Chemical WarfareCharlotte René

Bishop’s University

IntroductionAlthough primitive forms of chemical weapons had been used in earlier conflicts, the 20th century marks the first point at which scientists could consistently and predictably, produce chemical weapons to inflict mass casualties. The development, production, and deployment of weaponized gases created a complex public health threat that endangered the lives of both civilians and soldiers during World War I. Chemical weapons are responsible for proportionately few of the fatalities during the war, but the exposure to chemical agents as well as the psychological damage inflicted from “gas fright” had serious consequences.

DefenseFollowing the chlorine gas attacks at Ypres in 1915, British medical corps developed the hypohelmet. It was a wool hood soaked in thiosulfate, glycerin, and sodium bicarbonate. It fully enclosed a soldier’s head, with mica windows to allow some visibility. These early masks were uncomfortable, difficult to put on, and were easily damaged.

Charles Henry Savage

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Works CitedCanadian War Museum. (2018). Weapons on Land - Poison Gas. Retrieved October 16, 2018, from https://www.warmuseum.ca/firstworldwar/history/battles-and-fighting/weapons-on-land/poison-gas/

Everts, S. (2015). A Brief History of Chemical War. Retrieved October 16, 2018, from https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/a-brief-history-of-chemical-war

Fitzgerald, G. J. (2008). Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I. American Journal of Public Health, 98(4), 611-625. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.111930

Hughes, D. (2016). First World War in Images [Digital image]. Retrieved October 19, 2018, from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/chemical-weapons-warfare-remembrance-day-poison-mustard-gas-first-world-war-ypres-isis-a7005416.html

Owen, W. (n.d.). Dulce et Decorum Est. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.warpoetry.co.uk/owen1.html

Patton, J. (2018). Medicine in the First World War - Gas in the Great War. Retrieved October 16, 2018, from http://www.kumc.edu/wwi/essays-on-first-world-war-medicine/index-of-essays/medicine/gas-in-the-great-war.html

Mustard gas is a pale yellow gas with an garlic-like odor. It was the most commonly used gas in World War One, nicknamed the “King of Battle Gases.”

The gas is a strong vesicant, causing chemical burns on contact. No preventative measures can be taken after skin irritation appears. It is also a severe irritant of the skin, eyes, and lungs, leading to blindness and lethal lung edema.

Mustard gas alkylates subcellular components, disrupting metabolism, which can lead to oxidative stress. It is a mutagen and known carcinogen that is associated with an elevated risk of developing lung cancer and other cancers of the respiratory tract.

Washing with kerosene or gasoline, followed by bathing with soap and hot water is required within 30 minutes of exposure in

order to remove the chemical from the skin and prevent blistering.

Chlorine Gas (Cl2)

It is toxic when inhaled and a potent irritant to the eyes, upper respiratory tract,and lungs. Chlorine forms hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid upon contact withmoist tissue. Hypochlorous acid decomposes into hypochloric acid and oxygen

free radicals that disrupt cellular proteins. Hydrochloric acid destroys tissue leading to permanent lung damage or death.

Chlorine gas is a diatomic gas, yellowish-green in colour, that smells of bleach.

Exposure can result in coughing, choking and substernal pain, headaches, dizziness, syncope, hypoxemia, pulmonary edema, pneumonia, dermatitis, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, and burning of eyes, nose, and mouth. Exposure to Cl2 can be fatal.

Oxygen administration and bed rest are required post exposure.

Later in 1915, the P-helmet was developed. Like the hypohelmet, it was a hood soaked with sodium phenate to neutralize chlorine gas, and was fitted with eye and mouth pieces. It provided little protection and caused many soldiers to feel claustrophobic.

Dissatisfied with the available gas mask technology new protective gear continued to be developed. In 1916 the British developed the small box respirator. This device provided effective protection against most chemical agents and could be modified to neutralize new agents.

Due to the high probability of gas attacks gas masks were developed for various animals including dogs, horses, and even pigeons.

Chlorine gas is water soluble, and thus soldiers without masks could minimize its harmful effects by placing water or urine soaked rags over their mouths and noses.

On April 22, 1915, German forces unleashed chlorine gas from more than 6000 steel cylinders. This resulted in the deaths of over 1000 people and over 7000 injuries.Chlorine’s usefulness was short lived, as its colour and odor made it easy to spot. Phosgene started to be used in its place, and was responsible for 85% of chemical weapons deaths.

C. H. Savage graduated from Bishop’s University in 1911 with a B.A. While attending Bishop’s, he was very involved in the school, a member of the football, hockey, boat, baseball, cricket, basketball, golf, debating, and tennis clubs. He was also involved with the Mitre, starting as the Assistant Business Manager and then moving up to be the Business Manager.

The 5th Canadian Mounted Rifles went to England in 1915, and spent the rest of 1915-1918 in France and Flanders. Savage was made Lance-Corporal in September 1915, Sergeant in 1916, and Lieutenant in 1917.

C. H. Savage attended one of the first anti-gas schools in France at Fletrefor 10 days in February 1916 under Sergeant Qua, who had been the professor of chemistry at Bishop’s before enlisting. At the school, he built a gas-protected dugout for testing gas masks and other experiments. He also learned about different types of gas masks and the method of protection they provided against the toxic agents.

Figure 2: A soldier adjusts another soldier’s gas mask.

Gas Attacks in World War One

Figure 1: Arial view of the gas attack at Ypres.

Figure 3: C. H. Savage, 1915.

September 9, 1892Eastman, QC

April 23, 1978 Montreal, QC

February 15, 1915(Second Contingent)

5th Canadian Mounted Rifles (joined 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade in 1916)

#110497

Methods of UseReleasing poison gas from canisters to form a large cloud was used only briefly. Generally, the wind blew in one direction, such as in Flanders where it usually blew from the Allied side of the line over to German side, where it then settled into trenches due to the gases’ high density. However, the wind could change direction rapidly and unpredictably. The British discovered this after a cloud of chlorine gas was blown back onto their own men at Loos.

Gases were mostly used in combination and delivered via arterial shells. The warheads contained glass bottles of the agents in liquid form which would break on contact, the liquid then vaporizing.

Shells were identified with a colour-coding system. Shells marked with a green cross contained pulmonary agents, such as chlorine and phosgene, white identified tear gas, gold identified mustard gas, and blue identified ‘mask breakers’ such as chloropicrin, which was able to affect those wearing gas masks.

Phosgene (Carbonyl Chloride (COCl2)))

Phosgene is an insidious poison gas that is highly toxic (6 times deadlier than chlorine gas), with symptoms taking up to 48 hours to manifest. It is colourless with no detectable odor until 0.4 ppm, several times higher than a lethal dose, at which point it takes on a musty-hay like odor.

Phosgene reacts with proteins in the alveoli, disrupting gas exchange, leading to pulmonary edema. Acylation results from phosgene reacting with nucleophilic moieties causing destruction of proteins and lipids, leading to membrane and enzyme dysfunction. This is what causes most of the damage associated with the gas. Hydrolysis plays a minor role, occurring as phosgene hydrolyzes to hydrochloric acid, which causes irritation and tissue damage.

Exposure can result in pulmonary edema, pulmonary emphysema, severe ocular irritation, dermal burns, and death.

Mustard Gas (’-DichloroethylSulfide ((ClCH2CH2)2S))

Oxygen administration and bed rest are required postexposure.

“Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! – An ecstasy of fumblingFitting the clumsy helmets just in time, But someone still was yelling out and stumblingAnd flound’ring round like man in fire or lime.–Dim through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.”Wilfred Owen’s Dulce et Decorum Est illustrates the chaos in the trenches following a gas attack, as displayed in the above excerpt.

“Mitre,” 1908-1911, Old Library. Bishop’s University.

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National Defence, & Canadian Army. (2017). Evolution of the Canadian Gas mask. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/about-army/evolution-gas-mask.page

Vancouver Island University. (n.d.). Savage, Charles Henry Memoir: 1936. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from https://www.canadianletters.ca/content/document-8359

Vancouver Island University. (n.d.). Charles Henry Savage 1915 [Digital image]. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.canadianletters.ca/collections/all/collection/20680/doc/223

Veterans Affairs Canada. (2014). Two soldiers wearing gas masks. One is adjusting the others mask. [Digital image]. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/first-world-war/audio-archive/gasmasks