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Messengers in the City: Media Representation and

Wildlife Encounters in New York City

Frank Gaughan

Prepared for the

Land Ethics for the Landless: Refiguring Aldo Leopold for the Urban Age

Panel at the American Society for Environmental History Annual Meeting

Madison, Wisconsin

March, 2012


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In the 1930s the coyotes established range was known to be west of

the Mississippi River and concentrated largely in the Great Plains region of the

United States. It is from this region that the animalcanis latransderives its

colloquial names, the prairie or brush wolf.1 By the early 20th century, the

coyotes larger cousincanis lupusor the grey wolfhad been extirpated from

most of the United States.2 In fact, biologists estimate that the grey wolf has

lost 42% of its North American range due to development, habitat

fragmentation, and predator removal programs that began with European

colonization and intensified with the expansion of the ranching industry in the

19th century. While subject to similar removal programs, the coyote has

increased its range by 40 percent over this same period.3

Today, the animal is

an established presence throughout North America, and the ease with which it

has traversed the urban/rural gradient challenges assumptions about the

1 Stanley P. Young and Hartley H.T. Jackson, The Cleaver Coyote, 3.

2 David L Mech, The Wolf, 32-33; Hank Fischer, Wolf Wars. 10-23; Cat Urbigkit,

Yellowstone Wolves, 21-28.

3Andrea S. Laliberte and William J. Ripple, Range Contractions of North

American Carnivores and Ungulates, 126.


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antithetical relationship between urban development and the natural world.4 As

one advances, the other is expected to recede, yet in this case an animal

strongly associated with both Native American creation narratives and frontier

folklore has expanded its range by moving toward big cities such as Tucson,

Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, Vancouver, Chicago, Boston, and New

York City. A highly adaptable species, the coyote finds suitable habitat in these

and other urban locales. In some cases, the animal finds itself not just within

the city limits but in the very center of urban space. In Portland, a coyote

boarded a commuter train, taking a window seat after being chased from the

airport tarmac.5 In Chicago, the animals have been captured in the downtown

loop; and in New York, one of several coyotes captured was found hiding under

a car outside the Holland Tunnel.6

Such encounters undermine long-held expectations for resident, urban

wildlife, which mostly consist of small birds and mammalspigeons, squirrels,

4Stanley D. Gehrt and Seth P.D. Riley, Coyotes (Canis latrans), in Urban

Carnivores, 79-81.

5 Airline Industry Information, "Coyote hops on train at Portland airport.

6Shamus Toomey, Animal attraction; Coyote strolls into downtown Quiznos,

The Chicago Sun-Times, Apr 4, 2007; James Barron and Karen Zraick, TriBeCa Coyote

Captured! New York Times, Mar 25, 2010.


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and rats, for example. Even the common raccoon appears strange in some

cities, so much so that its presence occasions hyperbolic or sarcastic media

coverage, such as the 2010 story in New YorksVillage Voice: Crazed Raccoon

Alert! Rabid Animals Target Central Park. A related Voicearticle notes that No

one's been attacked [by raccoons] since winter, but watch out, they're lurking.

At least they don't know how to use weapons, yet.7 In context, the headline

seems more comedic than sensationalist. Few reasonable readers will think

raccoons have targeted the city or that they lurk in dark places fashioning

tree branches into weapons, but such exaggerations discourage readers from

thinking about urban space as a type of habitat and maintain the illusion that

cities are alienated from the natural world.8

Media coverage of urban coyote

encounters follows a similar trajectory by relying on blends of exaggeration,

humor, and sensationalism to mask the discomfort that the animals presence

prompts.

7Elizabeth Dwoskin, Crazed Raccoon Alert! Village Voice, 18 Feb 18, 2010 and

Leslie Minora, New York's Wild Kingdom Is Going Batshit: Child-Eating Coyotes, RabidRacoons, Sexin' Birds, Village Voice, Jul. 2 2010.

8J. Baird Callicott, The Conceptual Foundations of the Land Ethic,in A

Companion to A Sand County Almanac: Interpretive and Critical Essays, 210; Clark E.

Adams and Kieran J. Lindsey, Introduction to A New Wildlife Management Paradigm

in Urban Wildlife Management, 2nd ed, xix-xxxiii.


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There are, of course, humorous elements to some encounters. In 2007, a

coyote walked into a Quiznos sandwich shop in Chicagos downtown loop,

attempted to jump the counter during lunch service and eventually settled into

the cooler, sitting with the soft drinks until animal control arrived.9 The reporter

covering the story dispensed with the traditional inverted triangle format and

invoked, instead, the stand-up routine in the first sentence: So a coyote walks

into a Quiznos. But humor dissipates rapidly when coyotes come into conflict

with humans and, more often, with their domestic pets.

As the animals move closer in proximity to large population centers, such

conflicts can be expected to increase. For example, an analysis of Chicago-

area newspapers reporting human/coyote conflicts found that the number of

articles published on the subject increased by nearly 400 percent between 1985

and 2006.10 In a related study, Stanley Gehrt contends that the reality of urban

coyote ecology is at odds with media representations. 11 That is, a typical urban

coyote is unlikely to make news because its presence is unremarkable. In fact,

9 See note 6 above.

10Lynsey A. White and Stanley D. Gehrt, Coyote Attacks on Humans in the

United States and Canada, 420.

11 Stanley D. Gehrt, Ecology of coyotes in urban landscapes, 309.


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Gehrt finds the animals well-suited to city life. On average, 62-74 percent of

coyotes survive a given year in urban areas.12 They tend to avoid human contact

and vehicle collisions, their primary cause of mortality, by shifting from diurnal

to nocturnal activity. While more studies are needed, radiotelemetry data

suggest that urban coyotes tend to avoid people, even if their home range

includes a populated residential or commercial area.13

While most coyotes avoid people, they have a long and successful track

record of making behavioral and even biological adaptations in response to

human settlement and built environments. In the early 1900s, coyotes began a

decades-long movement eastward, following routes to the north and south of

the Great Lakes.14

The suppressed wolf population in Canada and the absence

of wolves in the most of the United States combined with agricultural land uses

to make an inviting habitat. Along the northern route, the coyote hybridized

with eastern wolves, canis lupus lycaon, and the result was a larger animal. The

eastern coyote averages 36-32 pounds, whereas its western counterpart weighs

12 Ibid., 305.

13 Ibid., 307.

14 Gerry Parker, Eastern Coyote, 20.


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26-23 pounds.15 This larger size allows the coyote to successfully hunt white-

tailed deer in addition to its more frequent meals of rodents and snowshoe

hares. Thus, the eastern coyote fills an ecological role left vacant by the

extirpation of wolf in the United States. By the 1930s, the eastern coyote had

established enough of a presence for hunters, trappers, and game wardens to

take notice of a new animal in the northeast.

Newspaper reports of these early encounters provide context for

understanding the presentation of the urban coyote today. The contemporary

news may use humor to deflect discomfort at the animals presence in the city,

but popular representations in the 1930s describe the coyote and other

mammalian predators as vermin, varmints, or enemies of the good

animalsgame birds, deer, and livestock. Thus, in the 1930s, the coyotes

arrival into a new habitat was framed as either a bizarre circumstance or an

occasion for impending terror. In 1937, the Daily Boston Globereports on

Maine game wardens who trapped a 32 pound Westerncoyote. To explain its

presence so far east, the wardens speculated that the animal had escaped from

15 Jonathan G. Way, A Comparison of Body Mass of Canis latrans (Coyotes)

Between Eastern and Western North America, 116.


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a menagerie or circus.16 In 1934, the New York Timesfiled a similar story in

which Homer Mallow, a Pennsylvania hotel manager, reported a wolf sighting to

the state game warden, Harry Meiss. The warden reacted incredulously, but

Mallow was adamant, and offered to bet Meiss one-thousand dollars that the

animals were in the vicinity of his hotel. Not to be outdone, Warden Meiss took

the bet and, in addition, offered to chew the ear off any wolfor coyote that

Mallow found in the state. To the wardens surprise, two of the marauders

were killed and Mallow arranged to procure one of the pelts and confirmed that

the animals were, in fact, coyotes. In fulfillment of the wager, Mallow had the

ear of one of the beasts prepared, and planned to have it on hand for a dinner

with Meiss early that February. Mallow quipped that the hefty wager might be

waived if the warden were to give the ear a good chew.17

16 Daily Boston Globe, Maine Game Wardens Trap Western Coyote, Jan 11,

1937.

17New York Times, Coyotes Ear to be Piece De Resistance at Dinner to Game

Warden Who Lost Bet, Jan 28, 1934.


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It is not surprising that 1930s era news features describe historically

maligned predators as beasts and marauders or that the story emphasizes

bizarre detailsthe wager and the chewing of the animals earover significant

facts, such as the movement of an adaptable species with a high reproduction

rate into a new range. The examples from Maine and Pennsylvania avoid

consideration of natural causes and place the animal, instead, in an economic

(and thus, civilized) context: The coyote must be a circus attraction or an

occasion for a large wager.

In other instances, literary and fantastic explanations appear more viable

than natural ones. In November of 1930, the Boston Globereports the story

Eddy Jones, who had shot a strange animal near Brockton, Massachusetts a

town approximately 25 miles south of Boston. Although an experienced

woodsman, Jones said he could not identify his prey. He thought, at first, it

might have been a German Shepherd. But the action of the animal, its

crouching and vicious air, convinced Jones that he was not facing a dog, but

rather an animal such as he had never encountered before. A furrier identified

the pelt as that of a coyote, or as the Globeputs it: a stealthy creature of the

western plains. The report then takes a literary turn, noting that the blood-


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curdling cries of [the coyotes] mate could be heard at night and that residents

are seriously considering keeping weapons handy when they retire.18 In this

way, the Globesreport transforms the coyote into a supernatural presence, an

unknown creaturevicious, cowardly, and stealthy. The audible and blood-

curdling presence ofits mate suggests an impending vengeance, prompting

residents to sleep with weapons. To tell such a story, the Globeaccount relies

more upon a store of popular representations about vengeful animals than it

does upon actual circumstance. Ernest Thompson Seton's popular narrative of

wolf hunting in New Mexico provides an informing model. In Lobo the King of

Currumpaw, Seton traps the outlaw wolf, Lobo, by first trapping and killing his

mate, Blanca. Afterwards, an enraged Lobo follows the cowboys to their ranch.

Seton writes, Whether in hopes of finding [Blanca] there, or in quest of

revenge, I know not (37).19 The resemblance between the two tales ends there,

however. Seton experiences great remorse for his actions. His connection with

Lobo is such that he cannot bring himself to kill the animal; the trapped wolf,

instead, dies of its wounds, which include a broken heart. Setons talelike

18Daily Boston Globe, Hunter Found To Have Shot Coyote: Strange Animal

Bagged In Woods Near Brockton,Nov 27, 1930.

19 Ernest Thompson Seton, Wild Animals I Have Known. 37.


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Aldo Leopolds Thinking Like A Mountain amounts to a conversion narrative

in which the death of the wolf prompts the hunter to see nobility in the prey

that had formally been maligned.

The Globes account, by contrast, replaces sentimentality with horror.

The coyotes blood curdling cries might just as well have been those of a

werewolfa shape-shifting anthropomorphic creature whose wickedness marks

the worst in humanity.20 In this way, the news item fosters not empathetic

connection, as in Setons tale, but a journalistic version of the supernatural

sublime. Literary critic Jack Voller uses this term to characterize works of

gothic and romantic literature that subvert the conventional meaning of

sublime experiences. With the supernatural sublime, the world has been

emptied of wonder, and the presence of evil does not imply the presence of a

counterbalancing good.21 With the divine called into question, the experience of

awe is displaced by terror. This feeling may account for the hyperbolic reaction

of the towns residents. One does not sleep with a weapon because there may

20 Barry Lopez, Of Wolves and Men,230; Roderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and

the American Mind, 12.

21 Jack Voller, The Supernatural Sublime, 20.


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be a medium-sized canine in the nearby forest unless one also attributes other

worldly powers to the animal.

As the coyote was beginning its journey eastward, ecological perspectives

on the importance of predators were only just emerging. For example, Aldo

Leopold wrote The Conservation Ethic, in 1933a work that bears strong

resemblance to the more famous essay, The Land Ethic, which was not to be

published until 1949. In this early draft, Leopold emphasizes mutual and

interdependent coperationbetween human animals, other animals, plants, and

soils.22His categorization of humans as interdependent animals, marks a

significant shift from earlier statements, such as his 1915 essay, The Varmint

Question, in which he favors predator eradication over mutualism and writes

that predators eat the cream off the stock growers profits.23 The term varmint

also carries moralistic implications. David Worster notes that the word has been

reserved for those species that plumb the depths of depravity. 24 Following

Leopolds turn to ethics, he makes statements that favor predators such as his

22Aldo Leopold, Conservation Ethic, The River of the Mother of God and Other

Essays by Aldo Leopold, 183.

23Ibid., The Varmint Question, 47.

24 David Worster, Natures Economy, 260.


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advocacy for grizzly bear habitat in 1936, but it is not until 1939, in A Biotic

View of Land, that he offers a direct challenge to the long-established

categorization of animals into useful and harmful classes: The only sure

conclusion is that the biota as a whole is useful. . ..25

Perhaps benefiting from these and related perspectives on predation,

contemporary media accounts of the urban coyote do not typically describe the

animal as a varmint, beast, or marauder, but they still struggle to make

cultural sense of the coyotes success in the city. As the animal moves ever

closer to the center of the modern cities, it must once again be refigured. In

New York City, one of the dominant metaphors appears to be the Warner

Brothers cartoon character, Wile E. Coyotea figure who is more hapless than

depraved. His inability to catch the elusive road runner masks Wile E.s

predatory roots and also serves to elicit sympathy for him.

New York-based news accounts detailing the pursuit of Central Park

coyotes in both 1999 and 2006 make specific or implied references to Wile E. or

the cartoon itself. One article notes that the coyote turned roadrunneras the

25 Aldo Leopold, Means and Ends in Wild Life Management, and A Biotic View

of Land, in The River of the Mother of God, 236 and 267, respectively.


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tawny-colored critter slip-slided across the Wollman Rink ice to elude his

pursuers and their nets.26 Another article coyote emphasizes the awkward

efforts to corral the animal: [The] final chasehad all the elements of a Road

Runnercartoon, with the added spectacle of television news helicopters

hovering overhead, trailing the coyote and the out-of-breath posse of police

officers, park officials and reporters trailing it.27 In other instances, the Warner

Brothers reference is more subtle, such as when the adjective wily is applied

to the animal: The wily coyote led parks officials and police officers on a wild

chase through Central Park last month.28 Another article notes that the coyote

of 1999 was a wily survivor29 after being captured and relocated to a zoo in

Queens, New York. The 2006 coyote was not so lucky, dying shortly after

capture from the combined stress of human handling, heartworms, and the

ingestion of rodenticide.30

26 Lisa l. Colangelo, Alison Gendar and Corky Siemaszko, Coyote Finally Is

Outfoxed. Cops Get Runaround, The Daily News, 23 Mar 23, 2006.

27James Barron, A Coyote Leads a Crowd on a Central Park Marathon, NewYork Times, March 23, 2006.

28 Joe Mahoney and Lisa L. Colangelo, Stress Killed Coyote Too Much Handling,

Worms Are Blamed, Daily News, April 8, 2006.29Corey Kilgannon, Neighborhood Report: Corona; Coyote, A Wily Survivor, Is

Alpha At His Zoo Home, New York Times, March 19, 2000.

30 See note 28.


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It is fair to say that most urban residents have never seen a coyote,

except perhaps in a zoo. So initial efforts to reconcile the anomalous

appearance of this animal into the cityscape rely upon comforting references to

a familiar, lovable, but hapless cartoon character. Like its real-life inspiration,

Wile E. Coyote is a predator; the difference, of course, is that he is not a very

good one. The energy expended chasing the road runner and assembling

contraptions purchased from the Acme corporation far outweighs any caloric

gain that would follow from a successful catch. Wile E.s interest in the road

runner is driven more by emotion and frustration than by hunger. During the

chase, he relies not on his instincts but on upon flawed technologies and plans

that typically become more and more complex as the episode progresses. In

this regard, at least, the above news report is correct in noting that the coyote

has turned road runner.

This rhetorical switch suggests that city residents have turnedWile E.,

expending energy and resources in ways that are out of proportion to the

quarry at hand. In 2006, officials chased the coyote around Central Park for

two days before finally making the catch. It is hard to imagine such a

commitment of resources or media attention in response to, say, a feral


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German Shepherd. Likewise, most criminal activity does not prompt the city to

marshal helicopters and sharpshooters. Thus, it seems that the city, with the

media in tow, was more intent on chasing the idea of a coyotea predator in

the citythan the animal itself. The anthropomorphic qualities of Wile E. were

not lost upon his creator, the animator and director Chuck Jones, who is also

the creator of other notable, human-like characters: Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck,

and Peppie La Pew, to name but three. In his memoir, Jones attributes the

inspiration for Wile E. to Mark Twains oft-cited description of an actual coyote

in his 1872 travel narrative, Roughing It. When Twain first saw the animal on a

trip to the western territories, he writes that the coyote appeared to him as a

living, breathing allegory of Want. He is always hungry. He is always poor, out

of luck and friendless.31 Although Jones was only seven when he first read

the passage, he claims to have recognized the potential in Twains description

immediately: Wile E.s frustrations and shortcomings help viewers to make

sense of their own.32

31 Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad and Roughing It, 561.

32 Chuck Jones, Chuck Amok: The Life and Times of An Animated Cartooonist,

35-38.


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While this sort of imaginative refiguring may help in making cultural

sense of the urban coyote, we will be unlikely to understand the presence of the

actual animal in our midst until we more completely understand our own role as

human animals in habitats that we both aim and fail to control. The adaptable

and elusive coyote seems ideally suited to challenge urban ideas about the wild

and its constituent wildlife. While New York City has a resident population of

coyotes in the Bronx, its northernmost borough, the three coyotes that have

made their way to the southernmost edge of Central Park in Manhattan provide

the most direct challenge to urban assumptions that the city can be isolated

from natural processes. These three coyotes have all received at least some

media attention and, fittingly, pet names: Lucky Pierre, also known as Otis, in

1999; Hal in 2006; and JD in 2010.33 It is worth reflecting on the qualities of

city life that drew these three coyotes to the same section of a park that spans

over 800 acres.34 Coyotes often make use of park space, golf courses,

greenways and other edge habitats, but the southern edge of Central Park is a

33. For articles regarding the naming of Otis, see note 29; for Hal, see note 26.

For articles about JD, see Robert Sullivan. "J.D. Coyote; The thrall of the wild, in Central

Park." New York, 8 March 8, 2010.

34 Central Park, Central Park Conservancy.


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tree line that forms the border of the park and 59th street, one of the busiest

thoroughfares in the center of the most populous city in the US.

The southern edge of Central Park is a study in contrasts, and the names

for these three coyotes are associated with the strikingly different features of

the area. The 1999 coyote, Lucky Pierre, was so named because of his

proximity to the Pierre Hotel, where rooms start at about $800 per night. Just

down the block from the Pierre, visitors find the Hallet Nature Sanctuary, a

fenced 4-acre preserve for migratory birds that is off limits to the public,

except by guided tours.35 The 2006 coyote came to be known as Hal,

because, like Lucky Pierre, he was spotted in the area between the Sanctuary

and the luxury buildings along 5th

Avenue . Finally, in 2010, the coyote dubbed

JD takes his name from J. D. Salingers Cather in the Ryebecause the novels

protagonist, Holden Caulfield,finds solace near the duck pond, which sits just

beside the Hallet Sanctuary.

From a coyotes perspective then, a four-acre bird sanctuary that is

largely off-limits to people and situated beside a duck pond is as close to ideal

habitat as one might hope to find in the New York area. In this way, the coyote

35Wheeler, Jesse, Hallet Nature Sanctuary.


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challenges not only ideas about the wild and wild life, but also ideas about

sanctuary, an old word with strong religious connotations. The application of

the sanctuary concept to wildlife, however, is relatively new, coinciding with the

turn to conservation in the United States at the end of the 19th century. The

Oxford English Dictionarycredits Arthur Pendarves Vivians 1879 collection of

travel and hunting narratives Wanderings in Western Landwith the first usage

of the word in this sense. Witnessing the near extinction of his quarrythe

bisonVivian suggested setting apart certain districts as sanctuaries, within

which the buffalo should never be molested.36 Indeed, the National Park

System would eventually come to serve this purpose. In doing so, however, the

sanctuary model helped to codify the idea that wildlife may be circumscribed by

legal definitions and cultural expectations of wild, rural, and city spaces.

Criticizing this limited view of nature in 1936, Leopold writes that [The

park services] wildlife program is befogged with the abstract concept of

inviolate sanctuary.37 Put another way, wildlife sanctuaries such as Hallet are

idealized spaces that aim to create and maintain a particular relationship with

36Oxford English Dictionary. s.v. Sanctuary.

37 Aldo Leopold, Threatened Species in The River of the Mother of God, 232.


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nature. One makes an appointment to see the nature in the Hallet Sanctuary;

and after a tour, exits the space. It seems fitting, then, that Hal was sighted

scaling the eight-foot fence designed to keep out human visitors and was later

seen in proximity to the feathery remains of a bird: Nature had finally arrived

at the sanctuary, and the coyote, so long reviled as a western outlaw, had found

its way from the prairie to a space that Olmstead imagined as remedial of the

influences of urban conditions.38

Conflicts are inevitable as the coyote takes a place in urban locales. As

media accounts document, coyotes have killed pets and attacked children on

occasion. The fact that such encounters are atypical does not make their

occurrence any less tragic or their possibility any less frightening. The coyote,

like nature itself, disrupts us, along with our idea of sanctuary. In so doing,

however, the coyote presents an opportunity for urban residents. Remarking on

the character of city life, Leopold wrote that urban residents were a landless

people, who maintained an esthetic appreciation for nature that was not

38Frederick Law Olmstead, The Plan For the Park, In Empire City: New York

Through the Centuries, edited by Kenneth T. Jackson and David S. Dunbar. 278-281.


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informed by an understanding of it.39 As a consequence, environmental debates

and policies tend to be less effective and more contentious than they should be.

When we imagine urban spaces that allow us to co-exist with an adaptable

predator such as the coyote, we also begin a long process of reclaiming urban

land and connecting it with the rest of the natural world.

39Aldo Leopold, Land Pathology. in The River of the Mother of God214.


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Airline Industry Information. "Coyote hops on train at Portland airport." Feb 18,

2002. LexisNexis Academic.

Barron, James. A Coyote Leads a Crowd on a Central Park Marathon. New York

Times, March 23, 2006. LexisNexis Academic.

Barron, James and Karen Zraick. TriBeCa Coyote Captured! New York Times,

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Wisconsin Press 1987.

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Colangelo, Lisa l. Alison Gendar and Corky Siemaszko. Coyote Finally Is

Outfoxed. Cops Get Runaround. The Daily News, Mar 23, 2006.

LexisNexis Academic.

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Wildlife Damage Management Working Group of the Wildlife Society.)

303-311.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu.

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Alpha At His Zoo Home. New York Times, March 19, 2000. LexisNexis

Academic.

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Callicott, 266-73. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.

---. Conservation Ethic. Ibid. 181-192.

---.Means and Ends in Wild Life Management. Ibid. 235-238.

---. The Varmint Question. Ibid. 47-48.
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---. Threatened Species Ibid. 232-238.

---. Land Pathology. Ibid.

Lopez, Barry. Of Wolves and Men. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995.

Mech, David L . The Wolf. Minneapolis, MN: U of Minneapolis Press, 1995.

Minora, Leslie. New York's Wild Kingdom Is Going Batshit: Child-Eating

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http://www.villagevoice.com.

Mahoney, Joe and Lisa L. Colangelo. Stress Killed Coyote Too Much Handling,

Worms Are Blamed. Daily News, April 8, 2006. LexisNexis Academic.

Nash , Roderick Frazier, Wilderness and the American Mind. New Haven, CT:

Yale UP, 2001.

New York Times. Coyotes Ear to be Piece De Resistance at Dinner to Game

Warden Who Lost Bet. Jan 28, 1934. ProQuest Historical Newspapers

(101077814).

Olmstead, Frederick Law. The Plan For the Park. In Empire City: New York

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Parker, Gerry. Eastern Coyote. Halifax, N.S: Nimbus Publishing, 1995.


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