Institute for Microbial Technology in 1982-83. In 1984, a bio-technology programme was started at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, as well as programmes in six selected universities.

In 1986, the Government of India formed a separate Department of Bio-technology whereupon the N B T B ceased to exist.

The main responsibilities of the department are: » to evolve integrated plans and programmes in

bio-technology; to identify specific R & D programmes in bio-technology and related manufacturing; to establish infrastructural support at the national level;

• to act as an agent of the Government for the import of n e w recombinant D N A based bio-technological processes, production and technology;

e to evolve bio-safety guidelines for laboratory research, production and application; to initiate scientific and technical efforts related to bio-technology; to encourage manufacture and applications of recombinant and cell based vaccines;

e to promote programmes of manpower development in areas of bio-technology; and to establish an International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Bio-technology.

81


T o carry out the above stated functions, the Department has organised its activities under six broad areas. They are:

Manpower development Infrastructural facilities R & D programmes Technology missions Science and technology projects (missions) International R & D collaboration


A Scientific Advisory Committee has been constituted to provide professional and independent advice on general science policy and programmes in Bio-technology and other related matters to the D B T . This committee consists of four ex-officio members, the Heads of I C A R , I C M R , CSIR and U G C , five Bio-technology scientists including one from the private sector, and the Secretary to the Department of Bio-technology as Chairman. This committee's terms of reference are :

• to advise on short and long term programmes in different areas of bio-technology to be supported by the Government;

• to recommend linkages between education and the R & D system on the one hand and industry on the other,

• to advise on scientific, technical and industrial activities in Bio-technology based industries; to assess the technological status of the Indian Bio-technology industry with a view to updating technology and strengthening/starting R & D programmes to meet the future technological requirements of the country;

• to advise on any other matters as m a y be referred to it by the Department of Bio-technology.

Similarly, there are other Advisory Committees such as the Committee on R D N A and international programmes, particularly in North America.

The Scientific Advisory Committee in its very first meeting broadly discussed the objectives and goals set for the Department and strongly emphasised the need for developing a focused programme of R & D manufacturing activities in bio-technology that are in tune with national needs and priorities. The need for developing strong linkages between

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Chapter III

Universities and R & D institutions on the one hand and the industries on the other, was also emphasised. T h e S A C reiterated that the Department should continue to co-ordinate bio-technology based activities in the areas of agriculture, health, energy and environment.

Thus , decision-making at the Department is supported by the advice of the Scientific Communi ty and agencies which are involved in carrying out the programmes as well as representatives of related industry. However , final decisions seem to be taken at the Department level, by professionals and administrators, as in the D S T and the departmental Secretariats.

T h e Department, with the help of working groups, assesses the need for the financial resources, keeping in view developmental plan requirements submitted by institutions and participating agencies, and finally submits its proposals, through the Ministry of Science and Technology to the Planning Commission. T h e resources finally granted to it, are then allocated by the Department to various programmes and activities related to the five broad areas outlined above.

Magnitude of Resources: During the year 1986-87 - 1987-88, a s u m of 23.52 crores both plan and non-plan were allocated, which was however revised downwards to 17.94 crores. T h e budget for the year 1987-88 had a m u c h increased provision of R s . 40.99 crores both under plan and non-plan. T h e aspects for which these allocations were m a d e are given in Table 18.

Table 18 Percentage allocation of resources to major activities

of the bio-technology department

1986-87 1987-88

1. Secretarial Services - 1.93 2. Assistance to other Scientific Bodies 14.77 6.10 3. Bio-technology Research 71.79 79.09 4 . International Co-operation 13.43 13.66

Total (Rs. in Lacs) 1794 4 099

O f the total allocation, for the two years 72 and 79 per cent was given to Bio-technology Research, of which 2 0 and 15 per cent was

83


spent on manpower development and 39 and 19 per cent for infrastructure development. N e w projects accounted for 5 and 6 per cent. The share of R & D units or new projects increased from 5 to 35 per cent between these two year. For details see Table 19.

Table 19 D B T Allocation for bio-technology research (in %)

1986-87 1987-88

1. Bio-technology Research schemes funded from N B T B Core Fund

2 . Manpower Development

Revised Estimates

3. N e w Projects and Research Proposals 4 . Infrastructural Facilities 5. R & D Units for N e w Projects

Generations Total (Rs. in Lacs) per cent to total D B T Budget

2.04

20.35 5.07

39.02

5.30 1 288.00

71.79

Budget Estimates

1.46

15.86 6.10

19.52

35.37 3 150.00

76.85

A s far as planning, implementing and monitoring of Bio-technology programmes are concerned, D B T seems to have been systematic in establishing closer linkages with concerned agencies, universities, research institutions and the development infrastructure, clearly identifying mission oriented R & D and S & T projects, linking R & D with production centres as well as monitoring the projects.

Manpower Development: The department began by identifying six universities for manpower development and R & D efforts. Another six universities were subsequently identified for M . S c . and Post doctoral courses.

The students for these courses are selected on an All India Basis. T o attract the best talent, all the selected students are provided with grants by D T T . The first batch of 106 students will pass out from the Madurai Kamraj University, J N U , M S University of Baroda, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, University of Poona, Jadavpur University, and Indian Institute of Technology. Thereafter, batches of

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Chapter III

about 160-200 students are likely to pass out each year from 1988 onwards.

Besides this, several short-term training programmes were initiated to reorient existing scientific and technical manpower in the shortest possible time.

Research Activity: The Department is following a "mission oriented' approach for implementation of projects and programmes in major thrust areas. (Conceptually, the mission oriented approach is designed to achieve specific results within the framework of a fixed time schedule employing the most appropriate technologies through effective inter-agency participation and co-ordination). Vaccination and immunisation of vulnerable sections, especially children; and production of oilseed are two of the most important technology missions of the Department.

Vaccination and immunisation missions will have the following objectives:

1. T o promote, set up, undertake and monitor highly competitive R & D activities in vaccinology with a view to developing n e w processing technologies for improved vaccines and vaccine cocktails.

2. T o achieve self-sufficiency in essential vaccines by 1990. 3. ,Expansion of vaccination to achieve 85% coverage of children

(with D P T , B C G , Polio and Measles vaccines) and 100% coverage of pregnant w o m e n (with Tetanus Taxiod).

4. T o strengthen storage and distribution systems including the cold chain, disease surveillance, training of personnel and health education, as well as operational research and monitoring mechanisms.

The development of vaccinology in the last two decades has shown that prevention of several diseases which was hitherto considered not to be possible by vaccine can n o w be attempted, as well as the replacement of m a n y conventional vaccines with improved vaccines, i.e. those with higher thermostability, vaccine 'cocktails', polyvalent and synthetic vaccines. However, national capability in R & D and industrial application is unsatisfactory, and thus the D B T has drawn up a major long-term programme to build up competences in this field.

The mission on tissue-culture, propagation of high yielding types of coconut and oil palm is divided into four micro-missions, viz;

85


technology; production and inputs; marketing, pricing, procurement and trade; and processing and post-harvest technology.

The increased importance of coconut (Cocos nucifera) oil as an edible oil in India necessitated a detailed programme of action. During 1986-87 a working group was constituted and entrusted with the task of working out prefeasibility details and a preliminary budget for the R & D work on the project. These reports were considered by a Reviewing Committee which identified priorities and recommended that the Budget be revised and submitted again.

Monitoring was to be carried out at two levels i.e. project Management Committees and a Monitoring Committee.

(a) Project management committees: A separate project Management Committee for each participating

institution is to supervise progress within the institution and is composed of:

the Head of the Institution as Chairman, • a D B T Representative, • an outside Expert, and

a Project Co-ordinator. These Committees are expected to meet once every three months. (b) Monitoring Committee: A c o m m o n Monitoring Committee is being constituted for coconut

and oil palm to monitor progress of R & D work at all participating institutions. This committee is to meet once in six months. It will also m a k e on-the-spot inspection of all the participating institutions as and w h e n required.

A working group was also constituted to look into the feasibility and work out a preliminary budget for a programme on oil palm (Elsis guineensis). T h e report was examined by a Reviewing Committee which identified the priorities and suggested a budget revision, which was subsequently modified. Funds were then released by the D B T .

S & T Projects: In addition to the technology mission, the D B T has also established two S & T Projects viz; E m b r y o Transfer Technology for Cattle Herd Improvement, and Development and Production of Immunodiagnostics. Based on the priority requirements of the National Health Programme and the progress that has been m a d e in this area in some laboratories, it was proposed to implement the entire programme of

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Chapter III

development of diagnostic kits in three phases at an estimated cost of R s . 13.8 crores.

International R & D Collaboration: The Indo-US Vaccine Action Programme ( V A P ) finalised in 1986, identified the priorities for vaccine development such as rabies, hepatitis, diarrhoeal diseases, malaria, pertussis and pneumonocal disease.

Possible areas identified for Indo-USSR collaboration in bio-technology include:

Basic Sciences: Peptide and nucleic acide synthesis, structure, chemistry and biophysical studies on photosynthesis. Applied Sciences; (a) Vaccine and hormones, and (b) Bioconversion of agro-wastes for feed and fodder. The collaborative programmes will also cover medical bio-technology.

The proposed International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Bio-technology which is being established on the initiative of U N I D O will have two components, one in N e w Delhi and the other in Trieste, Italy. The objective is to bring the fruits of modern bio-technology to developing countries through organising and conducting extensive training programme for scientists from the Third World to serve as the focal point for the dissemination of information on advanced methods in bio-technology.

V . D e p a r t m e n t of the environment

Genesis & Scope: n the Seventies, environmental problems resulting from industrialisation, deforestation, water, air and noise pollution became a major area of concern. Several international meetings of scientists were held at that time to discuss the use of science and technology, as well as create environmental consciousness among the people at large. Indian participation in such meetings brought h o m e the importance and need for initiating action in India, where problems were also serious. The matter was discussed with the then Prime Minister and in the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet which finally resulted in creating an institutional mechanism at the central level for planning, co-ordination and development of environmental programmes in India.

87


In 1980, the Department of the Environment was set up. In 1985 this department became the new Ministry of the Environment and Forests which has the following responsibilities:

Environment and ecology, including environment in coastal waters, mangroves and coral reefs but excluding Marine environment on the high seas; Botanical survey and botanical gardens Zoological survey; National M u s e u m of Natural History; The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Cess Acts, 1974 and 1977; The Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981; and Biosphere Research Programme.

The D O E N is headed by a Minister supported by a Secretary, and is composed of eight divisions and five agencies. The divisions are: Control of Pollution, Impact Assessment Research and Eco Regeneration, Conservation and Surveys, Education, Information and Publications, Personnel and General Administration; Policy Planning and Internal Finance. The Agencies are: Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) National M u s e u m of Natural History ( N M N H ) , and Central Board for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution ( C B P C W P )

M e c h a n i s m of decision-making and resources allocation

A s in the D S T and D B T , the D O E N is also assisted and supported by committees and working groups in its decision-making. Resource requirements are assessed with the help of Working Groups and their o w n Secretariats. Finally, these estimates are submitted through the Ministry to the Planning Commission and the amount is negotiated at the Commission level and allocated to the Department.

Magnitude of Resources: The D O E N in turn allocates the resources to various activities and programmes, as identified by the department with the help of committees. The amount of resources allocated to the department during the last five years and the purposes for which the funds are then allocated to institutions/universities and projects are given in Table 20.

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Chapter III

Table 20 Budget Allocations of the department of environment ( D O E N )

during the period 1981-86 (in percentage)

Items 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

Actual Revised Estimate Actual Estimate Revised Budget

Scientific Services and Research: a) Botanical Survey b) Zoological Survey c) National M u s e u m

of Natural History 40.14 26.37 24.62 23.17 18.20 Assistance for other Scientific Research including R & D Education Training and Information System 52.58 43.92 47.18 51.28 54.84 Health Sanitation, Prevention of air and Water Pollution & Social and Community Service - 7.67 12.20 11.07 14.00 Wild Life Preservation ~ 1.35 ~ -- 40.00 Plan Scheme (Central & Union Territories -- 17.62 13.09 9.53 7.36 Secretariat and A d m i nistrative Expenditure 7.27 3.07 2.90 4.97 3.86

Grand total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 (Rs. in Lacs) 826.96 1885.28 2319.74 3020.74 4591.29

Source : Annual Budget, Department of Environment.

It m a y be seen from the table that the amount of resources allocated increased from 8.26 crores to 45.91 crores between 1981-82 to 1985-86. T o begin with scientific surveys and research which concerned botanical and zoological surveys and the natural history m u s e u m claimed 40 per cent of the resources. Assistance to scientific research accounted for 53 per cent of the total In the subsequent years the share of former declined, and s o m e n e w areas like, air and water pollution control and wild life preservation were added. T h e latter became a substantial item i.e. 4 0 % of the total allocation in 1985-86.

89


However, a major part of resources 50 per cent) continued to be allocated to other scientific research and education and training. O f this, R & D accounted for 9-11 per cent of resources, (see Table 21).

Table 21 Department of environment ( D O E N ) allocation for R & D and

environmental educational training programme (figures in percentage)

Items

Research and Development

Grand total (Rs in Lacs)

1981-82

10.74

826.96

1982-83

11.67

1885.28

1983-84

8.75

2319.74

1984-85

9.93

3020.74

1985-86

9.21

4591.29

The M A B programme seeks to provide the scientific basis to solve practical problems of resource management through scientific understanding of the structure and function of the eco system and the systematic monitoring of the impact of h u m a n activities on the biospheres. Under this programme, a comprehensive project in the Beas and Sutluj river basin in Himachal Pradesh was launched in 1983. The major objective was to understand and analyse the environment in the region in relation to the past, present and future. Resources allocated to universities and institutes under the M A B programme during 1980-81 -85-86 are given in Table 22.

Table 22 Amount of resources allocated to universities and research institutes by

of the department of the environment under the m a n and bio-sphere programme during 1980-81 - 86-87

Amount Percentage

Universities 438.09 69.75 Institutes 189.93 30.25 Total in Lakhs 628.02 100.00

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Chapter III

The table reveals that of the total amount of Rs . 6.28 crores, 70 percent has been allocated to universities and the remainder to research institutes. During 1985-86, M A B approved 25 projects. In addition to the above the department has also launched several integrated all India co-ordinated programmes on various aspects of the environment.

The Integrated Action Oriented Eco-Development Research Programme includes the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats, Himalayan Region and the River Ganga. The overall objective of the Western Ghats programme is to utilise and rebuild resource bases such as soil, water and plant and animal life on a sustainable basis while striving to generate sustained economic and social well being for the inhabitants.

The Eastern Ghats programme attempts to generate scientific and technical k n o w - h o w , which will be applied to action oriented projects to maintain the ecological balance in the region. Yet another programme in the Himalayan Region envisages conservation and restoration of the eco-system. The integrated programmes being carried out by universities and associated institutions located on the river Ganga include assessment of the impact of pollutants on the bio-productivity of the river, prediction of the flows of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur in the aquatic habitat and their role in primary productivity, resources and nutrient fluxes; determination of the extent of environmental degradation and possible solutions and the development of a mathematical eco-model or river water flow; identification and propagation of suitable plant species for conservation of river banks and development of instrumentation for pollution monitoring. In order to achieve these objectives the river has been divided into three stretches viz. Gangotri to Narora, Narora to Ballia and Ballia to Hoogly.

Seven programmes have been launched under the All India Co-ordinated Research Programmes (AICRP). A network of Biosphere Reserves covering 13 bio-geographical areas have been identified for the purpose of long term protection and conservation of biological diversity. Another programme on ethnobiology is multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional; it found that the tribes possess knowledge which is a treasure house of appropriate local skills. The third project is on Wetlands and Mangroves which collects information on various ecological aspects as well as studies on the Sunderban eco-system, the Godavari delta complex, virgin and reclaimed areas and the bio-systematics of Indian mangroves. The fourth project on Air

91


Pollution and Plants studied the impact of emissions from urban and industrial areas on vegetation. Its aim is to use plants for monitoring and controlling pollution. The fifth project on Arid Zones is being formulated in collaboration with D S T , I C A R , the local universities of Rajasthan, etc. The programme on Conservation of Endangered Plant Species, Seed Biology and Tissue Culture involves Delhi and 4 other Universities, the Regional Research Laboratory, the National Chemical Laboratory, the Botanical Survey of India, and the Central Institute of Medical and Aromatic Plants.

The problems of environmental pollution due to heavy metals led to the initiation of the All India co-ordinated project in 1983. At present the project is being carried out at the P G Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, the Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, Lucknow; University of Calcutta, National Institute of Occupational Health, Ahmedabad; National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad and Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Madras.

In order to co-ordinate the activities of eco-development programmes at the State level, the department has also established co-ordination committees in Kerala, Kamataka, Tamil N a d u and Maharashtra.

Given the importance of environmental education, the department is giving priority to environmental awareness in all age groups and promoting environmental education at primary and secondary school levels as well as in colleges and universities throughout the country.

The department has started two centres i.e. the Ecological Research Training Centre at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad. A third centre at the Indian Institute of Mines, Dhanbad is to be established. Under this scheme, the department considers proposals to strengthen active researchAraining groups in universities/institutions working in priority areas of environmental science and management.

The role of the National Environmental Advisory Committee which was constituted in 1984 is to advise the department in its work and to provide representation of a wide spectrum of views in the field of the environment. The environmental information system (ENVIS) which was set up in 1982 as part of the plan programme, collects, collates and disseminates information to decision makers, researchers and the public.

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Chapter III

In addition to the above, the department is also continuing on-going information activities, viz, Query-answer Service, N G O ' s directory, Directory of Pollution Control, Equipment Consultancy Groups, Expert List, Press Clippings service, and Computerisation of Bibliographic Information on the Environment.

V L D e p a r t m e n t of electronics ( D O E )

Genesis and Scope: Electronics and computers are being increasingly applied to industry, trade and commerce as well as in the information and communication system. In fact, this technology has c o m e to be recognised as one of the major thrusts of development of the country. S o m e of the developed countries like Japan, accorded it major importance in technology and economic development plans. Thus, the D O E was set up in 1970. In addition, in order to promote an integrated and self-reliant electronics industry, a special Electronics Commission was constituted in 1971.

D O E was organised to develop different product groups, which are linked with the development of particular sections of the electronic industry. The three major groups are consumer electronics, micro-electronics and measuring instrument and capital goods. Co-ordinating devices consist of manpower development, and advanced electronics and the department funds universities and autonomous institutions to support both these and the Centre for Advanced Studies in Electronics.

The department has identified seven sub-sector thrust areas for the promotion of electronics. Micro-electronics, Micro- processor application, engineering, fibre optics and op to electronics, power electronics devices and equipment, computer hardware and software, the systems engineering programme, and numerical control.

Under the auspices of the Electronics Commission, three Councils, namely, the Technology Development Council ( T D C ) , the National Radar Council and the National Micro electronics Council have been constituted to establish the base for a planned and systemic growth of the electronics industry, to ensure availability of the right kind of manpower, development of different areas of electronics and to co-ordinate and promote R & D and technology development in Micro electronics.

93


U p to 1985, the T D C has supported more than 270 projects spread over 85 organisations, including universities, colleges, research institutions and national laboratories as well as production centres. T D C in turn is supported by several working groups which identify the gaps and work out strategies for achieving the goal of an Electronics production of Rs . 11,860 crores by 1989-90.

Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: The decision-making process in electronics basically involves, as in other science and technology departments, the committees/councils and working groups as a supporting system. Final decisions are taken and resources allocated by the Commission and the D O E . Similarly, working groups and the three Councils stated above, estimate their financial needs after which the department submits its proposal through the Ministry of Science and TechnologyAndustry to the Planning Commission. Matters are further negotiated with the Planning Commission and a final allocation is made to the department. The amount allocated to the department by the Government is also used for promoting various production groups, and centres as well as R & D and manpower development programmes.

Magnitude of Resources: The amount of resources allocated to the D O E and resources allocated for manpower development are given in Table 23.

The table reveals that the allocations to the D O E for both plan and non-plan have increased from 12.2 crores to 30.3 crores between 1981-82 - 1984-85. The major part of the resources i.e. 75-87 per cent are allocated to Scientific Services and Research on Electronics.

The other items accounted for very small proportions i.e. the Secretariat services accounted for 6 to 10 percent. O f the total amount spent on Scientific Services and Research in Electronics, the Technology Development Council project received 23% in 1981 which fell to 11% in 1984, the National Radar Council Project's shares were 20% and 9% respectively, while Manpower Training allocations rose from 5% to 14% over the period. (See Table 24).

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Chapter III

Table 23 Allocation of resources to the department of electronics

during the period 1981-85" (in percentage)

Items 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Actual Actual Actual Actual

Secretariat-Economic Services 7.95 10.00 8.56 6.81 Scientific services and research Electronic research 75.75 77.14 78.16 87.42 Other Social and Community services like expenditure on exhibitions 0.92 1.00 1.42 3.3 Foreign trade and export promotion - - 0.05 0.33 Grants-in-aid a) to state governments for Central

Plan Schemes and Technical Education Training 13.85 7.90 1.64 0.23

b) to Union Territory Governments for Central Plan schemes, aids, materials and equipment from the Government of Federal Republic of Germany 1.70 3.94 10.14 1.89

Revenue Account (amounts in thousands of Rs.) 220 521

Table 24 Allocation to major areas of scientific services

electronics during 1981-85 (

Items 1981-82 Actual

8 070 182 370 303 300

and research of the department of in percentage)

1982-83 Actual

1983-84 R . E .

1984-85 R . E .

Technology Development Council Project 23.18 22.63 13.87 10.72 National Radar Council 19.74 9.54 12.33 9.26 Special Manpower Development Programme 5.24 1.61 5.75 14.06

O f the 57 projects funded under the Technology Development Council with an outlay of 8.25 crores, 32 projects totalling 2.92 crores have been carried out by educational institutions, i.e. 35%. O f the 42 projects funded under National Radar Council, with a total outlay of

11. Figures include both plan and non-plan allocations. Source: Annual Budget, Department of Electronics.

95


13.24 crores, 34 projects totalling 8.97 crores (68%) are conducted in educational institutions.

During the Seventh Five Year Plan, a sum of Rs . 471 has been allocated to D O E of which 35 crores is for Manpower Development, Centres of Excellence (Social Electronics) and the Centre for Electronic Design and Technology ( C E D T ) and 17 crores for centres for development of Telematics ( C D O T ) , electronics.

Besides the D O E , the Departments of Space, and Atomic Energy, D S T and the CSIR also support the development of electronics and computer sciences in universities and research institutions, as well as in their o w n laboratories.

Manpower development

In this domain, D O E works jointly with the Ministry of H u m a n Resource Development and the U G C . In the joint programme with U G C , several universities have already been identified for post B.Sc. diploma and degree programmes in electronics, computer applications and computer sciences.

The table reveals that 149 institutions with an intake of 4250 students and an outlay of Rs. 558 lakhs have been supported by the D O E to develop manpower through universities and institutions at the master and diploma levels. Besides this, D O E is also supporting computer awareness in the young children under their project "Computer Literacy Studies in Schools" ( C L A S S ) . S o m e programmes have been started for craftsmen at ITI and diploma courses at polytechnics. Along with this, the department is also supporting teacher training programmes, diplomas in computer application and in-service training in electronic products.

The department has supported Centres for Electronics Design and Technology ( C E D T ) . The first C E D T was set up in 1974 at Bangalore and the second in 1985 at Srinagar. T w o more centres at Aurangabad and Imphal are to be set up. The students trained at these centres have been found extremely useful and all of them have been employed.

The number of institutions/centres/universities which are helping manpower development in electronics and computer sciences is given in Table 25. The department has also developed an education information system in a national information centre. Programmes of computer aided management ( C A M ) have been initiated at Indian Institutes of

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Chapter III

Management, Ahmedabad, Calcutta and Bangalore and at the Administrative Staff College, Hyderabad. The department released 2.7 crores to acquire computer systems for these centres.

Table 25 Universities/institutions organising different types of computer courses, intake

of students and grants from the D O E from 1971 to 1987

Courses

1. Post-graduate D C A 2 . Post-graduate D C A

(Hindi Med ium) 3. M C A (3 years) 4 . M . S c . 5. B.Tech. 6. M.Tech.

Total

N o . of Institutions

43 9

38 1

36 22

149

Students Intake

1290 270

1140 30

1080 440

4 250

Grants from the D O E (in Lacs)

80.00 80.05

190.00 5.00

167.50 35.85

558.40

In addition to this, some short term courses such as three months specialised programme in backward areas in Himachal Pradesh, a one year certificate course in consumer electronics through the Hindi med ium for w o m e n at Vanasthali Vidyapeeth, a short term course for retraining of teachers at Delhi University (for the teachers of N E regions, G o a and J & K ) have also been organised.

Monitoring: Resource utilization was monitored through progress reports and audit certificates on use of resources as per rules and regulations.

The main channel through which environmental sciences is being promoted is allocation of funds for research and action-research programmes in different regions and other projects in universities and institutions in water, air pollution. A s far as manpower development is concerned, only a few universities were allowed to establish M . S c . courses in Environmental Sciences, and such courses have not increased during the last 5-6 years.

Research Promotion: The department has set up two committees namely, the Indian National M a n and Biosphere Committee ( M A B ) and

97


the Environment Research Committee ( E R C ) . These committees m a k e recommendations on priority areas for environmental research, scrutinise research proposals received from various institutions in the country, evaluate the progress of projects and recommend suitable means for the implementation of research results. The major thrusts of E R C include environmental degradation, impact assessment, and environmental aspects of h u m a n settlements. During 1985-86 E R C approved 26 proposals out of a total of 87 n e w proposals.

VII . Indian council of social science research ( I C S S R )

Genesis & Scope: Social science research in India was a neglected area in the absence of a funding patron up to 1969, when the I C S S R was established as an autonomous organisation by the Government of India. There is evidence of some pioneer research work done before the 70's but India's researchers had to depend on foreign financial assistance, and conditions were laid d o w n which included a particular line of enquiry to suit the interests of the funding agency.

In the early 70's, the I C S S R emerged as a research promoting and resource allocating agency in the area of social science research. The Council is composed of 26 members i.e. a chairperson supported by 18 social scientists, 6 representatives of the Government of India and a member-Secretary appointed by the I C S S R with the prior approval of the Govt, of India.

Its Secretariat is headed by the Member-Secretary, 7 Directors 10 Deputy-Directors, 9 Assistant Directors, 1 Financial Officer and other supporting staff.

In addition to its Headquarters at Delhi, the I C S S R has 6 regional centres located in different parts of the country. These centres were established as part of the Councils programme of decentralising administration and broad based social sciences research involving social science institutions in the region. Their main roles are defined as follows:

(1) to represent the I C S S R and spread the message and programmes of the I C S S R to social scientists in the region;

(2) bring the ideas and problems of social scientists of the region to the notice of the I C S S R for possible action;

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Chapter III

(3) bring the social scientists of the region closer for promotion of social science research within the region; and

(4) serve as a link between the social scientists of the region and the national and international community of social scientists.

Mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation: Promotion and funding of research are the principal twin objectives of the I C S S R . Thus, it facilitates theoretical studies in social sciences, refinement of methodology and better understanding and solution of important national problems. T o obtain feedback from past experience for future research, promotion policy and identification of priority areas, the I C S S R decided to launch a survey of research in social sciences in 1970. The major disciplines covered by the I C S S R were Psychology, Geography, Sociology and Anthropology, Public Administration, Management , Political Science and Economics. A n Advisory Committee was set up for each, consisting of prominent scholars in the respective field.

Similarly, the I C S S R constituted various committees for research projects in which experts evaluate proposals. After expert approval, the project is sanctioned by the I C S S R Secretariat. The total number of projects approved since the establishment of the I C S S R up to March 1986, is 1619 and the reports of 1070 completed projects have already been received by the Council.

A sub-committee under the chairmanship of the Member-secretary was constituted for promotion of research in the North Eastern Region and to discuss the thrust of studies to be undertaken as well as other matters like dissemination of information and encouragement of researchers in that regions. Thus, the w a y the I C C S R functions, is m u c h the same as the U G C .

A s far as resource acquisition is concerned, the I C S S R works out its estimates for various programmes and activities like Fellowships and regional centres and submits these estimates through the Ministry of H u m a n Resource Development to the Planning Commission which in turn aUocates resources to ICSSR.

The Council takes a broad policy decisions through the Ministry of H R D and the Secretariat takes decisions on the amount of resources to be allocated to the various research institutions and projects on the basis of the recommendations of committees constituted for the specific purpose.

99


Magnitude of resources: The amount of resources allocated to the I C S S R during the last five years and the purposes for which this has been allocated to institutions, universities and colleges are given in Tables 26 and 27.

Table 26 Source of income of the I C C R S during the period 1980-86

(in percentage)

Items of 1980-81 1981-82 * 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Expenditure

1. Administration 2 . Research training

and study grants 3. Regional Centres 4 . Information and

Documentation 5. International

collaboration 6. Grant to Research

and professional institutions.

7 . Miscellaneous

6.83

31.93 7.75

11.76

0.84

33.48

7.34

7.56

28.46 6.34

11.58

3.24

35.36

7.17

5.30

25.54 8.21 8.40

3.79

45.69

2.98

6.29

23.11 8.21 9.01

5.21

44.52

3.58

6.84

21.25 4.77 7.66

4.86

38.50

16.05

Grand total 190.91 217.11 314.99 367.52 449.92

* Data for the year 1982-83 is not available.

Table 27 Expenditure items of the ICSSR during the

Source of income of the ICSSR during the period 1980-86 (in Percentage)

Itemwise Sources 1980-81 81-82 * 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

1. Grants from Govt. 87.84 90.15 95.44 95.64 95.25 of India (Plan & Non-plan)

2 . International 5.01 3.89 2.57 2.52 2.64 agencies including NEA.

3. Miscellaneous 7.15 5.96 1.95 1.82 2.05

Grand total (in Lacs) 199.02 234.02 319.41 371.76 453.92

* Data for the year 1982-83 is not readily available.

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Chapter III

It can be seen from the tables that the majority of resources came from the Central Govt, under the plan and non-plan grants. A very small proportion is contributed by international agencies and miscellaneous receipts. O n the expenditure side, most of the resources are allocated for scholarships and research grants. The Council considers that the research programmes of the various research institutes constitute an important mechanism for implementation of the policy of dispersal of research talent and building up of research capabilities in different regions. At the same time, some of the institutes are closely associated with national and state level planning and development agencies and have thereby been strengthening the links between research and policy making, the more so since research in these institutes has been problem-oriented and quantitative in nature. The focus of research covers a wide spectrum of subjects related to agriculture and rural development, industrial structure and growth, income distribution and poverty, employment and wages, inter regional differences in levels of development, education, health, problems of the weaker sections of society and socio-cultural and institutional aspects of development.

Analysis of m e c h a n i s m s of resource allocation b y funding agencies: a synthesis

Genesis and Scope: Seven organizations/departments have been set up at sub-apex level to plan, co-ordinate and promote education and research in identified thrust areas and their related aspects. The genesis and scope of these bodies are different.

The U G C mainly catered for the development of universities and colleges, departments of technical education for engineering and technical colleges, and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for the development of agriculture education and research. The Departments of Science and Technology, Environment, Electronics and the I C S S R , mainly supported research projects in universities and colleges, and in research laboratories and institutes. Thus together with the efforts of the state government, they helped to develop universities and colleges, and hence manpower and research. This mechanism of resource allocation is depicted in Chart V I .

Interestingly, all the science and technology-related sub-apex level bodies, like D S T , D B T , Departments of Environment, and Electronics

101


were established as Governmental organisations, whereas the U G C , I C A R , ICSSR and other similar sub-apex level bodies are autonomous/statutory bodies. I C A R tended to establish close links with governmental organisations by making the Secretary, Department of Agriculture and Research its Director-General. Hence different models of sub-apex level institutions have been developed.

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102

Chapter III

M e c h a n i c s of decis ion-making a n d resource allocation

The mechanism of decision-making and resource allocation to the delivery system in sub-apex level bodies, particularly those concerned with the thrust areas under study, is broadly characterised by:

(a) W i d e consultation with professionals and experts, review committees on various areas of development, expert committees related to specific areas and reports of various subject panels. These provided the base material for arriving at decisions.

(b) Broad decisions by the highest decision-making bodies of sub-apex level agencies, represented by experts, educational/science and technology administrators and bureaucrats in the Government. These decisions were influenced by feedback from base material as in (a) and articulations of members of decision-making bodies depending on their perception and interests.

(c) Formulation of plans and resource requirements by the officials of respective sub-apex/sector level agencies, based on committed expenditures on already commissioned programmes and projects in institutions, past development and feedback ,from base material, demand projected by the delivery system, as well as s o m e indicators of development given by the highest level decision-making bodies of the respective sub-apex level agencies.

(d) Negotiations at the Planning Commission level regarding resource needs for developmental programmes and on-going activities through their respective Ministries. Final allocations to sub-apex level agencies thus arrived at, were distributed to delivery systems by the executives of the respective agencies, taking account of broad developmental thrusts and recommendations made by committees/groups.

H o w m u c h resources were to go to what areas and for what purposes was not decided by the highest decision-making bodies of these agencies but was left to the executives and executive supporting machinery of sub-apex level agencies. The actual amount of resources allocated to various institutions/laboratories/ universities and colleges

103


depended on the requirements put forward by them and negotiated at the sub-apex level agencies.

Magnitude of resources: The amounts allocated by these seven sub-apex level bodies during 1980-81 to 1984-85 for education and research in general and in thrust area related subjects, reveal that the majority portion (62-70) per cent) came from U G C . The allocation by I C A R accounted for between 18 and 24 per cent. D S T accounted for between 8 and 10 per cent, while D O E N ranged between 1 and 2 per cent. D B T was set up only after 1985. For details see Table 28.

Table 28 Allocation of resources to educational research by

different agencies (as a percentage of total resources allocated)

Funding Agencies 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

a. U . G . C . b. I .C.A.R. с Department

of Science & Tech d. Department of

Environment e. Department of

Electronics f. I.C.S.S.R.

62.21 21.68

6.18

0.64

7.96 1.29

58.63 2.82 8.08

1.52

6.93 N . A .

64.71 19.31 6.70

1.05

6.88 1.31

60.74 18.67 7.56

1.19

10.58 1.24

70.60 19.78 6.54

1.73

N . A . 1.32

Total Amount in millions

1 373.3 1 447.0 2 097.6 2512.0 2443.3

* D . B . T . began only in 1985-86.

Monitoring Utilization: The mechanism of resource flow and utilization is characterised by:

(a) compliance with rules, regulations and procedures and the periodicity of release of funds, as laid d o w n by the respective sub-apex level bodies.

(b) submission of audited accounts by the receiving institutions. (c) reporting on the progress of work by the receiving agencies. (d) review committees to assess progress for certain projects and

programmes.

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Chapter III

Systematic analysis of the performance and impact of individual projects/programmes and comprehensive analysis was not part of the monitoring and feedback processes, it was linked to completion of the task/project and use of resources according to certain rules and regulations.

Thus under this mechanism, in general, the concept of thrust area development planning in the scientific sense of the term, was neither evolved nor practised. The model adopted was based on a broad development approach, where, owing to the existence of a scientific base, the interests of professionals and the felt needs of the country, developments in the identified thrust areas have been implicitly, if not explicitly significant.

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Chapter IV

Mechanisms of decision-making and resource allocation: the delivery system

(universities)

T h e higher education delivery system i.e. universities, research institutions and colleges, occupies a very important place in the implementation and actualisation of the objectives, policies and programmes determined by the apex and sub-apex level bodies. T h e latter influence the nature and structure of the delivery system, but at the same time, the historical past, institutional structure and h u m a n factors in the delivery system, also influence the policies and programmes, and their implementation and actualisation. In addition, the delivery system is further influenced by societal structure and demand, level of economic development and the political and cultural outlook of people at large.

Therefore, while discussing the role of the delivery system in the growth of thrust areas and subsequent national development, the relationship of the delivery system with its context needs to be kept in mind.

Another important element to be taken into account is the administrative structure which m a y or m a y not relate to the nature and objectives of the university system.

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Chapter IV

A brief outline of the development of higher education in India is given below, followed by a discussion of its role in the growth of identified thrust areas by means of an in-depth analysis of the sample of universities.

Institutions of higher education

The higher education system in India can be broadly characterised by Central and State supported autonomous universities and private and Government Colleges, offering first degree and post-graduate programmes and engaging in R & D , as well as specialised research institutions in a particular discipline or area and research laboratories at the regional and national levels. Along with these, there are institutions of national importance like the Indian Institute of Technology.

Since 1857, w h e n the first three universities were established in India, the number of universities both supported by the Central and State Governments has increased to 116 at the State level, 9 at the Central level, in addition to 15 Institutes of national importance considered to be equivalent to universities. The number of colleges offering first degree 2and post-graduate programmes has increased from about two dozen to 5,400. The number of students enrolled in the institutions of higher education has increased from 0.1 million to 3.7 million students.

The growth of higher education has been influenced by three major distinct forces, i.e. social demand, the historical past and contemporary developmental needs. The increase in enrolment, as well as establishment of a large number of colleges and universities, was a response to the pressure of social demand. Since the latter was not closely linked with socio-economic development of the country through a systematic planned process of development, institutions of higher education were established in a more general way . This process of expansion in terms of content and nature was also influenced by the historical past.

The third force resulted in development of n e w disciplines and branches in different disciplines.

However, a further factor reinforced the pressure of social demand. A s resources were scarce, the approach adopted was one of general development which required relatively less resources than the specialised areas. Further, subjects of contextual relevance, besides demanding

107


more resources, also required a n e w orientation which was not possible without the concerted efforts of faculty as well as changes in the administrative structures and procedures of funding of the university system. Thrust area development which attempted to forge ahead, therefore, had to contend with the other two categories of forces, composed of the high demand, historical past and the traditional orientation of teachers, administrative and financial processes, all of which tended to act as a brake on progress. In spite of this, during the last forty years, with the support of policy programmes and financial mechanisms, created at the apex and sub-apex levels and though this process of development was not carried out in a conscious and planned manner, as pointed out earlier, the development of thrust areas and of subjects related to them, nevertheless took place at the delivery system level. Focus on the thrust areas became clearer, in the Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plans and by the 1980's, a good number of universities were offering M . A . , M . S c . and P h . D . programmes as well as being engaged in R & D in these identified areas. Table 29 gives details of the number of universities and types of programmes offered in the identified thrust areas in 1984.

Table 29 Number of Universities offering Masters and P h . D .

programme in identified thrust areas during 1984-85

Thrust Areas No.of universities

Bio-technology and Genetic Eng. and related subjects 14 Agriculture 26 Environmental Sciences 6 Electronics and Computer Sciences 32 Regional Studies 4

Source: U G C Reports, A I U Handbook on Universities and Department of Electronics.

It can be seen that out of 150 universities, nearly a half are currently engaged in subjects related to thrust areas and are training relevant m a n p o w e r through Masters and P h . D . programmes. Several universities are carrying out research projects sponsored and supported by various sub-apex level bodies pertaining to thrust areas. This is particularly true for regional studies. However, most universities are engaged in science, social sciences and commerce courses and within that also in some of the

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Chapter IV

subjects related to the thrust areas and their specializations. This has helped in preparing persons w h o could, with some additional training and re-orientation, be employed in the identified thrust areas. In fact, almost all the manpower requirements of research institutions as well as of university system are n o w being supplied by the system itself.

Nevertheless, there is still a lack of specialisations and diversification specifically focused on the thrust areas and this therefore precludes the possibility of forming nuclei of persons to support improved efforts in these thrust areas. Here it m a y be useful to discuss h o w universities in India are established and the mechanisms of decision making and resource allocation used, before an in-depth analysis of promotion of thrust areas in the nine sample universities is attempted.

M e c h a n i s m of decision-making and resource allocation.

Decision-making on the establishment of universities, research institutions and colleges lies with the two types of agencies, namely, Government and Private/Voluntary, through which expression of social demand for higher Education by the public is channelled.

A s far as the universities are concerned, they are established by the State or Central Governments through State legislation or act of Parliament. The basic decision about the nature, location and the purpose of universities is taken by the Government in consultation with or on the recommendation of experts and professional groups/committees established for the purpose.

Universities are established as autonomous bodies, but they are financially supported by the public exchequer. A s far as State Universities are concerned, they are supported by the State Government through maintenance and development grants together with developmental and plan grants from central agencies like the U G C and other sub-apex level bodies as indicated in previous chapter. Central Universities receive their funds from the Central Government through the U G C , both for maintenance and development purposes and they also receive grants from other sub-apex level agencies for various programmes and activities. Both types of universities are also free to receive grants from other governmental agencies as well as private donations, but within the framework of certain regulations.

109


Similarly, the Government also establishes colleges affiliated to State or Central Universities. Government colleges affiliated to State Universities are fully supported by the Government. Colleges attached to Central Universities are termed as constituent affiliated colleges of the university and they receive full financial support for maintenance and development purposes from central agencies like the U G C . The State and Central Governments also establish either autonomous or government research and training institutions and fully support them financially.

Private and voluntary efforts have established colleges affiliated to universities and research and training institutions. Here, the basic support comes from the voluntary organisation but aid is also provided by the State exchequer.

With the exception of Government colleges, autonomous universities and research institutions have their o w n decision-making bodies in the form of Syndicate/Academic Councils and Finance Committees. The Syndicate/Executive Council composed of faculty, nominee of the Chancellor and members of the public is responsible for executive actions, takes decision on programmes and prepares budgets. These budgets are negotiated with the Government for financial support in the form of grants while in the case of private institutions, negotiations take place with sponsoring voluntary agencies. Hence decision-making, acquisition of resources and their allocation to various departments, is within the institutions.

Thus with some exceptions, universities are linked with the Government through the Governor of the State or a nominee w h o acts as Chancellor of the Universities.

The appointment of the Vice-Chancellor of a University is m a d e on the recommendation of an expert group and approval of the Chancellor. Therefore, despite the autonomous character of decision-making in universities, the viewpoint of the Government is expressed both through the Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor, in addition to the approval and sanctioning of resources to the Universities by the Government. T o sum up the negotiating actors in the decision making process in the university are the faculty, Government bureaucrats, the political representatives in the form of nominee of Chancellor as well as the community and

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Chapter IV

students in some institutions. Less visible forces like the publishing industry, professional groups and other socio-economic political forces also influence decisions.

Colleges and institutions which do not ask for Government financial support and do not have government representation on the Executive Body, can only receive general recognition through a university or U G C , after their objectives, purpose, resources, standards in imparting education and faculties for research and development have been examined.

M a g n i t u d e of resources

A s far as resource allocation is concerned, in 1982-83, a sum of R s . 751 crores was spent for maintenance and development purposes in universities and higher education institutions. O f this amount, 83 per cent came from the State Government and the remaining 17 per cent from the Central Government. Estimates for the year 1984-85 are R s . 840 crores, of which 81 per cent came from the State and 19 per cent from the Central Government. The figures for the above two years for technical education are 190 and 271 crores respectively, of which the State Government contributed roughly 60 per cent and the Central the remaining 40 per cent. Besides the general funding from the Ministries of Education of State and Central Governments, other Ministries/Departments also allocated resources in the form of research projects and special grants earmarked for research training programmes under their budgets for education. O f the total expenditure incurred for education by the Central Government roughly 34 per cent came from other ministries than Education, major contributors being the Ministries of Agriculture, Health and Family Welfare. These accounted for nearly half of the contribution from the other Ministries i.e. 15 per cent.

T h e above resource inputs created facilities for training at under-graduate, post-graduate and P h . D . levels for 3.7 million students; the breakdown is given in the following Table 30.

For the training of the above number of students plus research and extension work, there were, as of 1986-87, 53,150 teachers in universities and 183,238 in affiliated colleges.

Ill


Table 30 Enrolment according to level (all faculties included)

Stage

Graduate Post-graduate Research Diploma/Certificate

1950-51 No. % No.

1,45,389 19,992

1,434 6,881

83.7 11.5 0.8

4.0

1986-87* %

32,40,046 3,49,778

40,500 51,546

88.0 9.5 1.1 1.4

Source: U G C , Selected Statistical Information on University Education U G C , N e w Delhi.

(a) G . D . Sharma Role of Federal Finance in Education for AÍ1. (b) G . O . I . Budget-expenditure as S h o w n in Central and State Government

budgets. Ministry of Education, Government of India, N e w Delhi. * Estimated

A n attempt was m a d e to estimate the number of teachers engaged in university departments in the identified thrust areas. While m a n y more teachers might be engaged in thrust area related work, estimates of the number of teachers, in those departments which are specifically identified as thrust areas, reveal that in 20 universities, 256 teachers (86 Professors, 74 Readers and 96 Lecturers) are engaged in Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering (including Life Sciences); in 4 universities, 43 teachers are engaged in Environmental Sciences (the ratio being 12/12/19 for Professors/Readers/Lecturers); in 16 universities in Electronics and Computer Sciences there were 228 teachers (the ratio being 72/57/99; in Regional Studies in four universities, there were 33 teachers, (ratio 11/13/9); in 18 Agricultural Universities, there were 4,736 (ratio 482/1,000/2,858); while the estimated total number of students is 12,023 with an additional 2,684 research students. Please refer Table 31.

P r o m o t i o n of thrust areas in a sample of universities

Nine universities drawn from a sample in various parts of the country and with different characteristics were selected for the purpose of in-depth analysis. The details of these universities and institutions are listed in Table 32.

112

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Table 32 Characteristics of sample of universities

Name

Bañaras Hindu (BHU)

Bombay (BU)

Haryaya Agrie (HAU)

Indian Institute of Science (IIS)

Jawaharlal Nehru (JNU)

Kashmir (KU)

Kamaraj ( M K U ) Madvai

Poona (PU)

Status

Central

State affil.

State

Univ. Equiv.

Central

State

State

State

Date Estab.

1916

1957

1970

1955 1955

1968

1949

1964

1949

Location

Centre

West

Hissar East

Bangalore

Delhi centre

Srinagar

South

West

Level of Programmes

All i.e First degrees, masters, PHD

All

All & extension Agrie, only

All Science & Technology

Masters/PHD interdisciplinary

All

All

All

It can be seen that the nine sample universities have been selected taking into account their years of standing, location, status and specialisation and on the basis of their involvement in the promotion of identified thrust areas. Table 33 shows that between 1 and 4 thrust areas are being promoted in each of these sample universities. T h e largest number of thrust areas are being promoted in Kashmir, J N U and B H U . It m a y be asked w h y some universities are deeply engaged in thrust area development and others are concerned only with an area. T h e

114

Chapter IV

identification of a university for promotion of a specific area depends on three factors, namely; capability of the institute in terms of faculty and scholarship, the interests of the faculty and the infrastructural facilities.

Table 33 Thrust areas being promoted in the sample universities

Thrust Areas U S J N U B H U Bombay H A U Kashmir M K U P U J D V 1

Regional Studies Environment Bio-technology and Genetic Eng Electronics Agriculture

1 Jadavpur. Source: Annual reports of the universities.

A s to w h o took the initiative for starting the work in thrust area(s), analysis of the sample universities presents a mixed story. In certain cases, the initiative came from the head of the organisation i.e. Vice-Chancellor and the Funding Agencies. The proposal to start a Department was m a d e by the university and submitted to the sub-apex level body(s). In other cases, it was a joint initiative by the faculty and the funding agency which was supported by the head of the institution. For example, in the case of the Department of Computer Sciences in the University of B o m b a y , the suggestion came from the Funding Agency i.e U G C and the initiative was taken by the Vice-Chancellor. In the case of environmental sciences in the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore the initiative came from the faculty and was supported by the Department of the Environment. Similarly, in the case of Food and Bio-technology in the University of Jadavpur the initiative was taken by the department and was supported by the U G C and Department of Science and Technology. In the case of regional studies, the initiative came from the faculty and the university decision making bodies. Most of the universities and institutions initiated these subjects due to their importance for national development.

* * * * * * * *

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115



The decision to start a new discipline, department or branch, is generally taken by the Academic Council. The procedure is that the proposal is first initiated by the respective department or a closely related one and put to the Academic Council, which finally decides whether it can be started or not. This.decision must be further approved by the Executive Council and the Syndicate, and then put to the funding agencies at the sub-apex level. These agencies, and the funding agency then approve the n e w programmes and activities in the university/institution, after a procedure of constituting expert/review committees to assess the capabilities, faculty interest and infrastructural facilities. If found satisfactory then the committee recommends starting the Department/course in the specialised area. After approval, negotiations on the budget proposal take place at the sub-apex level agencies. The resources are then allocated to the Department through the respective universities. In some cases, informal discussions between the experts of funding agencies, and those within the university m a y lead to starting the activity. However, the same State procedures must be gone through.

Source of funding

Several sources provide funds to the universities and institutions -the major sources and their share of the total budget in the sample universities are given in Tables 34 and 35. In the case of Central Universities, namely, J N U , and B H U almost2 all resources i.e. 91-95 per cent came from the U G C . In the case of State Universities, the major amount of resources came both from the State Government and the U G C . Internal resources, like student tuition, examination fees and other income, except for B o m b a y and Muadurai Kamraj Universities, accounted for very small proportions. In these two universities the share of internal resources was relatively higher because of examination fees from students of affiliated colleges. There is, however, a corresponding expenditure on examinations of students enrolled in the affiliated colleges which are centrally conducted by these universities. Endowment income i.e. private donations and international funding accounted for a very small share. The only exception to this general

116

Chapter IV

trend was Poona University, where this source accounted for nearly 5 per cent of the total budget. Over the period the sources of funding have not undergone any major change. See Table 35 for data pertaining to the year 1980-81.

Thus, sources of funding for university operation and development of general or thrust area programme came mainly from the State exchequer.

Fund ing to thrust areas

The amount of resources allocated to thrust areas in these universities and their proportions to total budget are given in Tables 36 and 37. It m a y be seen from Table 37 for the year 1985-86 that in the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore roughly l/5th of resources are allocated to the promotion of thrust areas. In other universities, the share of thrust areas subjects accounts for 1-8 per cent of total budgets. In the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Kashmir University and Madurai Kamraj University thrust areas accounted for between 5 to 8 per cent of the total budget. Since the universities are very large and have a good number of departments say (20-30) in various disciplines, the allocation of resources to thrust areas, which are of recent origin (not more than 5-7 years), seems to be very reasonable.

A m o n g the sources for funding for thrust areas, besides the U G C , the Department of Science and Technology, the Department of Electronics and Department of Environment as well as ICSSR have also provided funds. The amounts of resources allocated by these agencies to the sample universities are given in Table 38. It m a y be seen that the Department of Science and Technology under the General Research Scheme and Science (GRS) and Engineering Research Scheme (SERC) has funded three major thrust areas, namely, Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering (including life sciences), Environmental Sciences and Electronics and Computer Sciences. The consolidated figures for the year 1980-81 - 1984-85 indicate that of the total amount allocated by D S T on G R S and S E R C schemes, allocations to sample universities accounted for 19 per cent. A m o n g the sample universities, the highest amount (i.e. 9 per cent) was allocated to IIS, Bangalore. This was followed by Bañaras Hindu University.

117

Funding mechanisms

of thrust areas of higher education in India

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122

Chapter IV

The Department of the Environment under their programme of M a n and Biosphere Research has also allocated resources to the sample universities which accounted for 7 per cent of the total allocation under this scheme during 1980-81 - 1985-86. The B H U and Kashmir University received more than Rs. 36 lacs. The allocation to J N U for the environmental science programme accounted for 8.87 lacs. Thus, both these universities have been given substantial amounts for promotion of research in environmental science. (See Table 39).

Table 39 Projects sanctioned under M A B programme in

the field of environmental science during the period 1980-86

J N U Kashmir B H U Total

Total amount in lacs 8.87 17.37 18.71 4.95 Percentage allocation to total amount allocated to universities. 2.02 3.96 4.27 10.25 (i.e. 438.09) percentage allocation to total amount allocated to universities and institutes 1.41 2.76 2.98 7.15 (i.e 628.02)

Source: List of projects sanctioned under M A B programme in the field of environmental sciences, Department of Environment, N e w Delhi.

Similarly, the Department of Electronics has also allocated resources to the sample universities for promotion of electronics and computer sciences. The figures for the year 1986-88 reveal that nearly 158.7 lacs Rs . have been allocated by D O E under their Technology Development and National Radar Councils ( T D C and N R C ) programmes to the sample universities. This accounts for 5.70 per cent of the total allocation under these schemes. O f the above stated amount the highest portion (51 per cent) has gone to the IIS, Bangalore followed by the University of Jadavpur. A good proportion of this amount has also been allocated to J N U , Poona and Bombay Universities. (See Table 40).

123


I C S S R has also allocated nearly four per cent of its total allocation for Regional Studies to the sample universities. O f the total amount allocated, the highest amount (1.28 lacs) was given to J N U during 1980-86. This university has a Regional Studies Centre. (See Table 41).

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Besides, the resources obtained from the sub-apex level agencies, the data obtained from budgets and annual reports of sample universities particularly the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and Jadavpur University further revealed that, other than these major agencies, funds have also been allocated to three major areas like Electronics and Computer Sciences, Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering and Environmental Science by various other agencies like the Indian Space Research Organisation, the Department of Atomic Energy, the Defence Research Development Organisation and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. In fact, discussion with the faculty engaged in the various thrust areas in these universities revealed that the resources allocated to them are adequate. It was also stated by them that generally there is no problem of resources for promotion and development of the identified thrust areas.

Procedures, rules and regulations

The problems are, however, more on the side of regulations and procedures adopted at the university or institute level. S o m e problems are also experienced regarding availability of the required type of personnel. This problem is faced in the area of bio-technology and genetic engineering. A further problem of supply of chemicals and equipment is felt by institutions located far away from the capital. Part of the problem is the procedure evolved for the acquisition of chemicals and equipment from foreign suppliers. Discussions with the faculty further revealed that the sub-apex level bodies concerned with the identified thrust areas are aware of these problems and are presently engaged in solving them together with the Ministries of External Affairs and C o m m e r c e .

It was pointed out that rules and regulations adopted by the University do not really help m u c h in meeting thrust area requirements. There is in general a good deal of delay and procedural problems whenever departments wish to incur expenditures. Since university finance departments insist on certain procedures, which it is not possible to follow in certain cases, some delay occurs until these procedural hurdles are overcome through the help and orders of the authorities or the Vice-Chancellor.

126

Chapter IV

O n the question of procedures, a professor stated that "the procedure of funding for research should be scientist - oriented and not system-oriented. This is because often the complex modalities involved causes funds to remain unspent and frustrates the ongoing projects of the scientists. Bureaucracy seldom realizes the importance of time in a thrust area like agriculture".

Hence, procedures need to be m a d e simpler and less time-consuming. There should be a liberal atmosphere which would create a climate conducive to research. In some universities these problems are not acute; some staff stated that procedures are smooth and clear.

Monitor ing

Progress of the work in the thrust area programmes, along with other programmes, is generally monitored periodically, at the department level and by the Funding Agencies, generally half yearly or yearly. In bio-technology programmes, project Management Committees and Project Review Committees are also constituted by the Department of Bio-technology. Other sub-apex level agencies also monitor progress by requesting periodical progress reports and a final report on completed projects, ilt was pointed out that more serious and careful monitoring of the progress of the work is required.

T h e utilisation of funds, as per rules and regulations, is audited by the University Finance Department. A certificate of utilisation of funds is submitted to funding agencies. In certain cases it was pointed out that the progress and completion of projects must be discussed in the Steering Committee of sub-apex level bodies. Adequate publicity needs to be given to funding, in other words, monitoring should also focus on results achieved by the researcher.

Thrust area d e v e l o p m e n t

These resources are allocated to the sample universities for m a n p o w e r training, research and extension work in the identified thrust areas. All the sample universities are engaged in research and some of them are also engaged in action research and extension work. Table 42 gives the details of teachers and students enrolled in thrust area

127


departments in the nine universities. It can be seen that quantitatively, agricultural and rural development is m u c h more developed, having at times as m a n y staff and 3-4 times as m a n y students enrolled as the other thrust areas.

However, the proportions of professors and research students are m u c h lower. In Bio-technology, on the other hand, half the teachers are professor level and three quarters of the students are "research". Environmental Sciences and Regional Studies, as yet, have rather small nuclei of staff and student numbers.

Electronics and Computer Sciences stand m i d - w a y between these two sets of thrust areas: half the staff are professors but less than 20 per cent of students are of the research type.

Table 42 Number of teachers and enrolment of students in thrust areas in the

sample universities (1985-86)

Thrust area Professor

Bio-technology and genetic engineering

Environmental sciences

Electronics and computer sciences

Regional Studies Agricultural

and Rural development

Total

56

9

30 8

53

156

Reader

26

11

23 11

152

223

Lecturer

31

2

23 7

531

594

Total

113

24

76 26

736

973

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-

-

200 -

1022

1222

Post Graduate

84

4

235 132

426

881

Research Total (Doct.)

316

68

77 112

269

842

400

72

512 244

1717

2 945

Source: University handbook of 1985-86, Annual Report (1985-86). Annual report (1985-86) Mimeograph. B H U and questionnaires filled by different professors of different universities.

Evidently, the objectives and application of agricultural and rural development are m u c h more widespread and require a quantitative response whereas high quality is required in Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering.

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Chapter IV

The focus of development in the individual universities indicates the following: in the case of B o m b a y University, Department of Computer Sciences, the resources allocated by the Department of Electronics were for research and extension activities. The amount allocated to it by U G C was spent on manpower training in computer software (90 per cent) and hardware (10 per cent). However, this ratio was reversed in the Electronic Engineering Department of the University.

In Jadavpur University, focus was on electronics equipment along with computer science education and in a specific project of computer aided design. In the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore the focus was on the development of a silicon facility in collaboration with industry.

The activities of Bio-technology Departments in the sample of universities also varied. For example, in Jadavpur University, the focus was on food and Biochemical Engineering whereas in Madurai Kamraj University, the emphasis was on micro-biology, immunology, genetic engineering, and biology; and in IIS Bangalore it was molecular biology and micro-biology.

In the Environmental Sciences, the approach adopted was that of action-oriented research together with laboratory based research. The Departments of Environmental Sciences in IIS Bangalore, Kashmir and Poona engaged in both types of research as well training of manpower.

In the Agricultural University, training, research and extension were well integrated.

The focus of regional studies was on the study of regional development and disparities. A n inter-disciplinary approach was adopted by J N U and together with training of manpower, it carried out empirical research studies in agriculture and regional imbalances.

In order to transfer science and technology to industry, a Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Programme (STEP) has been started in m a n y universities. Jadavpur University has conducted such programmes, and as stated earlier, IIS, Bangalore has an industry linked research programme in a silicon facility. Thus one m a y conclude that within thrust areas, priorities seem to have been widely distributed among the universities and research institutions.

129


Contribution to national development

It is very difficult to assess the contribution of the university system through thrust areas to national development as this in itself could be the subject of an in-depth research study, and involves analysis of research and manpower inputs to the economic development of the country, as well as the improvement of the welfare of the people at large. However, from the point of view of this analysis, the contribution of the university system and more particularly the sample universities to national development m a y be seen by taking note of; (a) manpower development; (b) R & D development; (c) operationalisation of R & D for economic development; (d) increased level of welfare of the people; (e) building of a knowledge and technology base by the university system which could contribute to a higher learning curve and; (f) generation of knowledge. Keeping these variables in view, an analysis m a y be attempted here.

A s far as manpower is concerned, the general university system has been able to produce the basic manpower needed for the development of thrust areas in the university system. Overall, electronics and computer sciences courses as well as the environmental sciences have aimed at general awareness and development of manpower at the Masters degree level. In the sample universities, the manpower development programme is concerned more with the training of students at post-graduate and research level. In the case of Bio-technology, 12 universities were identified for training of manpower and these have already admitted a first batch of 106 students. Twenty six (26) universities are engaged in agriculture, and they are training nearly 46 thousand students. A s regards Regional Studies, specialised staff are being trained by a few selected universities, so in terms of numbers, the output m a y not be very large. In this area, requirements for manpower m a y be m u c h more than what is being presently trained by the universities. This situation m a y also be the case for electronics and computer sciences, since one of the firms engaged in software development in computer sciences pointed out that there is a shortage of manpower in this area. A s far as the capabilities of the persons trained in the university system is concerned, firms indicate that very competent, persons with good theoretical knowledge are trained by the University, but they need some kind of practical orientation and training in

130

Chapter IV

contextual problems of relevant areas. A similar situation m a y be experienced in other areas when any large scale project is attempted. Notwithstanding these facts, it is obvious that a base has been created for the development of manpower in the identified thrust areas and one m a y hope that with systematic planned efforts in the course of time, needs for manpower will be met by the Indian University System.

A s far as R & D efforts, industry- university linkages, operationalisation and commercialisation of R & D output and its impact on national development, the learning curve as well as generation of knowledge are concerned, several important issues have become evident.

Although the response of the universities is somewhat modest w h e n they state that "it is difficult to assess impact on national development at this stage", this is by and large true. Responses of some sample universities point out that the manufacture of microbial insecticides can be undertaken in the country. Attempts are being m a d e first of all to manufacture enough for large scale trials. It is also pointed out that progress in the bio-technology field is proceeding smoothly and in Molecular Bio-technology, Bio-genetic engineering, tissue culture laboratories are being built and the results are being put into operation. Through the bio-technological research, n e w strains of rhizobium have been developed which fix more nitrogen than the native rhizobium legumes; helping the farmers of the region to increase per hectare productivity of their major field crops.

In environmental science, "an Action-oriented development programme has led to considerable progress on the ground. It has also influenced policy making at the State and Central level."

These are a few examples but they do not constitute any kind of assessment of the contribution of all the universities working in the thrust areas.

There are, however, three important cases which show an attempt by the university system to operationalise R & D for development and the problems and issues encountered in this process as well as the absence of mechanisms to help transfer of R & D results to practical work. The first is the IIS establishing of links with industry and through their R & D enabling the industry to develop a silicon facility. T h e second is the case of Jadavpur University, where through R & D , ancillary machinery to X-ray equipment has been developed and is

131


awaiting commercialisation. The third example is international collaboration in Bio-technology, which has created a lot of controversy in the country.

All these three cases reflect the problems of indigenous efforts to develop technology, the absence of mechanisms to critically and independently analyse the implications of technology imports, or develop financial mechanisms to operationalise R & D , and the international influences affecting R & D development in the country. Each of these three cases will be discussed to show the wider implications.

C a s e - 1 : Electronic grade (ultra high purity) silicon11

The scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, in collaboration with Mettur Chemicals and Industries Corporation, Bangalore attempted to develop an indigenous Electronic Grade Silicon of ultra- high purity. This work was undertaken mainly by professors. G . Suryan and A . R . Vasudevamoorthy Vasudevamoorthy with their team in the university, in collaboration with the personnel in the above stated firm. Firstly, the three processes involved were identified: (i) purification; ii) decomposition; and (iii) characterisation. These processes were not easy and quick to put into operation and certain factors, namely (a) necessity for educating the industry to assist in high level R & D efforts; (b) training of key personnel; (c) demonstration of the willingness on the part of the people from the educational and research institutions to actively take part without pre-conditions, had to be tackled.

The Institute was fortunate enough to obtain a response from the above firm and its Director took a keen interest in the project and agreed to launch production of semi-conductor silicon straightaway since there was small scale indigenous demand. H e could concentrate on developing the infrastructure for feed stock material.

Since silicon tetrachloride and trichlorosilane were the main stock, a choice had to be m a d e between the two. There was practically no possibility for bulk use of trichlorosilane in India and this also required

11. Based on the paper "Indigenous silicon - a case study of an effort to develop an indigenous technology for the development of processes and techniques for electronic grade (Ultra-high purity) silicon, by Prof. G . Suryan and Prof. A . R . Vasudevamurthy.

132

Chapter N

technology for purification which was relatively more demanding. T h e decision was therefore m a d e to develop a base for Silicon Tetrachloride on an industrial scale. In addition, there were reasonable prospects for producing other basic materials of industrial importance like ethil silicate, fúmate silicon, and silicons etc. from Silicon tetrachloride. This was the first attempt to bridge the technology gap, and gave considerable experience and confidence in working with industry. T h e industry also developed confidence in using the requisite techniques for handling and purification of large quantities of silicon tetrachloride and process it into industrially important chemicals like ethyl silicate. However , the anticipated Indian market for ethyl silicate did not materialise. For a couple of years there was a possibility of exporting. T h e other important raw material required for producing silicon from tetrachloride is hydrogen. Fortunately, this was available in plenty as a by-product of the chlor-alkali industry. The second stage was , therefore, to combine these two and find out the appropriate process so that suitable reactors could be designed and built. Simultaneously the problems of purification of the principal raw materials, namely silicon tetrachloride and trichlorosilane had to be addressed. This was a rather prolonged process due to a variety of miscellaneous factors rather than want of basic information. T h e reactor design proceeded in increments from the one inch quartz tube of the laboratory through to 7 5 m m and 3 0 0 m m s . S . reactors, m a n y of them were m a d e first in the laboratory and later duplicated in industry. Finally, a reactor of approximately 600 m m diameter was chosen for industrial scale applications. In all these endeavours, all the equipment except for some large size quartz items was m a d e indigenously. This step by step process of scaling up, though slow, gave considerable scope for innovations and for acquiring relevant experience in handling the chemicals and also improving their purity levels. In parallel with the increase in reactor size, purification steps were also refined and enlarged. A considerable amount of data on the optimal feed stock, mote ratios, temperatures, pressures, etc., as well as engineering details were gathered.

During the process of interaction with the industry, it was realised that collaboration should rather be more in the form of helping the industry to develop the technology and to develop an R & D base, rather than the institution providing a full scale debugged turnkey technology.

133


"It was also felt in the Institute, that the development could have been done 7 or 8 years ago if somewhat larger R & D efforts had been committed earlier to the project."

"The situation at that time was more favourable as power tariffs were low, the price of silicon in the international market was high, purity levels demanded were not too high and were rising only gradually. The scale of operations could have been small and still eminently viable. Hence, the delayed response is a story of a missed opportunity." Nevertheless, when the decisions regarding industrial scale production were about to be made , the costs increased owing to power costs and deterioration in power supply, and there was limited progress in other sectors which depressed and undermined confidence.

At this juncture, the pressure to import the technology increased to such an extent as to lose sight of basic demand, supply and cost. A n agreement between the Government of India and Hemlock in U S A was signed in 1983 for the transfer of technology regarding polysilicon. The details of the agreement, were however, kept secret. In the event, the U S Government because of strict control on transfer of technology of electronic grade silicon, did not clear the project, as it was feared that advanced silicon technology, if shared with the Eastern block could be used by the Soviet Military Machine. Meanwhile, the Indian firm had already announced production of indigenous silicon in quality and quantity in October 1984 and the samples were also sent to U S A for analysis. However, in early 1985, the U S Government cleared the export of this technology and of course the scientists in India feel that this action was triggered by the product development in India.

This caused a lot of debate, as the cost of investment (about 90 crores) proposed for the National Silicon Faculty through the transfer of technology was three to four times higher. Besides that, the technology to be given by the U S firm was that which the firm was already using in January 1984, not necessarily the latest technology, but one in use for at least the last 10 years. It was further pointed out by some sources that it was on the point of being scrapped and replaced. D u e to the public debate on these factors, the scientists' protest and the intervention of the then Prime Minister, the situation was saved.

"The decision to acquire technology from abroad at a point when indigenous technology was being developed raises several questions in the minds of scientists and the public in general about the causes of such

134

Chapter N

decisions. It was felt that there seemed to be a persistent lack of confidence in indigenous efforts. This has two drawbacks, that is: (a) obtaining technology which m a y not necessarily be the latest and (b) dampening the indigenous efforts and confidence and diminishing efforts to reach a higher learning curve in the process of technology development.

There also seems to be a lack of mechanisms which could independently critically examine the issues of technology transfer and provide technical advice on technology options and their implications on the development of the country. "It m a y be pointed out that there is no lack of committees to help the Government in this regard, but as the members of such committees are drawn from government officials, they have generally tended to stick to official lines, thereby precluding the possibility of an independent evaluation. This adversely affects the motivation of those engaged in thrust area development. A s one of the students pointed out "the research being carried out in this country, particularly under the thrust area programme, can only prove to be of any use in national development if the policy makers do not allow their prejudices (particularly of looking to the west for all solutions) to cloud their judgement and above all they should use their c o m m o n sense in drawing up long-term policies for national development. Import of technology for making silicon chips instead of using indigenous technology is a case in point. It renders the specialisation of those w h o developed the technology for "national development" useless."

This case has been discussed in some detail as it raises several questions with regard to planning, decision-making, and the resource allocation mechanism for development of the thrust areas and through them development of the country. These are:

H a d decisions been taken in time and resources allocated for R & D , indigenous technology would have proceeded along with developments in other countries. H a d there been a mechanism to independently and critically examine the techno-economic issues of technology import, perhaps such decisions could have been avoided.

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Indigenous development of technology not only identifies the real technology gap, but develops a technology base and confidence of industry as well as the resources for implementing the R & D results. This process itself might generate technology and solutions to various other problems.

C a s e - II: Auxiliary equ ipment for X - r a y machines 1 2

The electronics department of Jadavpur University and particularly Professor M . K . Mukarjee and his team, developed auxiliary equipment for X-ray machines which could produce the photo of the X-ray on plain paper with the same quality and detail required for examination by medical doctors and scientists. Four to five of these auxiliary equipments have been produced at the laboratory level and are being tried out in medical institutions and hospitals. This equipment was developed in collaboration with doctors in hospitals and research institutions. Since there is no mechanism which could help the commercialisation of technology developed at the laboratory level, this equipment is still awaiting larger scale production. S o m e firms in Japan have shown interest, but lack of an indigenous market and a mechanism to support production m a y well mean that the country will not benefit fully from this technology. This is only one case, it is stated that there are 2000 patents developed in the country which await commercialisation. A s profits in the domestic market are more than assured for any product as well as for imported products, entrepreneurs in India are not inclined to launch production of such technologies, as it involves risk and investment in R & D . Hence to build a technology base, there is a need for a policy of "technology push policy." Although there is an Industrial Development Bank of India, it does not seem to have provisions for taking on the work of technology production. It is, therefore important that a different mechanism should be evolved through developing an infrastructure and financial support. IDBI can then take on the responsibility. This will, besides helping indigenous development of technology encourage scientists to put m u c h more

12. Based on a discussion with Prof. M . Mukarjee, Chief Research Officer Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunications, Jadavpur University.

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serious efforts into R & D , as they would not only benefit materially but will feel happy to see their results being put into use in the process of development.

C a s e - III: I N D O - U S vaccine action p r o g r a m m e 1 3

The recent signing of the Indo-US Vaccine Action Programme(VAP) , has aroused controversy. Under this programme, it was proposed to set up a $ 6.2 million Centre of Epidemiological Research and Training, which it is said, has n o w been shelved. Nevertheless, the project agreement makes a provision of $1.2 million (equivalent to 1.5 crores) for this centre. The project has been questioned on several grounds, firstly, it will give U S Scientists access to certain Indian data which could be used for advance strategic defence purposes; secondly, it will expose the Indian people and environment to various kinds of tests to be undertaken under this project which are generally banned in developed countries. S o m e of the aspects of medical research under this agreement also involve research and trials on recombinate D N A technology i.e. methodical geneplacing of genetic engineering, which is a high risk area and where vaccines developed m a y have unpredictably harmful consequences. Thirdly it opens up the market for multinationals in India. It also encroaches upon the Indian patent production system i.e. Indian Patents Act of 1970 and thereby encroaches upon the national sovereignty of the country. Fourthly, in some areas mentioned in the agreement, indigenous vaccines are already on trial, and in others enough capabilities have been developed.

This controversy has caused great concern among scientists. Although some of them tend to favour the agreement, yet there are a large number both in official positions as well as professionals, w h o seriously question the wisdom of signing the agreement at this juncture.

This kind of decision again brings forth the questions that were raised in the first case. There is a lack of a mechanism which could independently and critically examine technology imports. Such decisions have long-term and wide implications, not only for the

13. Based on reports in Indian Express, August 1987, Times of India, 26 August 1987 and 16 September 1987.

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scientific community (which is seriously engaged in indigenous efforts to develop technology in the country) but also for techno-economic, defence and socio-cultural interests.

T h e fact remains that the contribution of the delivery system to the development of thrust areas through R & D and the operationalisation of R & D results has run into difficulty due to : (a) international influences; (b) lack of an operational strategy for "technology push"; (c) absence of a mechanism which could independently and critically evaluate technology imports and plan and support R & D for indigenous technologies in the thrust areas.

S o m e generalizations

T h e following generalizations m a y be m a d e : The response of the university system to the development of identified thrust areas is influenced by: (a) the desires of individual faculty members ; (b) international developments in the field of knowledge; (c) the availability of funds through multiple funding agencies related to identified thrust areas. T h e faculty members of the university and professionals in specialized institutions participated and also influenced decisions, at the level of funding agencies. In certain cases, some of the identified thrust areas were initiated by the universities. The setting up of the different thrust areas related departments gave rise to specialized research institutions for which universities generally provide the faculty. In this process, both resources and faculty shift from universities to specialized institutions. A s a consequence, the major research resources m a y tend to concentrate in these specialized research institutions. Thrust areas m a y also develop in universities through research projects and in certain cases through post graduate and P h . D . programmes, if intervention is planned and implemented, as was done in the areas of bio-technology and the electronics and computer sciences.

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Initially development of thrust areas by universities is mainly through P h . D . research programmes and research projects. In certain thrust areas, it m a y be through masters degree programmes also. There is always a considerable time gap between conception of the idea of thrust area subjects, and their implementation; this time gap generally opens up at sub apex as well as institutional levels due to delay caused by administrative procedures. Administrative practices therefore need reform and revision. There is generally no shortage of resources for good projects in any thrust area. There are always multiple agencies ready to fund such projects. In the development of thrust areas rather than financial scarcity shortages m a y be experienced of the right kind of h u m a n resources and of supply and storage facilities for chemicals, experimental materials and equipment. Scholars and professionals in the universities, quite often feel the need for assessment, publicity and use of R & D results. Such provisions m a y encourage scholars to pursue their work seriously and with definite goals for the benefit of the society. The import of technology on a "turnkey" basis might adversely affect the learning curve and the development of indigenous technology.

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Conclusions and suggestions for future response

I. Conclusions

The social framework

In a democratic, open and developing country, the process of economic development, the growth of higher education and within it thrust areas and their role in economic and overall societal development is greatly influenced by: a) the guiding paradigm as provided in the constitution, b) the political manifesto of the party in power; c) philosophical m a k e up of the population; d) science, technology and h u m a n resource base; e) internal interest groups; f) international interest groups directly, as well as indirectly, through internal groups; g) historical and institutional forces; and h) the stage of economic and educational development of the country. These visible and not so visible forces also influence the mechanism of decision- making and resource mobilization, allocation and utilisation.

The mechanism and development response

a) Apex level (Planning Commission, N D C and S A C - P M ) : After independence, India's response to the challenge of

development was to institute a planned process, use of science and technology and development of higher education. Pandit Nehru, the First Prime Minister of India said that "If all is well with the University,

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it is well with the nation" and "science and technology is a source of welfare of mankind as well as a means to remove poverty and disparity". Whereas the constitutional guiding paradigm determined the positive intervention of the State through the approach of planned development, the implementation of this approach, as well as decisions on development, were greatly influenced by the factors mentioned above in the social framework.

T h e attraction of successful models of economic development with an indigenous concept of a mixed economy was so strong that India adopted the approach of planned development, but this approach took the form of sectoral development planning rather than integrated planning, and investment planning rather than physical planning. It took broad decisions rather than detailed and precise decisions on different aspects of development. The precise decisions would probably have raised serious controversies. Besides there was no mechanism which could have independently and critically examined various options and provided professional support to the decision-makers to help them to arrive at precise decisions.

Analysis of the Indian response to development of thrust areas in higher education and in turn the development of the country, revealed that decisions are m a d e at apex level, taking into account the broader goals of the country: namely, overall development to increase the well-being of the population, self-reliance and social justice through redistribution of resources. Over the period of Seven Five Year Plans, the process of development and emergence of thrust areas have been considerably influenced by the economic situation which generally revolved around agricultural development. The latter was based on the traditional m o d e of production ~ entrenched in the agricultural class structure, small size of holdings, and lack of larger irrigation facilities thereby mainly depending on the monsoon. T h e solution, therefore, lay in the use of agricultural science and technology and developing irrigation projects. This also involved the development of larger infrastructural facilities to support the process. Hence, the broad thrusts on agricultural science, education and research through agricultural universities, colleges and research institutions.

O n the industrial side, along with the development of key and heavy industries, which were largely supported and sponsored by the State, the private sector focussed mainly on developing consumer and consumer

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durable goods as this had a more or less assured domestic market, and for this purpose attention was more on import substitution than on the capital goods industry. Given that science and technology held the key to industrialisation, broad thrusts of S & T development were adopted, but the approach was to m a k e widespread efforts because of multiple demands on various fronts, i.e. from import substitution to defence needs as well as newly emerging areas. This was partly owing to the fact that those w h o are engaged in science and technology also had wider research interests. The focus on selected thrust areas became sharper only during the last three plans and more particularly in the Sixth and Seventh Plans. In areas like electronics, the environment and bio-technology, development was linked with implementing agencies under technology missions through a closer co-ordination with universities and institutions of higher education.

General higher education and technical education (other than agricultural science education which was closely linked with endeavours in agriculture), seem to have been viewed as a general support system for science and technology, industrialisation and infra-structural and service sectors developmental efforts, without specifically establishing close linkages and inter-relationships.

Consequently, the approach in general higher education and technical education was very general i.e., consolidation, quality improvement and expansion of facilities. Growth and development of higher education was also influenced by historical and institutional forces in the form of the existence of institutions and interests and orientation of faculty which tended to support the existing structure with newer additions. Therefore, one observes a continuing theme in various plans about consolidation and quality improvement, opening up of some n e w branches and developing infrastructure and facilities for research and development rather than completely reviewing the whole process of education to closely link it with the developmental process in the country. Development of thrust areas in science and technology, the environment and electronics tended to support research projects in the universities or through establishing separate institutions of research in related thrust areas.

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This points to: (i) A lack of conceptualisation of the planned process of

development of various sectors. It also shows the lack of a mechanism to co-ordinate and integrate them in a more scientific and systematic way through sharply identifying the critical areas and inputs and also monitoring the results.

(ii) A lack of proper mechanisms at the apex level decision-making process, which could objectively analyse the various thrust area alternatives and m a k e the findings available to decision makers, so as to enable them to m a k e the right and precise choices.

This indicates that if a static concept of thrust area development in higher education for a particular point of time is taken then one could infer that the thrust in higher education is not always determined by the developmental thrusts of the country. If one takes a dynamic concept of thrust area development then one could infer that thrust area development in higher education would tend to be influenced by the strategy of planned development. But this m a y not always happen if strategies of planned development are not integrated with the development of other sectors, including education. In the absence of this kind of mechanism, only the links through the participation of the Chairman of U G C in the discussions on education at S A C P M and the Planning Commission level, exist. This mechanism is so weak that one cannot say that development of higher education would be in line with the strategies of the development of the country. Other efforts are being m a d e in recent years, but they do not really form part of the planned process of higher education development. These tend to work as a lever to support the development of desired thrust areas in the university system - a system which is mainly controlled at the State level in the case of state universities and colleges and by private management in the case of a large number of colleges.

O n e m a y infer that there were no clearcut strategies of development of science and technology and whatever guidelines m a y have been indicated, these could not percolate d o w n to the higher education system. Since the strategies of economic development were not integrated with the development of the rest of the sectors, including that of science and technology and the higher education system, the thrust area development approach could not take place in the higher education system for a long

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period of time. Hence, thrust area development in higher education is not determined to any large extent by the thrust area or strategies of economic and social development. Therefore, the plan documents often stated that there was a gap between higher education and the developmental demands of the nation. In that sense, our first working hypothesis seems to hold partly true as far as determination of thrust areas in higher education are concerned, but it holds fully true as concerns the question of several negotiating actors determining the approach and thrust of development as well as development of higher education.

(b) Sub-Apex Level (Funding Agencies) Though there was a broad approach to development, nevertheless, in

order to co-ordinate and promote various areas including the thrust areas, a number of sub-apex level bodies were created over a period of time to respond to certain critical needs of development. The University Grants Commission, the Department of Science and Technology and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research were set up to generally respond to development of higher education, science and technology as well as agriculture, since these areas were expected to play a vital role in the development of the country. In response to specific needs like electronics, the environment and very recently bio-technology, three sub-apex level agencies namely Department of Electronics, Department of Environment and the Department of Bio-technology were also created, subsequently to plan, co-ordinate and attend to the larger aspects of development in these areas.

Because of the larger concern in specific thrust areas, such sub-apex level agencies as have been created in the past or are likely to be created in future, m a y be justified. But the issue remains as to h o w these sub-apex level agencies are co-ordinated and integrated vertically with the apex level and horizontally among various sub-apex level agencies. Another question is h o w are detailed decisions taken by sub-apex level bodies and resources allocated for various areas, linked with decisions at the apex level and interlinked with the various sub-apex level bodies as well as with the delivery system? A s pointed out earlier, as the sectoral view was taken in the planned process of development, the past response has been oriented towards individual area development. However, some linkages either at the Ministry of Science and Technology or through

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involvement of various sub-apex level bodies in the decision-making process in the form of official membership have taken place. But, by and large, each of the sub-apex level agencies tend to pursue their plans of development independently. Each sub-apex level agency interacts with the delivery system, through the U G C , but most of m e m have also created their o w n delivery system in the forai of research laboratories and R & D . Autonomy and independence are a very important concept and, therefore, need to be given due weight but at the same time actions and programmes which are intended to contribute to the national development process need to be co-ordinated and integrated. Although this is a very complex task, and therefore, requires a high quality of professional planner and co-ordinator at the level of these agencies, such a function needs to be established as in its absence, a diverse and disintegrated approach could be perpetuated in the process of development, which m a y or m a y not conform to the stated objectives and goals.

M o d e l s of decision-making

In the sub-apex level bodies, three types of organisational models have been followed, namely (i) a Department of the Government of India like the p S T , Electronics, Environment and Bio-technology; (ii) an autonomous organisation such as the U G C and (ii) a mix of these two i.e. autonomous, but at the same time the head of the organisation occupies the position of secretary in the Government namely, I C A R . Therefore, a thorough examination should be made as to which model meets the demands of linkage, and co-ordination at the apex level and with the delivery system and which most effectively implements thrust areas. The third model seems to have a better organisational structure as it closely links the apex level and the delivery system.

The model of decision-making for sub-apex level bodies has been that of wider consultation with the professional community and experts in respective areas through panels, committees and working groups, which involves a large number of experts and professionals in the process of decision-making as well as development of concerned areas. Whereas this approach helped in obtaining the points of view of experts, it needs to be further strengthened by establishing links with other sectors of development like industry, agriculture, the service sector, trade

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and commerce. Although there is a semblance of a relationship between the rest of the sectors of development and these areas, a precise and concrete relationship in a more planned and scientific manner has not been attempted so far. A s a result of this, the focus of development, and mechanism of resource allocation has been on the lines of a broader approach to development rather than on a precise and selected thrust area approach. In the recent past, the approach has been changed in certain areas, yet the relationship is not built into the process of development of higher education, science and technology and with the various sectors of economic and social development. Even linkage of these sub-apex level agencies with the universities has been to a great extent independent of the U G C or it has been rather limited. This is because of the fact that in the past, specific area development in technology has been pursued through creating separate research institutions and laboratories rather than through the university system, though the latter received a share of resources through research projects. A s a result, though a reasonably good amount of resources are allocated by the sub-apex level agencies for the development of various thrust areas, one doesn't get a cogent and coherent picture or indication of concerted efforts in a specific direction with a specific purpose and time, frame of work and expected results. T o obtain üiis picture, one has to gather information and data from the institutions and agencies and analyse them. In the absence of a machinery to do this work either at the U G C / D S T or at the apex level, a coherent and cogent picture of development has not emerged.

Nevertheless, this model of decision-making and resource allocation has created a larger base and also attempted to focus attention on specific thrust areas. Recently, linking of plans and programmes of sub-apex level agencies with that of the delivery system is being seriously attempted in the Department of Bio-technology. However, it is a moot question as to h o w far this model of decision-making and resource allocation has effectively helped in creating excellence in selected thrust areas and has helped concerted efforts to achieve the desired objectives and goals of the nation. In fact, absence of detailed planning at the sub-apex levels and apex level agencies and linkage with other sectors of development has resulted in diverse and widespread development rather than developing excellence in certain selected areas. Obviously policy-making gave priority to diffusion of technology at the initial stage which was considered more important than exellence.

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At the sub-apex level, there was a lack of professional support for integrated planning and of a body which could provide the necessary information and feedback about the direction of development, thereby enabling the decision makers at the sub-apex level to study various options, m a k e choices and then accordingly allocate the resources. The mechanism of resource allocation adopted at the sub-apex level appears to have relied more on demand projected by the delivery system rather than on closely linking decisions taken at the apex level, working out detailed logical follow up plans and then taking decisions by examining various options, the techno-economic, social and cultural implications of these options and then correspondigly gearing plans and actions to focus on the broader areas or the specific thrust areas of development with clear-cut strategies of implementation.

The organisational model for decision-making, and resource allocation has been derived from governmental organisations rather than from professional systems. Therefore, the focus was more on pre-allocation assessment of eligibility which, of course is a must, but attention to achievements and performance was relatively weak. Even professional appraisal of the feasibility of a project and its likely outcome was also weak. Hence one does not find indicators of internal efficiency in allocation of resources as well as in utilisation of resources, but routine indicators of audit reports and a report of completion of the project. This was mainly because the organisational structures at the sub-apex level were not created to this end.

F rom the above, one m a y conclude that plans are not entirely arbitrary and several negotiations take place between various actors at the professional, institutional, bureaucratic and political levels. Since plans are very broad, the reconciliation processes between objective and practices were also very broad. In such a situation, subjective choices of programmes cannot be completely ruled out. Though choices m a d e have always had a great semblance of relation with broad objectives and policies, h o w far these choices of programmes are likely to yield the expected results remains beyond a critical evaluation.

Hence our second hypothesis is partly true "that plans are not arbitrary and are based on a series of negotiations between social actors". But the analysis reveals that in general, the views of various negotiating actors m a y unduly influence the choice of the programme and action. There m a y be a plan, but the plan m a y not conform to scientific

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principles and practices of planning. In fact there m a y be a semblance of planning observed at various apex level bodies, but in the absence of detailed and rigorous process of planning there is room for ad-hoc decisions which m a y not be questioned or be influenced by various negotiating actors. The involvement of various negotiating actors is necessary so as to operationalise the plans and programmes. This has been followed in the case of all the sub apex level bodies; various professionals were involved through formation of panels, working groups and committees.

(c) The Delivery System (Universities) The growth and development of the delivery system was influenced

by historical and institutional forces, pressure of demand for higher education by the people and financial support given by the State Government, the U G C , various sub-apex level agencies as well as by philanthropists w h o set up universities and R & D institutions. However, the approach was only one of consolidation and quality improvement in addition to creating institutions and departments in special areas. This approach was not backed up by detailed planning and analysis of past development and future directions. There was no planning body either at the State nor at the Central level. The U G C also did not plan the direction and development of higher education, but, it did plan financial support for quality improvement and development of special areas of importance. In this situation, the development of the delivery system was more influenced by historical, institutional and modern forces which tended to introduce the n e w areas of academic development with the support of the central and State level funding agencies. Hence the growth of higher education was of the type, where a large number of institutions tended to offer traditional courses and programmes with some modifications and a few selected institutions or departments within the institutions introduced the modern and critical area courses/programmes. In addition, a good number of specialised institutions in important areas came to be established. This growth pattern of development created a large and wide base in several important areas, which in fact enabled the system to undertake the thrust area programme in later years.

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The linkage with apex and sub-apex level bodies, with the exception of institutions specifically created by these bodies, was in the form of participation of professionals/experts in various committees, panels and working groups rather than institutional linkage. Another form of linkage was through review committees as and when funds were sought from the apex and sub-apex level agencies for projects, programmes or the development of department and institutions. Accordingly, in several cases, the initiative came from the delivery system for the development of specific areas while in other cases the initiative came from apex and sub-apex level agencies. But the absence of planning of the delivery system caused delay in the process of development of thrust areas. It also gives rise to gaps between thrusts of economic and social development and the development of higher education, particularly in content and processes, if not in numbers. This situation is tending to change very recently in some areas where sub-apex level agencies are making efforts towards establishing close linkage with the universities. In fact, in certain areas, like agricultural sciences, there was a close linkage between the thrust of agricultural development and the development of manpower and R & D through the establishment of agricultural universities. Similarly, very recently in bio-technology, attempts have been made to identify universities for promotion of this thrust area. In electronics and computer sciences some efforts have also been made in this direction. A s and when any thrust area is to be promoted, there has been a general approach of establishing separate R & D institutions. The integration of thrust area development through the university system has been rather a weak point. Therefore, the Seventh Five Year Plan, as well as in the N e w Education Policy 1986, stress has been laid on establishing separate R & D institutions within the university campus.

Hence, it m a y be concluded that the Indian response to development of higher education system and through it development of thrust areas, to begin with was very wide, as influenced by the forces and the situations discussed above, and then more specific by creation of certain sub-apex level agencies, like the Department of Electronics, the Department of Environment, the Department of Bio-technology and the Indian Council of Social Science Research. These agencies supported manpower and

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R & D in specific areas by providing funds to the university system together with establishing and funding their o w n R & D institutions and laboratories.

Thus our third hypothesis that "thrust areas often tended to be supported from various sources" holds true. It has also been observed from the views expressed by persons in the delivery system that "for a good project there has been no dearth of funds". Thus funding to thrust areas has been reasonably adequate. In most of the thrust areas, funds have been allocated to universities for research projects, or on a programme basis directly by thrust area sub-apex level agencies. In certain areas, like bio-technology funds have also been allocated through the University Grants Commission. Hence for areas of national importance, funds came from several sources. Regarding the choice of specific areas within a broad thrust area, the willingness and response of a university either to undertake research or a special programme of training and R & D , is influenced by the interests and the capability of faculty members in the particular thrust area. Thus in m a n y cases, the initiative has c o m e from the university system and where initiative has c o m e from the apex and sub-apex level funding agencies, only those institutions which showed capability and willingness have taken up programmes. Hence within a thrust area, the choice of the programme or a specific R & D project has been greatly influenced by the faculty members , which in turn might have at its base both the interest of the field of study as well as regional or local interests. In certain cases, even sub-apex level funding agencies have promoted regional/Local based research within a broad thrust area. However, unless complete and precise details with due weighting of programmes is not done in advance, the choice of programme/research projects, while being in the thrust area, m a y or m a y not promote the very crucial area and hence might deviate from the main goals. This deviation could only be noticed if various aspects within a thrust area are clearly spelt out. In India, since there has been broad thrust area determination with some sub-grouping, it would be difficult to say the extent to which faculty and local interests have changed the orientation of programmes, particularly in the light of the fact that developmental strategies have not been closely linked with thrust area development. Thus, our fourth hypothesis holds true as far as the influence of the interests of the faculty and local

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needs is concerned, but the extent to which it has affected the programmes cannot determined in a situation like the one discussed above and hence cannot be verified.

A s far as the monitoring of use of resources is concerned, by and large, the model adopted has been a traditional one, i.e., certificate of utilisation of funds, completion of project report and also review by an expert group in the case of certain programmes. But in some thrust areas, a close and systematic monitoring and periodic review has been initiated. Where such mechanisms have been developed, they have not only ensured effective utilisation, but have given a kind of satisfaction to researchers/institute. A s to the traditional mechanism, nothing can be said for certain. It also does not inspire greater interest amongst h u m a n resources. Hence our fifth hypothesis also holds true.

Unless rules, regulations and procedures for allocation of funds are reoriented and a n e w model of financial management, keeping in view the nature of the programme and its objectives is developed, problems of mobilisation of hinds as well as their utilisation by the delivery system will continue to be encountered. In the thrust areas under study, some rules and procedures have been modified, yet in a good number of cases, the need for flexibility and change of rules and procedures is still urgently felt, as these have adversely affected the development of thrust areas. T his points to a need not only for reforming the rules and procedures at the sub-apex and university levels, but also for reorienting the organisational structures and retraining of personnel involved in them. Where such changes have taken place, efficient use of resources have been facilitated. Hence our sixth hypothesis also holds true.

The other important dimension of effective utilisation of resources is the use of R & D and training of manpower for national development. If this aspect is overlooked, it might not only affect the purpose of thrust areas development, but will strike at their very base, In the case of India, this has probably been a very weak link. A good number of R & D results are not operationalised or the trained manpower is not meaningfully deployed. A developing country like India, cannot and should not depend on market forces for this purpose, particularly as the planned development approach has been adopted. N e w technology areas, which invariably involve high risk and heavy investment m a y not progress easily via market forces. Therefore, in planned economies and even in market economies, it might be necessary to adopt a policy of

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"technology push" and make provisions for operationalisation of R & D results. Hence the effective utilisation of investment in R & D and h u m a n resource development have to be seen in terms of their past or future contribution to national development. It would mean that the mechanism and avenues need to be developed for effective utilisation of R & D results and h u m a n resources.

IL Suggestions for future response

(a) Apex level (Planning Commission, N D C and S A C - P M ) : Decision-making at the apex level needs to be more precisely

worked out, firstly, regarding choice of thrust area and secondly, with regard to planning decisions and the process of planning implementation of thrust areas, in a m u c h more integrated fashion than hitherto. In the past, a gap existed between both development of science and technology and of the higher education system and strategies of national development. It has been made apparent that there is a gap in conceptualisation and in the planned process of development. This has also been commented on by professionals and accepted by the Planning Commission, when it says that the "implementation of plans is very weak". This, therefore, brings us to the question of what are the choices for the country as regards decision-making and resource allocation mechanisms at apex level:

(i) The guiding constitutional paradigm and its detailed implications need to be discussed. The fear of possible and likely controversies should not preclude precise decisions. Discussions would help partly in resolving controversies of national development and would also help delimit the areas of controversies and sharply focus on critical areas of decision-making at the apex level. This process will also help in bridging the gap between diverse paradigms and bring them closer to the guiding paradigm, which is very crucial both in decision-making and implementation of decisions. This process might also sharpen conceptualisation of developmental strategies and their processes. This in our view is a very fundamental issue and the key to gearing the process of national development to the desired objectives and goals.

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(ii) There should be a body which could independently and critically examine the various options, thrusts, strategies and their implications on national development, and this information and professional support should be m a d e available to decision-makers. Such a body should consist of scientists, technologists, economists, and educational, social and cultural experts and should have access to all the data. Their tasks should end at providing professional support and they should not be m a d e responsible for executive work. The membership of expert groups should not be a regular employment. Experts should be objectively drawn from professional organisations for a fairly reasonable period or for a task and they should revert back to their main organisation on the completion of the task. (iii) W h e n taking decisions, apex level bodies should indicate the magnitude of resources proposed to be allocated to various thrust areas. (iv) Whereas a broader thrust in science and technology to create a base was important in the past and m a y be needed for some a little longer, it has n o w become critical to identify key thrust areas which have multiplier effects on economic, science and technology and social development. It m a y then be necessary to work out plans and strategies for creating excellence in these areas through a policy of "technology push" so that R & R D results are implemented, (v) Planning strategies and processes should have an integrated rather than sectoral view. They should also take into consideration historical, institutional and cultural forces and varied interest groups, both national and international, and work out programmes and actions to gear these forces to achieving plan objectives and goals. This approach will facilitate the implementation process, otherwise implementation will always be weak. In brief, apex level decisions have to be more detailed,

comprehensive and precise so that better linkage is created between apex and sub-apex levels.

(b) Sub-Apex level (Funding Agencies): Because of the large areas of the interest of the various sub-apex

level bodies, broad areas as well as specific areas will continue to exist and some more bodies might have to be created. However, it is

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imperative that there should be vertical and horizontal linkages between the various sub-apex level bodies and the delivery system. In order to give a purpose, sense of direction and concert efforts for the development of the country, it is also imperative that there should be a detailed and rigorous professional planning mechanism at the sub-apex level which would ultimately be linked with the apex level as well as with the delivery system.

A s in the case of apex level bodies, the mechanism at this level should also work out various options which are cost-efficient and more critical in the achieving of results. This would only be possible if professional support machinery is created at the sub-apex level. This would strengthen the process of decision-making and reduce the likely influences of various individual interest groups which often operate in the absence of proper information and detailed analysis. Although these bodies are managing several thousand million rupees, they hardly consider the various options, and their implications on the delivery system nor the likely contribution to national development.

The structures of the various sub-apex level bodies are on hierarchical lines and need to be changed. Decisions need to be taken on professional lines based on feasibility studies and project appraisal of resource allocation and utilisation. Hence, there is a need to reoriente the organisational structure in these sub-apex level bodies, if not in all but certainly in some cases, particularly the major sub-apex level bodies, namely, the U G C , D S T as well as some other sub-apex level agencies.

(c) Delivery System (Universities): The development of the delivery system i.e. universities, colleges and R & D institutions might continue to be influenced by several forces, but these could be positively channelled by developing an information and analysis base on trends of development of the system, through proper planning at the national, State as well as institutional level and linking the same with national development plans and strategies. In other words, the system needs to be planned and co-ordinated in a scientific manner so as to be properly oriented through information analysis and resource support to achieve the development of desired thrust areas. It would also m e a n creating a mechanism of planning and co-ordination at all

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Chapter V

levels. A n effort is being m a d e through implementation of the N e w Education Policy and Programme of Action where planning and management aspects have been given considerable importance. Structures like an apex body on higher education, State Councils of Higher Education at the State level and planning and management of institutions, are being proposed. It is hoped that these n e w structures and processes will establish close co-ordination between national developmental plans and development of the higher education system. In the choices of programmes of R & D and m a n p o w e r development within a thrust area as well as a m o n g the thrust areas, the influences of negotiating actors like faculty, regional and local interests as well as influences of historical and institutional forces could be better channelled once the detailed plan and decisions on its implementation are taken in close co-ordination with apex, sub-apex level bodies and within the delivery system. Under this process, the weighting and magnitude of resource allocation could be decided. This will strengthen implementation as well as achievement of desired objectives. With a view to effectively implementing development of desired thrust areas, it m a y be necessary to reform rules, regulations and procedures and introduce flexibility in the system so that resources are allocated on time and utilised for the purpose for which they are meant. Since there are several sub-apex level agencies funding thrust areas development, it will be useful to establish close co-ordination among these funding agencies as well as evolve flexible, speedy and result-oriented rules, regulations and procedures for allocation and utilisation of funds. These funding agencies m a y be required, to reorganise the system and reorientation of staff for effective functioning. The structure of organisation and funding of staff would need to be more professional and result-oriented. The mechanism of monitoring and review has already been reformulated in some cases so as to effectively monitor the progress of development of thrust areas. Here a change from

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the traditional model of receiving a completion report and the utilisation certificate is vital. The n e w mechanism of monitoring should be based on (a) continuous flow of information; (b) periodic discussion with the persons involved; and (c) assessment of the results. The system has to be a professional one. The effective utilisation of investment in R & D and manpower development in the thrust areas as well as the general higher education system needs to be seen in the context of the process of national development. Following this approach, there is an urgent need to develop a policy of: "technology push", financial support for technology ventures as well as create the infrastructural facilities for operationalisation of R & D results. Whereas support from several industrial funding organisations like the Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Unit Trust of India (UTI) and Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) could be mobilised for operationalising R & D results, yet it would be better if, in addition, some industrial infrastructures particularly for operationaHsation of R & D results could be developed. This will help effective utilisation of R & D results and deployment of trained manpower. It would also go a long way to developing a technology base, giving confidence to R & D personnel as well as putting India on a higher learning curve for operationalisation of science and technology. In doing so, caution has also to be exercised to ensure that undue international influences do not adversely affect indigeneous efforts for development of thrust areas and their subsequent contribution to national development.

List of documents and references

Government of India Documents

Department of Education and Culture Analysis of budgeted expenditure on education: 1979-80 to 1981-82 Annual Report, 1983-84

Department of Electronics Annual plan proposals of Department of Electronics for the period 1987-88, pp 34-40, 6-12 (unpublished) Demands for grants 1983-84 and 1984-85 List of projects sanctioned by the Department (unpublished)

- , Demands for grants 1983-84 and 1984-85 List of projects sanctioned by the Department (unpublished)

Department of Environment Annual Report, 1985-86 Annual Report, 1986-87 Demand for grants 1983-84 and 1985-86 Projects sanctioned under M A B Programme during the period 1975-85 (unpublished Document)

Government of India Budget at a glance, 1987-88 Budget of the Central Government for 1987-88 Demands for grants of Central Govt., 1987-88 Expenditure Bbdget 1987-88 volumes 1 and 2. The Finance Bill, 1987

157

References

Key to the budget documents, 1987-88 Memorandum explaining the provisions in the Finance Bill, 1987 Receipts budget, 1987-88 Speech of Prime Minister and Minister of Finance presenting Central Government's budget for 1987-88, Part A and В

Department of Science and Technology Annual Report, 1981-82 Annual Report, 1982-83 Annual Report, 1983-84 Annual Report, 1984-85 Annual Report, 1985-86 Annual Report, 1986-87 Detailed demands for grants, 1981-82 Detailed demands for grants, 1982-83 Detailed demands for grants, 1984-85 Detailed demands for grants, 1985-86 Detailed demands for grants, 1986-87 Detailed demands for grants, 1987-88 Guidelines for implementing research projects List of research projects sanctioned during the financial years 1979-84 (unpublished document) Research and Development Funding Schemes of Central Government Agencies general information (New Delhi, 1986) Research and development projects funded by the D S T 1984-85 (General information) Scheme for Young scientists: Format for project proposal S E R C Review (1980-85)

Planning Commission Agricultural Research

First Plan, pp. 102-5 Second Plan, pp. 273-80 Third Plan pp. 145-53

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References

Fourth Plan pp. 124-27,146-47 and 187 Sixth Plan pp. 101-9,114,265, 348-50 Seventh Plan pp. 22-24, 391-94

Education First Plan document pp. 531 -69 Second Plan document pp. 500-22 Third Plan document pp 88-108 Fourth Plan document pp. 278-305 Fifth Plan document pp. 75-78 Sixth Plan document pp. 352-65

Environment and Ecology Sixth Plan, pp.. 385-94 Seventh Plan, pp. 21-29, 391-94

Science and Technology First Plan pp. 262-71 Second Plan pp. 523-32 Third Plan pp. 132-44 Fourth Plan pp. 380-85 Sixth Plan pp. 318-94 Seventh Plan pp. 193-204

Universities/institutions documents

Bañaras Hindu University Budget estimates for the years 1980-81 - 86-87 Annual Reports for the years 1980-81 - 84-85 i Audit Reports for the years 1981-82 - 1985-86 Accounts for the year ending 31st March, 1981 vol.1

University of Bombay Budget estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86 Annual Reports for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86 Environmental Education and Training in Asia and the Pacific; United Nations Environment Programme, 1986 Report of a Regional Meeting of Experts to develop a programme of action, Bangkok; 11-15 Nov. , 1985

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References

Ford Foundation, Annual Report, 1986 Ford Foundation: India, Nepal and Srilanka Information Brochure 1985.

Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar Haryana Agriculture University on the March: First Decade, 1970-80 Budget estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86 Haryana Agricultural University - at a glance Brief Review of Research, 1977 Research Highlights -1983-84

Indian Council of Agricultural Research Annual Reports, 1982-83 Annual Reports, 1983-84 Annual Reports, 1984-85 Annual Reports, 1985-86 Annual Reports, 1986-87

I C A R Research, Education and Extension: Institutions and projects in India (New Delhi, 1985, I C A R )

Indian Council of Social Science Research Annual Report, 1981-82 Annual Report, 1982-83 Annual Report, 1983-84 Annual Report, 1984-85 Annual Report, 1985-86 Report of the second Review Committee August, 1978

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Revised Budget for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86 Annual Reports for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86 Beginnings : Report of activities for the period Dec. 1982 to March 1985 A Five Year perspective 1985-90 Particulars of Projects, with total outlay during 1985-86 (typed list, unpublished)

160

References

Indian National Science Academy Health of science in India : Analysis and recommendations (ENSA, N e w Delhi, 1986) Indo-US Cooperation in Science and Technology : A report by the Embassy of the United States of America, N e w Delhi.

Jadavpur University, Calcutta Annual Report for the year 1982-83 Budget estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1983-84 Development of a system to produce X-ray pictures on plain paper (Calcutta: Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Department, University of Jadavpur) Electronics and Telecommunication Department: Departmental profile and Seventh Plan Developmental Proposals (Calcutta: Jadavpur University, 1986)

Jawaharlal Nehru University, N e w Delhi Financial estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1986-87 Annual Reports for the years 1982-83 - 1984-85 Annual Reports of the Centre for the Study of Regional Development for the years 1984-85 and 1985-86

Madurai Kamraj University Financial estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1986-87 Annual Reports for the years 1980-86 Madurai Kamraj University Brochure, 1987

University of Kashmir, Srinagar Financial estimates for the years 1980-81 - 1984-85 University at a glance (Issued on the occasion of Eighth Annual Convocation October 5,1982)

University of Poona Arthsankalpa (Marathi), 1981-81 - 1984-85 Annual Reports for the years 1980-81 - 1985-86

161

References

University grants Commission Support for science research in the University (1979) Report for the year, 1984-85 Report for the year, 1985-86 Annual Accounts, 1985-86 Support for science research in the University (New Delhi, 1979)

П Е Р publications and documents

More than 500 titles on all aspects of educational planning have been published by the International Institute for Educational Planning. A comprehensive catalogue, giving details of their availability, includes research reports, case studies, seminar documents, training materials, occasional papers and reference books in the following subject categories:

Economics of education, costs and financing.

Manpower and employment.

Demographic studies.

The location of schools and sub-national planning. i

Administration and management.

Curriculum development and evaluation.

Educational technology.

Primary, secondary and higher education.

Vocational and technical education.

Non-formal, out-of-school, adult and rural education.

Copies of the catalogue m a y be obtained from the IIEP on request.