Gaynes School

History Department

Russia Revision Guide

Problems with ruling Russia

The Russian Empire covered 22.3 million Sq Kilometres

Communications were difficult

Roads were unpaved

Railways only connected small areas

1897 – terrible inequality existed in Russia

Over half of Peasants had no land or homes

Farmland was of poor quality

Farming was old fashioned and ineffective

Population was rising – food shortages were common

125.6 million people lived in Russia – most of the land/wealth/and all

power belonged to only 1 million people.

Only 55 million people spoke Russian! Over half the population were living

in a country where they could not understand the main language.

Hundreds of different nationalities tried to co-exist

Everyone was expected to conform to Russian ways – this process was

called “Russification”

Urban Problems

Moscow – pop. 1.8 million was the most industrialised city

50% of Factory workers worked there

City life was hard – work was hard to find, long hours, low pay, and

dangerous conditions existed.

Factory owners – good lifestyle, large profits.

The Tsarist System – Autocracy

From 1613 – The Tsar had been a member of the Romanov Family

The Tsar made ALL the decisions – he was advised by a Council of

Ministers, who he chose from his friends in the Nobility. He insisted on

reading every decree personally, which could delay decisions for months.

The Tsar was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church:

The Church allowed the belief that the Tsar was above criticism

The Church claimed the Tsar was chosen to rule by God

People should always obey the Tsar and his Ministers

The Tsar was supported by nobles, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the

Peasants – but the Tsar's right to rule was being questioned by modern

elements in society.

1894: Nicholas II became Tsar

N II – weak and indecisive.

Claimed “I am not ready to become Tsar -I know nothing about the

business of ruling.”

He did not consider Russia's problems:

Books and newspapers were censored to make sure they were not hostile

The Okhrana were the Secret Police – they looked for enemies of the

Tsar. They also occasionally arrested each other by accident!!

If you were an enemy, you were exiled to Siberia!

1905 Revolution

1905 – a series of demonstrations and strikes occurred against how

Russia was being run.

St Petersburg – Troops guarding the Tsar's Winter Palace fired into a

crowd of peaceful demonstrators. 130 were killed.

More strikes and unrest followed.

St Petersburg strikers formed a Soviet – a Workers' Council to organise

strikes. This became known as the Petrograd Soviet.

The result: Work in cities stopped; Soviets were organised in more towns

and cities. Soviets took over in some places – and replaced the Tsar's

Government.

The Duma

Nicholas II set up a Duma – a Parliament with 2 Houses.

One was elected by the people, to advise him.

He agreed Trade Unions and political parties could be set up.

People could hold meetings and discuss politics openly.

BUT – Nicholas II did not want to share power!!

He still believed it was his right to rule alone – and changed the voting

system so people elected to the Duma would agree with him and not

demand reforms.

Opposition to the Tsar

Three main groups had formed:

Monarchists: Supported the Tsar, and wanted him to rule alone with the

advice of a few nobles.

Constitutionalists: Wanted the Tsar's power limited by a Constitution

and a form of Parliament. The most important groups were the

Constitutional Democratic Party (AKA The Kadets); The Octobrists; and

the Progressists.

Revolutionaries: They wanted the Tsar overthrown. Social

Revolutionaries were the largest group – they wanted a revolution led by

the Peasants.

The Social Democrats wanted a revolution led by the town workers.

By 1917- Social Democrats had divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

A Step Backwards?

The Tsar began to reduce the Duma's voting rights – and then stopped

calling it.

Political Parties and Trade Unions had their meetings broken up by the

Secret Police. Leaders went to prison or were exiled.

St Petersburg Soviet stopped meeting.

The Impact of the First World War

WWI was a turning point for the Tsar and for Russia.

At first – going to war was popular. Russia was part of the Triple Entente

with France and Great Britain.

Problems in the War

Russia was at a disadvantage – poor transport system, inefficient

industry and agriculture.

The Army was badly trained and ill-equipped

Some soldiers had no rifle – they picked one up when one of their

comrades were shot!

The Battle of Tannenberg: Major battle between Russia and Germany in

the first month of WWI. It was fought between 26-30 August 1914.

It resulted in the destruction of the Russian Second Army. The

Commanding General, Alexander Samsonov, committed suicide as a

consequence.

First Battle of the Masurian Lakes: The Germans pushed the Russian

Army back across its entire front, ejecting it from Germany.

The Russian Army had suffered a crushing defeat.

By 1915, the Russian Army had lost over 2 million men – either killed,

wounded, or taken prisoner.

Large parts of Four Provinces had also gone – including a major coal

mining district.

August 1915: The Tsar appointed himself Commander-in-chief of the

Army – this meant the Army's defeat would be seen as his personal

failure.

Rise of Rasputin

With the Tsar at war, he left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in charge of

Russia as his Deputy.

The Tsarina was German and not popular with the people. She was

referred to by some as “the German Whore”. Some suggested that due

to her birth, she was secretly in league with the enemy.

Rasputin, born a peasant, was an insane and corrupt monk, who claimed to

have powers of healing. He had won favour with the Tsarina by promising

to heal her sickly son, Alexei. (Heir to the throne).

The Tsarina and Rasuptin advised the Tsar in military strategies – and

dominated the Holy Synod.

Nobles who had supported the monarchy were humiliated by this.

The people felt betrayed- who was actually in charge of Russia?

Impact of WWI

The war had exacerbated Russia's social and economic problems by 1917:

Over 15 million were in the army – mostly through Conscription (having to

join rather than deciding to join.)

The conscription of peasants and factory workers meant increased food

shortages and falling factory production.

The Army also needed horses – farmers could no longer plough and

transport began to fail further.

Fertiliser production collapsed as the factories moved to war work – this

made farming even more difficult!

Cities now had chronic food shortages – and 6 million extra people had

moved there to work as part of the war effort.

Inflation – major problem during the war that cancelled out wage

increases. In October 1916 the Petrograd Security Police reported that

'While the wages of the masses have risen 50 per cent, and only in

certain categories 100 to 200 per cent (metal workers, machinists,

electricians), the prices on all products have increased 100 to 500 per

cent.'

Transport – Transport was poor and badly maintained before WWI.

During the war, it was needed to move the army – and simply could not

cope with the daily demands as well.

Ready to Revolt?

People who suffered most – workers in the Northern Cities.

1914-16: Food supplies fell by 25%; Infant Mortality doubled.

1917 – Crime rate in the cities had TRIPLED!!

Leaders of the Soviets began to hold more meetings – they blamed

shortages and conditions on Government incompetence.

The Tsar was no longer receiving automatic respect or loyalty. This

meant a revolt could now happen.

February 1917 Revolution

Petrograd – Very cold for the first few months!

Too cold for trains to run – people would queue for bread only to find

there was no fuel or flour for bakers to bake!

Strikes and riots became prevalent in cities.

Key dates of events that led to the Revolution:

19 February – Government officials announced bread rationing would

start on 1 March

21 February – managers of the Putilov Works locked out some workers –

this led to a spreading strike.

23 February – International Women's Day – large groups of women

marched to demand equal rights.

This led to marches against bread shortages – the police and troops could

not stop them.

24th February – 150,000 workers took to the streets armed with metal

bars/tools

A mass protest was held – demonstrations spread as the day wore on.

No arrests were made – skilled workers/shopkeepers/office workers

began to join them.

25th February – 200,000 took to the streets.

Banners were waved - “Down with the Tsar!”

The Tsar – sent a telegram ordering the Petrograd troops to “put down

the disorders by tomorrow”.

26th February – troops were ordered to fire at demonstrators.

This was a turning point – some refused, and joined with the protestors!

Others fired – the following day they refused to leave the Petrograd

barracks, and shot their commanding officer.

They then joined the people – this turned unrest into revolution.

No one was prepared for this – certainly not the Tsar!

The Army – brought weapons – organised the workers.

Soldiers and workers fought together – they captured the main weapons

store.

They also fought the police – they had stayed loyal to the Government

27-28 February – the prisons were stormed

The Duma had a choice – support the Tsar or the revolt?

A new Government

27 February – the Duma had an opportunity to take control

Revolution was spreading to other towns and cities

The Duma met in one part of the Tauride Palace – the Petrograd Soviet

met in another part.

2 March – agreement was made that a Provisional Government would be

set up to “unofficially” run things.

PG would be supported by the Petrograd Soviet as long as it worked to 8

principles, which were:

1. Political prisoners/exiles to be freed or allowed to return to Russia

2. Freedom of speech, press, and to hold meetings

3. No class, religious, or nationality discrimination

4. Preparations to begin for electing a Constituent Assembly to write

a constitution.

5. All police organisations to be replaced by an elected people'ss

militia

6. Local government to be elected

7. Military units that took part in the revolution should not be

disbanded or sent to the front to fight

8. Off duty soldiers to have the same rights as civilians

Petrograd Soviet issued Order no 1 to the army in Petrograd. This

stated that the army must obey the Provisional Government, “except

where the orders contradict those of the Petrograd Soviet.”

Abdication of the Tsar

The Tsar did return to Petrograd – too little, too late!

His advisers suggested it would be better for him to abdicate than to try

and work with the Duma. He did not even make it to St Petersburg.

He did abdicate in favour of his brother – Michael. Michael refused to be

crowned, Nicholas was taken prisoner.

Causes of the February Revolution

The First World War – conscription and the pressures it put on the

population

Food shortages and transport issues

The Tsarina and Rasputin – who was actually running the country?

The Tsar’s behaviour – by choosing to become leader of the Army, he

made himself personally responsible for the army’s failings.

Think about what other factors caused this – try drawing them in a mind

map and linking them.

The Provisional Government

At first – popular

People had high expectations of the PG, which included:

Taking Russia out of the war

Providing more effective Government

Improving working conditions in towns/cities

Solving shortage problems

Redistributing property more equally

The PG's problems

It only considered itself to be temporary

It had no real power – it was dependent on the support of the Army and

the Petrograd Soviet to stay in power

Many reforms relied on the PG controlling more of Russia than it did. It

only had control over towns/cities in the NORTH of Russia.

The shortages were not easy to solve – and the unrest//disruption made

the supply situation worse.

The PG sent more troops to the front as it felt it could not desert

Russia's allies in WW1.

But – it did have several achievements:

It made an 8 hour working day legal

People could hold public meetings

Political parties could form.

Political prisoners had been released

However – giving people these freedoms meant they could criticise what

the Provisional Government had done.

Growth of Bolshevik Power

Revolutionaries returned to Russia after the Tsar was overthrown. Lenin

was one.

Lenin – Marxist, who believed in the following cycle:

Feudalism – Bourgeouis Revolution – Socialism – Communism

Lenin had a list of aims for the Bolsheviks – the April Theses.

He believed the Provisional Government was the result of the Bourgeois

Revolution and the Bolsheviks had to work for the workers' revolution.

Lenin's key point was that they should work against the PG – not co-

operate with it!

He also argued Russia needed to leave WWI

Provisional Government – the first did not last.

5 May 1917 – Second PG – had members from all the main political groups

except the Bolsheviks.

Bolsheviks began to gain support – people of Petrograd now believed they

were the only real supporters of change/leaving the war.

March 1917 – PG had introduced bread rationing.

War was still draining resources

Transport was still crippled due to the war

June 1917 – Another failed offensive was launched by generals

Autumn 1917 – 2 million soldiers had deserted the war.

Bolsheviks – capitalised on these problems:

Lenin – gave speeches – used simple slogans: “Peace, Bread, Land” and “All

Power to the Soviets”

June 1917 – 41 newspapers were circulating in major cities, criticising the

PG.

Red Guards of armed workers – these were set up by the Bolsheviks. By

July, there were 10,000 in Petrograd.

Lenin had a major problem – the PG was so unpopular that there was a

fear workers would rise against it before the Bolsheviks were fully

prepared.

The July Days:

July 1917 – another planned uprising occurred in Petrograd.

This was the people's reaction to the war – to bread shortages, rationing,

and a lack of reforms.

July uprising – smaller than February, but people were chanting Bolshevik

slogans.

PG – did what the Tsar did – sent in the troops.

Trotsky and other leaders were arrested. Lenin escaped and went into

hiding.

Third Provisional Government

PG reformed again – this time led by Alexander Kerensky – only member

who had been both in the Duma and Petrograd Soviet. He took three

weeks to choose a Government.

Lavr Kornilov- an anti-Revolution general was chosen to command the

army.

New PG – set out reforms of industry and land ownership to start before

the November elections.

Workers became less annoyed – but landowners/business owners were

not pleased.

Countryside – the peasants were beginning to rise up and take the

landowners' land/food supplies

Bolsheviks – still building support – but were worried about a counter-

revolution from those who wanted the Tsar to come back on the throne.

Kornilov's revolt

28 August – Kornilov acted

Disturbed by unrest in towns and countryside, Kornilov pushed Kerensky

to impose martial law and break the power of the soviets.

Kerensky – did he want the support of Kornilov or the Soviets?

He pushed Kornilov to advance on Petrograd – then he claimed that

Kornilov was leading a coup against the Revolution! Kerensky armed the

Bolshevik Red Guards and sent them to stop him.

Kornilov and troops were persuaded to stop – but Kornilov and 7,000

followers were arrested.

Kerensky – tried to claim he had saved the revolution – but this failed.

He became less popular – the Bolsheviks were now seen as the saviours of

the Revolution instead.

31 August – Petrograd Soviet election – Bolsheviks won the most seats

Many workers now believed the Bolsheviks were the party of the people.

Bolshevik Takeover and Consolidation of Power – 1917 – 1924

October Revolution

10 October – Lenin had secretly returned from exile in Finland

22 October – the Provisional Government could not control the growing

violence in the cities – German troops were almost in Petrograd.

Kerensky – advised by the generals to give up. Kerensky did nothing. He

believed the openness of the revolutionaries meant the revolution would

not happen!!

24 – 26 October – The Bolsheviks took control of Petrograd, through a

plan devised by Leo Trotsky.

Taking control:

Lenin announced elections for a new Constituent Assembly would take

place in November.

A new group – the Council of People's Commissars would rule until then by

decree

Congress of Soviets elected a new group – the Central Executive

Committee – but this was also Bolshevik controlled

25 October – Those who disagreed with the Bolsheviks had walked out –

the CPC approved by what was left of Congress, had elected approval.

The Bolsheviks – why did they win?

Several key reasons for the B's success!

1. Lenin insisted the revolution was only Bolshevik led- and not shared

with several parties

2. Provisional Government – failed to disarm the Red Guard after they

defeated Kornilov

3. PG – failed to judge the threat correctly – did not think the

Bolsheviks were a danger.

4. The PG made no social reforms, and allowed Russia to stay in

WWI – this only succeeded in alienating the people futher.

5. Trotsky – he organised the takeover exceptionally well.

Trotsky's plan – he took over the telephone and telegraph offices, and

railway stations – the PG could not get help. He also organised the Red

Guard and army/navy volunteers to work together carefully.

The Bolsheviks proved their leadership was decisive – the PG failed to do

this.

Imposing Control

25 October – Lenin said elections for the Constituent Assembly weree to

go ahead on 12 November. The CPC passed several important decrees:

1. Capital punishment – abolished

2. Power in the towns and countryside was given to local soviets

3. Peace Decree – demanded all nations negotiate at once for peace.

(Lenin was determined to pull Russia out of the war)

4. Land decree – all land owned by the Tsar/church/landowners was

taken and given to the peasantry. This immediately made the Bs

popular with the Peasants!

5. The Workers' Decree – the CPC announced this would give the

workers control over the factories and an 8 hour day.

Decrees were hard to enforce

Counter- revolutionary groups had started.

Trotsky wanted to work with other groups – Lenin wanted complete

control.

12 November – results were a shock – Bolsheviks gained 175 seats – but

the Socialist Revolutionary party gained 370!

Brest-Litovsk Treaty

Lenin wanted to pull Russia out of the war – the Germans demanded a

high price.

22 December 1917 – Treaty of Brest Litovsk signed.

Russia gave Germany: 80% of its coalmines; 50% of its industry; 26% of

its railways; 26% of its people; 27% of its farmland.

This infuriated many Bolsheviks – Lenin had to sign it, as he knew they

could not afford to fight a Civil war and the World War!!

5 January 1918 – Constituent Assembly met – argued against Bolshevik

reforms – would not pass them as laws.

Lenin – sent people away using the Red Guard – Lenin and the CPC were

now in charge, but with many enemies.

Civil War

War began between Bolsheviks and the groups who wanted to run Russia

themselves. They were called the Whites.

Whites – consisted of:

Kerensky and his troops

Kornilov and the Volunteer Army who wanted the Tsar to return

Russia's WWI allies – Britain, France, Japan, USA

Kolchak – former Naval Commander who took control in Siberia and

organised attacks against the Bolsheviks

Czech Legion – 40,000 Czech soldiers who had been in the Tsar's army

At first, the Whites had more troops, money, and supplies - and foreign

assistance.

28 January – Trotsky became the people's Commissar for War – set up

the Red Army

Key events of the Civil War:

12 March 1918 – Bolsheviks moved the capital to Moscow

Whites seems most likely to win through organising advance attacks on

Moscow

22 October 1918 – White armies were on the outskirts of Petrograd

Trotsky organised a counter attack

Early Nov 1919 – the Allies gave up sending men/supplies – whites were

spread too thinly to win.

Troops began to desert to the Red Army – Czech Legion went home!!

April 1920 – Red Army drove a Polish attack back into Poland – failed to

start a Communist Revolution there.

Bolsheviks had won the Civil War – and preserved the Revolution.

Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War?

War Communism – the Bolsheviks took control of all food supplies and

distributed it, and also took over factories.

They enlarged the Red Army

They used the Cheka – the Secret Police – to clamp down on political

opposition and to make arrests – this was known as the Red Terror.

Patriotic Russians backed the Reds – the Whites were supported by

foreign troops - who withdrew support when it became clear the Reds

would win.

The Bolsheviks controlled communications and transport

The Whites had no shared plan other than to get rid of the Bolsheviks

The Red Army were in the “interior lines and at the centre and therefore

Trotsky could move men around more quickly.

Trotsky was an inspiring leader – gave speeches, tobacco, and other

luxuries. Even threatened and executed those leaders who he doubted

the loyalty of.

Impact of the Civil War:

Russia was devastated by the Civil War – the country had been at war

since 1914. Effects of this were:

Shortages of food and fuel

Army casualties

Loss of workers in towns

Damaged land, property, road and rail links and telgraph lines

Civilian casualties

Skilled workers/professionals had left the country to live and work

somewhere safer

Bolsheviks – lost support. War Communism and Red Terror alienated

people.

No peace, land or bread!!

The Civil War had given the Bolsheviks experience of ruling – but on

military lines. They were now used to giving and enforcing orders with

violence if necessary.

1920 – things reached their lowest point:

Peasants – hiding food/animals and planting less

Loss of farmland/effects of war/reduced planting – crop production was

only 37% of production in 1913.

Prices – risen too rapidly – money was now almost worthless

Drought – this dried up crops – people starved.

Civil War – people were beginning to feel it had made things worse.

The Bolsheviks had to try and re-build a new Society – they changed

their party name to the Communist Party in 1918.

1918 – Russia became the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic

1922 – Russia became the Soviet Union.

Constitution 10 July 1918 – new system of Government set out.

All workers could vote – if you made a living out of others work you

couldn't!

Local Soviets elected deputies to the Congress of Soviets

The Congress chose the Central Executive Committee – this chose the

Council of People's Commissars – these people ran the 18 Ministries that

ran the country

CPC made laws – needed approval of the CEC and Congress of Soviets

December 1920 – Constitution was changed to let the CPC pass laws

without approval.

The Constitution stated that:

All land and all business with 10 workers or more – belonged to the State

Everything must be run for the people's benefit

Free speech, and free press were given – and free education and medical

care were promised.

But this was only theory – Russia could not implement this in practice!

The Civil War had meant measures taken that did not fit these beliefs:

High levels of State control were imposed

Workers' committees were suppressed

Executions were used

The Army and Cheka were used to control political opposition.

1921 – Turning Point

This was a year of crisis – by 1920 farm production was 37% of 1913

levels.

Food shortages turned into famine – this led to starvation and even

cannibalism!

Industries were producing NO consumer goods – riots and strikes were

erupting.

Kronstadt Mutiny

Kronstadt – Naval base near Petrograd – the sailors had sided with the

revolutionaries

March 1921 – they called for a “third Revolution” and mutinied

They made the following demands:

Re-election of all soviets by secret ballot

freedom of speech for workers/peasants/revolutionary political parties

freedom for all political prisoners

end of the Red Terror

Free trade unions

freedom for the peasants to farm how they wanted

They thought they were being true to the 1917 Revolution – they were

crushed by the Red Army.

War Communism – turned into the New Economic Policy

NEP:

Move from Communism back towards Capitalism! This was a major change

of Lenin's policy – consider why it changed!

Money was re-introduced

State stopped taking crops from the peasants – they could see food if

they liked as a profit – but had to pay the state 10% of the profit in tax

The state kept control of big industries – factories with under 20

workers could be privately owned and run for profit.

Experts could be brought in to run factories!

Anyone could open a shop to sell or hire goods for a profit – they became

known as NEPmen!

Did the NEP work?

It did revive farming and industry

Return to using money re-built confidence – small scale trading helped

the economy

Lenin – poor health from 1920 onwards

Died – 21 January 1924

He died from several strokes – was seen as a hero by many Russians

Petrograd – renamed Leningrad in his honour

Russia under Stalin – 1924 – 39

Leadership Contest

2 main candidates – Trotsky and Stalin

Different characters and views – fears the party would split!

Lenin named the Politburo to take over – 7 members were involved.

Trotsky – Stalin – Rykov were also in the CPC. They competed for power.

Stalin – strengths: ambitious; felt the Soviet Union was backward in

agriculture and industry; he believed the SU needed to modernise quickly

to protect itself from Western Capitalism.

He was charming – had a quick temper. Suspicious mind!

Clever – excellent organiser and planner. Member of the Politburo by

1922 and General Secretary of the Communist Party.

He kept close to Lenin in Moscow.

Trotsky – more popular than Stalin.

Stalin began to try and discredit him – possibly lied to stop Trotsky

attending Lenin's funeral! He stopped Lenin's Testament being read to

the Congress of Soviets.

Trotsky was removed – he criticised Lenin and the NEP in 1924. By 1927

he was expelled from the Communist Party – 1928 exiled to Kazakhstan -

1929 – exiled from the Soviet Union.

Stalin pushed Zinoviev and Kamanev out – both were expelled in 1926 and

1927 respectively.

1928 – Stalin was leader of the Party and USSR.

The Police State, Purges, and Terror

1922 – the Cheka was reformed as the GPU (State Political

Administration) – then as the OGPU - Unified State Political

Administration.

Elements of terror were in place when Stalin took over – did he exploit

these and make it worse?

OGPU: dealt with “political” crimes

Could arrest anyone

Torture people for information

Put people in camps

Organise stitch-up trials

Could look for evidence of sabotage by anti-Communists

Prison Camps

These were isolated in the countryside

1920 – 250,000 prisoners had been sent to these camps – prisoners were

used as cheap labour

Climate of Fear

Cheka – intended their methods to scare people – exacerbated under

Stalin.

Stalin – expanded the OGPU's powers – people were encouraged to

inform on anybody including friends and family

1928 – 30,000 people were in camps

1938 – 7 MILLION people were in camps!!!

Gulag – Department that ran them. Name soon applied to the camps!

The Purges

1934 – Stalin feared opposition to himself and the state – began to move

to get rid of those who he believed were enemies.

Those purged – either executed, exiled, or moved to Labour camps.

Part of this was due to changes Stalin had made to raise productivity in

industry and farming – if there were failures, the State thought this was

political sabotage – not incompetence! Purges were used to “correct” this!

1936 – 38 – The Great Terror – purges were worse at this this point!

OGPU purged: The Politburo – The Communist Party – teachers –

engineers, scientists, industrial workers – armed forces – secret police!

1939 – purges moved to the local level, including schools and colleges, and

local party.

The Trials

Show trials were a key part of Stalin's dictatorship. They were designed

to show the population that any disagreement would not be tolerated, and

people would find themselves treated harshly and in public!

How did they begin?

1934 – Kirov – Politburo member – murdered on possibly Stalin's orders.

1936 – Show Trials began – 16 “Old Bolsheviks” (those who had been

leaders of the 1917 Revolution – were tried for treason and Kirov's

assassination.

40,000 suspects were arrested for trial by the OGPU – the trials only

lasted a few minutes – all were found guilty!

Some were shot – others sent to the Gulag (camps)

Why were the trials important?

The trials provided justification for removing those who disagreed with

Stalin - the people could see that these individuals were guilty.

The accused usually confessed – this gave justification for their deaths

The trials implied that the Revolution was in danger from elements within

the Soviet Union – people were more likely to unite behind Stalin to

protect it.

The trials also made people scared – people were less likely to be critical

or complain about Stalin's regime.

The effect of the purges/Show Trials:

After 1938 – Purges slowed. But they had long term consequences:

Atmosphere of fear and mistrust created – no one knew who to trust –

this led to enforced obedience and also resentment

People's trust in the justice system was destroyed

A million people died

7 million people were sent to prison

The State lost useful people at all levels: 1 million of 3 million party

members were lost;

93 of the 139 Central Committee members

13 of the top 15 generals in the Red Army

The State lost a lot of skilled workers – this reduced factory production

Stalin had created a government/party almost completely loyal to him –

this meant the country was weaker as a result.

Propaganda

The combination of show trials, propaganda, and purges all assisted Stalin

in keeping control over the Soviet Union. You need to decide which factor

had the biggest or least impact in achieving this!

Propaganda – using information to push people to behave/think in a

particular way.

Stalin's motives for using propaganda:

Turn people against his enemies

Get people to accept his decisions

Get people to accept/put up with hardships

Get people to work harder

To build “the Cult of Stalin”

Propaganda took several forms – radio, newspapers, books, songs, poems,

films.

Each new policy had its own propaganda campaign to accompany it!

Foreign visitors – had to travel under state supervision – taken to show

homes to give the belief that workers had better lives than they actually

did!

Education – very important tool!!

Bolsheviks did provide free education – they wanted to erase the high

levels of illiteracy in the Soviet Union.

Stalin – used schools to spread propaganda

Textbooks – full of propaganda

Teachers – purged if they did not teach the acceptable party line

History – altered according to Stalin's view

Children – encouraged to denounce those family members who were seen

as anti-Stalinist

Cult of Lenin to Cult of Stalin

Stalin did not discredit Lenin after the other man's death – he built up a

Cult of Lenin, making him seem more important.

Cult of Stalin

Stalin – everywhere in the Soviet Unio

Papers – posters – articles

He was visible

People wrote to him asking for help!

1936 Constitution

Stalin set up a new Constitution – praised as “most democratic system in

the world”

Historians consider it to be mostly propaganda

Supreme Soviet – composed of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of

Nationalities now ran the country

Everyone could vote and voted directly for representatives

Everyone was guaranteed the right to work, the right to education, and

right to healthcare

Local laws of 15 republics – as important as “national laws” from Moscow

Supreme Soviet – only met for a few days each year

Politburo – still had the real power

The Communist Party was still the only real party!

State controlled officials chose all the candidates for elections – people

were going to choose someone approved of by the State

Freedoms from arrest without a proper trial – ignored in the interest of

national security

Official Culture

Stalin – wanted a culture of “social realism” - everyone should understand

everything, and it should be available to everyone.

Education – he thought this was important.

He did not like “high” culture – art, poetry, music, and writing had to be

patriotic and deliver a simple message only.

Culture was now part of the propaganda system. Censorship was rife of

what could and could not be printed or published.

If you wrote poetry or music that did not fit in with Stalin's view you

were an “enemy of the people”.

Stalin had his own favourite painters/writers/singers

His favourites could fall into disfavour at any time – Sergei Eisenstein, a

film maker, was an example of this.

The past was also censored – books, photos, and documents were

destroyed.

Photos were also censored with people who had fallen out of favour with

Stalin being removed, or whose role in the revolution he wanted to

discredit.

Censorship – acted as a warning to would- be opponents

Economic and Social Changes - 1928-39

Change was needed – Stalin wanted to push the Soviet Union away from

NEP policies towards Communism.

He wanted the USSR to compete with the West – become self-sufficient

– defend itself against attempts to destroy Communism.

2 major changes to achieve this – Collectivisation and industrialisation

Collectivisation

Stalin – needed the peasants to produce more food – so workers in towns

had enough to eat – and to export grain to make money for industry

He disliked the Kulaks – rich peasants he saw as the enemy of Communism

He wanted to move farming from small peasant owned farms to large

modern collective farms would solve all his problems – this would destroy

the Kulaks and increase food production.

Collective farms – 2 types:

Sovkozy – large, state farms run by a manager

Kolkhozy – run by committes of peasants

Both had to farm how they were told by the Commissariat of Agriculture

Land belonged to the state – peasants had to meet production tagets for

crops

They told the state what their collective needed to feed people and have

seed for the next year – approved by the State

Peasants could not leave to work in towns – organised into brigades of

families

Hours and jobs – set by the state

Seed and equipment were provided by the state

1935 – Peasants got an acre of land to farm themselves

It was variable of how much the state provided.

Objections and the Kulaks

Most peasants were opposed to collectivisation

They disliked being told what to do, what animals to breed, and what to

grow

They did not want set hours or fines

The kulaks objected the most – they had made a profit under the NEP

Officials – wanted to believe that the peasants supported the state, and

therefore the kulaks were the real problem!

Kulaks – were often the most organised and educated in a village – and

were seen as leaders. Some kulaks were feared and hated – but in most

villages, Kulaks and Peasants worked well together.

Resistance:

Many villages did not join a Kolkhoz.

They carried on with previous farming methods – and did not feel they

should produce food to feed industrial workers.

1928 – the state began to enforce Collectivisation.

Peasants – killed animals – hid seed, crops, and tools – some burned their

homes.

1929-33 – Over half the pigs and a quarter of the cows in the country

were slaughtered.

Stalin's reaction:

He sent official to find hidden tools/crops/meat – if they failed he sent

the army.

Kulaks were purged – between 1930-31 about 600,000 farms were “de

kulakised”

1932 onwards – any peasant who did not join a farm was seen as a kulak.

If you resisted arrest, you were shot. Many did not survive the journeys

to the camps.

Failures of Collectivisation

1932-33 – Famine – 3 million people starved

Peasants were resentful of collectivisation - worked to rule!!

Machinery was damaged – deliberately or accidentally through misue

1935 – the state introduced a Kolkhoz charter that allowed peasants an

acre of land for crops and to keep cows and pigs.

Machinery was often made badly and not fixed properly by unskilled

workers. MT Stations could not really cope.

Successes of Collectivisation

1935 – 90% of farmland was collectivised

More young people went to agriculture school – learned how to farm more

effectively and efficiently

Fall in grain production and numbers of animals began to recover

1934 – rationing of bread ended – state control of food was a lot easier

State could distribute surplus grain stocks and exported grain to buy

imports needed for industrialisation.

Industrialisation and the Five Year Plans

Gosplan – the State Planning Committee – was set up in 1921

1928 – Gosplan organised “Five Year Plans” for industry

Command Economy – the state decided what was to be produced, where,

when, and who was producing it.

Five Year Plans – set targets – each factory/mine/electricity plant had

its own set of targets and these were reviewed regularly.

First focus Heavy industry – building factories and industrial towns – this

brought a lot of propaganda in to encourage and convince workers.

1928-32 - 1st Five Year Plan:

Targets set for coal, iron, steel, electricity and oil.

End of 1929 – posters were urging workers to complete it in four years.

And they did according to official statistics – but the actual targets

were not met until the late 1940s.

1933-37: 2nd Five Year Plan

Began early – targeted same industries as the first plan set high targets

for tractors and combine harvesters – and extending the railways. It met

its targets

1938-41 – 3rd Five Year Plan

Luxury consumer items – radios/bikes

Interrupted by the Soviet Union joining WWII in 1941.

The Stakhanovite Movement

Alexei Stakhanov became famous during the second Five Year Plan. He

was a coal miner.

In one shift he mined 102 tons in a 6 hour shift – Gosplan encouraged

other workers to copy him and do more than their original target.

Stakhanov had done preparation before and other workers had assisted

him!

Stakhanovite groups were set up over the country-regular competitions

held to see who could hit the highest production targets. The

Stakhanovite workers were sent into factories to explain new techniques

and encourage production, in a move to mass production.

Workers who did follow the Stakhanovite example got better rations,

better housing, and rewards – this caused its own problems.

Achievements:

Propaganda was used to exaggerate the rate of industrialisation and to

push workers to make better efforts.

But – the Soviet Union still achieved a great deal by 1930.

It repeled the German invasion in 1941.

Unemployment dropped sharply – higher standard of living for most

people.

By 1939 – 56 million people were living in towns and cities with paved

roads, electricity, brick houses, and drains. A decade earlier it was only

26 million!

Problems

Workers were aiming for high production – not good quality work

Shortages of material and goods meant some people took bribes and a

black market

Many workers – not properly trained

Factories did not have many safety features

Pollution from factories

Solving problems was difficult – bureacracy was slow and inefficient

Life in the Soviet Union

1939 – new society was emerging – was life more equal by this point?

Society – not all equal – a huge state bureacracy existed – most party

officials had a better standard of living than the workers.

Stalin lived rather like the Tsar – he had a group of officials that were

his favourites and had extra privileges.

Groups of workers – people were either in favour with the state or not.

Those in favour got rewards – tickets to concerts, days off, extra food,

better jobs.

Those not in favour got poorer housing and less social rights.

At worst – became enemies of the people – sent to camps or regions of

Kazakhstan.

Ethnicity

Stalinist propaganda encouraged the equality of the republics of the

Soviet Union.

State encouraged Russification – a dominant Russian culture.

March 1938 – Russian became a compulsory second language in all schools

But Russification was patchy and most strictly enforced among groups

seen as most likely to resist.

Religions

Atheism was encouraged – religion was scorned – people weere deported

simply for their religious beliefs!!

1940 – number of churches had dropped from 54, 000 to 500.

Role of Women

Bolsheviks introduced several reforms benefiting women:

Non-church marriage was approved

Divorce was made simpler

Women had voting rights equal to men

Equal pay for equal work

Equal educational opportunities

But – these were not enforced – 1928 – under 3 million women were

working, mostly in farming or as domestic servants.

1940 – 13 million women were working, in all types of industries!

Managers were predominantly male.

The state needed women to work as a necessity – so the state had to

help women to work and also run homes. Free childcare was provided until

kids could go to school, and canteens were set up for parents and

children at work and school.

But – the state did not provide enough – long waiting lists. Factory

nurseries were badly over crowded.

Living and Working Conditions

New towns – workers had housing better than previously.

But most workers only had one room and shared a kitchen

1939 – 4.3 sq m was the average living space. Officials got more.

1928 – most factories had only one state manager – some foreign workers

were deported.

State stopped free trade unions.

Managers could sack workers and set wages without any agreement.

Workers usually worked five days for a 6-7 jour shift

1934 – workers were paid by the amount they produced – no set wages –

the rewards system encouraged production.

A work passport system was set up – workers could move looking for

better jobs. But these were widely forged – 1937 30% of workers were

changing their jobs every 3 months!