PearsonEdexcel AS and A Levelin History

TOPIC BOOKLETRoute B: Religion and the state in early modern Europe

Route B: Religion and the state in early modern Europe

This topic booklet has been written to support teachers delivering Route B of the 2015 AS and A level History specifications. We’re providing it in Word so that it’s easy for you to take extracts or sections from it and adapt them or give them to students. For the route as a whole and for each topic within it, we’ve provided an overview which helps to provide contextual background and explain why we think these are fascinating topics to study. These overviews could be used, for example, in open evening materials or be given to students at the start of the course. You’ll also find a student timeline, which can be given to students for them to add to and adapt, a list of resources for students and for teachers, and – where possible – information about overlap between these topics and the 2008 specification. For more detail about planning, look out for the Getting Started guide, Course planner and schemes of work.

ContentsRoute B: Religion and the state in early modern Europe 1Religion and the state in early modern Europe 1

Overview 1Paper 1, Option 1B England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion 2

Overview 2Content guidance 3

Themes 3Historical interpretations: Was there a general crisis of government in the last years of Elizabeth I’s reign, 1589–1603? 4

Overlap with the 2008 specification 4Resources and references 5

Was there a general crisis of government in the last years of Elizabeth I’s reign, 1589–1603? 10

Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55 13

Overview 13Content guidance 14Mapping to 2008 specification 16Resources and references 20

Paper 2, Option 2B.2: The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609 24Overview 24Content guidance 25Mapping to 2008 specification 26Resources and references 30

Student timelines 331B: England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion with 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55 331B: England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion with 2B.2: The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609 36

Religion and the state in early modern Europe

Religion and the state in early modern Europe

OverviewThe options in Route B are linked by the twin themes of religion and the state. The religious unity of medieval Christendom disintegrated during the sixteenth century, with repercussions for the centuries that followed. It was also a time when the authority of the secular state evolved throughout Europe, and would lead England, the Netherlands and the German states down very different paths.Changes in religion and the state were intertwined in the sixteenth century. While England and Scotland were powers we would recognise today, English control over Ireland was not fully established. France was still in the process of expanding to her present-day boundaries, while Spain was only partially united by the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. Central Europe was a patchwork of states stretching from the Baltic to the Mediterranean: Germany and Italy would be unified only in the nineteenth century. The great unifying power in 1500 was the Catholic Church, ruled from Rome by the Papacy but mired in corruption. Many clergy ignored their duties to their parishioners, and bishops were more concerned with their secular power than their religious concerns. The Papacy itself was hopelessly corrupt, with the Spanish Borgias only the most well-known examples of vice and immorality. When Luther visited Rome in 1510 he was shocked by the prevalence of debauchery and sexual immorality, and this would influence his thinking in later years.There had been many critics of the church before 1500, but papal power had proved too strong to make their opposition effective. When Luther made public his criticisms of Catholic practices in 1517, he tapped a rich seam of popular resentment of the church. Lutheranism spread swiftly through Germany and beyond and others, notably Calvin and Zwingli in Switzerland and John Knox in Scotland, followed Luther’s example. When the process of Catholic reform began at the Council of Trent in 1545, it was too late: most states that converted to Protestantism did not return to the Catholic fold.Religious change strongly influenced changes within secular governments. The medieval ‘doctrine of the two swords’ stated that the church controlled spiritual matters and delegated secular affairs to the rulers of states. This idea came under fierce attack in the sixteenth century. Henry VIII abolished papal power in England and claimed the right to both religious and secular power, while some German princes converted to Lutheranism simply in order to control both church and state. This increase in state power was accompanied, not by the nationalism of the nineteenth century, but by a growing sense of nationhood. Even within Germany, divided into many princely states, Lutheranism began to foster a sense of German identity. The Netherlands was one state that saw profound religious and political change in the sixteenth century. A Catholic territory loyal to the king of Spain (still acknowledged in the Dutch national anthem today), the Netherlands began a prolonged religious and political revolt against Spanish rule in 1566. By 1600 the Netherlands had split into a Catholic south and a Calvinist north, with the latter taking the radical step of deciding on a republican form of government.

In this route, students study:England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion

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and either Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

or The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609.Each of these is covered in turn in the sections that follow.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Paper 1, Option 1B England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religionOverview

This option comprises a study in breadth, in which students will learn about the key political, social and economic features of Tudor England from the accession of Henry VIII to the death of Elizabeth I, when the English state broke decisively with Catholic Europe. The English throne had been contested since 1455, when disputes between the rival houses of York and Lancaster led to the Wars of the Roses and the accession of the Yorkist Edward IV in 1461. After a disputed succession in 1483 Edward’s brother became king as Richard III. The conflict over the throne seemed finally resolved with the victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. For much of his reign Henry VII defeated threats from pretenders, and ensured the peaceful succession of his son Henry VIII. However, the Tudor dynasty would not outlive Henry VIII’s three children, a sickly son and two very different daughters.Henry VIII’s inheritance was a strong one. His father’s reforms of government had brought stability after the disruption of the Wars of the Roses, and improved finances gave Henry a full treasury. Henry and his children extended royal power into outlying areas, building on the regional councils used by Edward IV. Perhaps the most important change in government was Henry VIII’s use of parliament as an advisory body, a development which continued under Elizabeth.Religious changes had a dramatic impact on sixteenth-century England. Henry VIII ended England’s historic allegiance to Rome, while Edward VI moved England in a radically Protestant direction. Mary’s attempts to restore Catholicism failed, but Elizabeth managed to create a ‘middle way’, which gained widespread support. Religious change also influenced English culture and education. The dissolution of the monasteries and chantries led to the establishment of king’s schools and King Edward VI schools which, combined with the printing press, led to a significant growth in literacy. Monasteries had also served as hospitals and charitable bodies, and their loss contributed to the growth of poverty in later Tudor England.Some historians have viewed the later years of Elizabeth’s reign as a time of general crisis in government. Patrick Collinson characterised the period as ‘the nasty nineties’, while John Guy even referred to it as ‘a second reign’. Elizabeth faced a number of serious challenges in the 1590s at home and abroad. Spain remained a constant threat, and the Nine Years War in Ireland was an unwelcome distraction. Overshadowing everything was the succession issue, which grew more urgent as time passed. It was finally resolved with the accession in 1603 of James VI of Scotland, a direct descendant of Henry VII through his daughter Margaret’s marriage to James IV.The Tudors left several issues unresolved in both church and state. The relationship between crown and parliament had not been clearly established, and Elizabeth’s religious settlement was to be challenged with the accession of Charles I in 1625. These fundamental issues led to a crisis between Charles and parliament, which was only resolved through civil war.The option is divided into the following four themes, though students need to appreciate the linkages between themes, as questions may target the content of more than one. Theme 1 Monarchy and government, 1509–88Theme 2 Religious changes, 1509–88

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Theme 3 State control and popular resistance, 1509–88

Theme 4 Economic, social and cultural change, 1509–88The historical interpretations focus is: Was there a general crisis of government in the last years of Elizabeth I’s reign, 1589–1603?

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

Themes The four themes identified require students to have an overview of political, social, economic and religious change in England over the period. Students need to have knowledge of the specified themes and be able to analyse and evaluate cause, consequence, key features and change and make comparisons over and within the period studied in dealing with factors which brought about change.

Theme 1: Monarchy and government, 1509–88In studying Theme 1, students need to understand the exercise of power by Tudor monarchs and the role of parliament and principal servants of the crown in supporting Tudor power. In considering the power of parliament students need to understand the reasons for the use of parliament in carrying out the English Reformation, and the extent to which parliament’s role and prestige changed over the period. Students should understand the innovations carried out by different ministers, and the significance for Elizabeth of Burghley’s long period in office.

Theme 2: Religious changes, 1509–88In studying Theme 2, students need to be aware of the nature and the pace of religious change in the given period. They should understand the extent of change under Henry VIII, and the failure of both Edward VI and Mary to establish permanent religious changes. Students should understand that, despite the attempts at religious compromise by Elizabeth, Catholic and Puritan beliefs survived during the given period.

Theme 3: State control and popular resistance, 1509–88In studying Theme 3, students need to be aware of the ways in which Tudor control was maintained in different parts of the country, including Wales and Ireland. They should understand the economic problems which caused a rise in poverty and vagrancy, and the steps taken nationally and locally to enforce social control. They should understand the political, religious and economic factors which influenced a number of rebellions against Tudor rule. Detailed knowledge of rebellions is not required, but students should be aware of the nature and extent of the threat they posed.

Theme 4: Economic, social and cultural change, 1509–88In studying Theme 4, students need to be aware of aspects of economic, social and cultural changes in the given period. They should understand the importance of the wool and cloth industries, and their dominant position within the economy. They need to be aware of the effects of the rise in population including the growth of London as a commercial and trading centre. Students should understand the key

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changes in both popular and ‘high’ culture over the given period, and the extent to

which the ‘cult of Gloriana’ underpinned Elizabeth’s rule.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Historical interpretations: Was there a general crisis of government in the last years of Elizabeth I’s reign, 1589–1603?The four issues identified in the specification highlight key aspects of the debate.This topic focuses on the last years of Elizabeth’s long reign, and on the extent to which there was a general crisis of Tudor government. Students will need to understand that the defeat of the Armada did not end the threat from Spain, and that England’s war with Spain led to its involvement in both France and the Netherlands. The nature of the threat to Tudor control posed by Tyrone’s Rebellion, and the intervention of both Essex and Mountjoy, should be understood. Students should understand the growth of factions within the court, and should be aware of the significance of Burghley’s death and the conflict between Cecil and Essex. Students should be aware of the significance of Elizabeth’s failure to clarify the issue of the succession, and the impact this had on the stability of court and government. They should understand the reasons for Elizabeth’s difficult relations with her parliaments in this period and the factors which contributed to the chaotic session of 1601. The growth of social distress in the 1590s should be understood, including the impact of successive harvest failures and the government’s response to distress.

Overlap with the 2008 specification There is overlap between this option and the following topics from the 2008 specification.

● Unit 2, Option A, Topic A1: Henry VIII: Authority, Nation and Religion, 1509–40: overlaps with the first 31 years of this topic, particularly in Themes 1 and 2.● Unit 2, Option A, Topic A2: Crown, Parliament and Authority in England, 1588–1629: overlaps with the interpretations topic. ● Unit 3, Option A, Topic A1: Protest, Crisis and Rebellion in England, 1536–88: overlaps with the last 52 years of the thematic content.

There is also overlap with the following coursework programmes from the 2008 specification.

● CW7: Rebellion and Disorder in Tudor England, 1485–1587.● CW8: The Changing Role of Parliament in England, 1529–1629.● CW10: Challenge and Rebellion in Tudor and Stuart England, 1509–1660s.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. New textbooks for this route are expected to be published by Hodder and Pearson in 2015.Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?

Angela Anderson and Tony Imperato, An Introduction to Tudor England, 1485–1603 (Access to History Context, Hodder Murray, 2001)

Textbook Written for students.

Alastair Armstrong, AS Edexcel GCE History: Henry VIII: Authority, Nation and Religion, 1509–40 (Heinemann, 2008)

Textbook Written for students.

Geoffrey R Elton, Reform and Reformation: England, 1509–58 (The New History of England series, Hodder Arnold, 1989)

Advanced textbook

Accessible for students.

Nicholas Fellows, Disorder and Rebellion in Tudor England (Access To History In Depth, Hodder Education, 2002)

Textbook Written for students.

Nigel Heard and Roger Turvey, Change and Protest 1536–88: Mid-Tudor Crises? (Access to History, Hodder Education, 2009)

Textbook Written for students.

David Hudson, David Rogerson and Samantha Ellsmore, The Early Tudors: England 1485–1558 (SHP Advanced History Core Texts, Hodder Education, 2001)

Textbook Written for students.

Roger Lockyer and Dan O’Sullivan, Tudor Britain, 1485–1603 (Longman Advanced History, Addison Wesley Longman, 1997)

Textbook Written for students.

John Lotherington (editor), The Tudor Years (Hodder Murray, 2003)

Textbook Written for students.

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Barbara Mervyn, The Reign of Elizabeth: England 1558–1603 (SHP Advanced History Core Texts, Hodder Education, 2001)

Textbook

Written for students.

Barbara Mervyn, Enquiring History: Tudor Rebellions 1485–1603 (Hodder Education, 2014)

Textbook Written for students.

Derrick Murphy, Allan Keen, Michael Tillbrook and Patrick Walsh-Atkins, England 1485–1603 (Flagship History, Collins Educational, 1999)

Textbook Written for students.

Derrick Murphy, Elizabeth Sparey and Irene Carrier, Britain 1558–1689 (Flagship History, Collins, 2002)

Textbook Written for students.

Keith Randell, Henry VIII and the Government of England (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 2001)

Textbook Written for students.

Colin Pendrill, The English Reformation 1485–1558 (Heinemann Advanced History, Heinemann, 2000)

Textbook Written for students.

Keith Randell, Henry VIII and the Reformation in England (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 2001)

Textbook Written for students.

Keith Randell, Elizabeth I and the Government of England (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 1994)

Textbook Written for students.

Keith Randell and Roger Turvey, Henry VIII to Mary I: Government and Religion, 1509–1558 (Access to History, Hodder Education, 2008)

Textbook Written for students.

William Simpson, The Reign of Elizabeth (Heinemann Advanced History, Heinemann, 2001)

Textbook Written for students.

John Warren, Elizabeth I: Religion and Foreign Affairs (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 2002)

Textbook Written for students.

John Warren, Elizabeth I Meeting the Challenge: England 1541–1603 (Access to History, Hodder Education, 2008)

Textbook Written for students.

Stephen J Lee, The Reign of Elizabeth I: 1558–1603 (Questions and Analysis in History, Routledge, 2007)

Essays and documents

For teachers but also accessible for students.

Susan Doran, Elizabeth I and Religion, 1558–1603 (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, 1994)

Academic Accessible for students.Short descriptive analysis.

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Anthony Fletcher and Diarmaid MacCulloch, Tudor Rebellions (Seminar Studies in History, Pearson Education, 2008)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Andrew Foster, The Church of England 1570–1640 (Seminar Studies In History, Routledge, 1994)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

John Guy, Tudor England (Oxford Paperbacks, 1990)

Academic For teachers but also accessible for students.

Christopher Harper-Bill, The Pre-Reformation Church in England 1400–1530 (Seminar Studies In History, Routledge, 1996)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Felicity Heal and Rosemary O'Day, Church and Society in England: Henry VIII to James I (Problems in Focus, Palgrave Macmillan, 1977)

Academic For teachers.Specialist essays.

E W Ives, Faction in Tudor England (Historical Association Pamphlet, Blackwell, 1979)

Academic Accessible for students.

Diarmaid MacCulloch (editor), The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy and Piety (Problems in Focus, Palgrave, 2001)

Academic For teachers.Specialist essays.

Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England 1547–1603 (British History in Perspective, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000)

Academic Accessible for students. Detailed overview of the later Reformation.

David G Newcombe, Henry VIII and the English Reformation (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, 1995)

Academic Accessible for students.

Michael D Palmer, Henry VIII (Seminar Studies In History, Longman, 1984)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Paul Thomas, Authority and Disorder in Tudor Times, 1485–1603 (Cambridge Perspectives in History, Cambridge University Press, 1999)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Richard Rex, Henry VIII and the English Reformation (British History in Perspective, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006)

Academic Accessible for students.

W J Sheils, The English Reformation 1530–1570 (Seminar Studies In History, Routledge, 1989)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

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Penry Williams, The Later Tudors: England 1547–1603 (The New Oxford History of England, Oxford University Press, 2002)

Academic

For teachers but also accessible for students.Provides a detailed thematic overview of the later Tudor period.

Peter Servini, The English Reformation (History at Source, Hodder Education, 1997)

Commentaries and documents

Written for students.

Nicholas Fellows, Henry VIII (Flagship Historymakers, Collins Educational, 2005)

Biography Written for students.

Nicholas Fellows, Elizabeth I (Flagship Historymakers, Collins Education, 2004)

Biography Written for students.

Christopher Haigh, Elizabeth I (Routledge, 2001)

Biography For teachers

Wallace MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I (Bloomsbury Academic, 1994)

Biography For teachers

Richard Rex, Henry VIII (Amberley Publishing, 2009)

Biography For teachers but also accessible for students.

David Starkey, The Reign Of Henry VIII: The Personalities and Politics (Vintage, 2002)

Biography For teachers. Group biography of important court figures.

Alison Weir, Elizabeth, The Queen (Vintage, 2009)

Biography For teachers

Lucy Wooding, Henry VIII (Routledge Historical Biographies, Routledge, 2008)

Biography For teachers

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History Today and History ReviewDavid Starkey, Wolsey and Cromwell: Continuity or Contrast?, History Today, Volume 35, 1985:www.historytoday.com/david-starkey/wolsey-and-cromwell-continuity-or-contrast Lucy Wooding, Henry VIII and Religion, History Review, 2008:www.historytoday.com/lucy-wooding/henry-viii-and-religion John Matusiak, Mid-Tudor England: Years of Trauma and Survival, History Review, 2005:www.historytoday.com/john-matusiak/mid-tudor-england-years-trauma-and-survival R E Foster, Majesty Through Magistracy: Maintaining Order in Tudor England, History Review:www.historytoday.com/r-e-foster/majesty-through-magistracy-maintaining-order-tudor-england

Articles Accessible for students.Note that a subscription is required to read the online articles (£).

BBC: Tudors www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/

Website Accessible for students. A useful range of articles on the Tudor period written by academic historians.

History Learning Site: The Tudors www.historylearningsite.co.uk/tudor_england.htm

Website Accessible for students. A wide-ranging website on different aspects of the Tudor period.

Spartacus Educational: The Tudors http://spartacus-educational.com/Tudors.htm?menu=industry

Website Accessible for students. Another wide-ranging website which focuses on key events and individuals during the Tudor period.

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Historical Association podcastsHistorian Steven Gunn discusses Tudor rebellions: www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/p/33 Historian Steven Gunn discusses the career and legacy of Cardinal Wolsey: www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/p/29Historian Sue Doran discusses Tudor royal authority:http://www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/p/27

Podcasts

Accessible for students. Note that a subscription is required (£).

Channel 4MonarchyDavid Starkey on the history of the British Monarchy:www.channel4.com/programmes/monarchy/4od#2922437

Documentary series

Accessible for students. Channel 4 TV series available on 4OD. Clips also available on YouTube.

Channel 4Edward and Mary: The Unknown Tudors Presented by David Starkey.

Documentary series

Accessible for students. Channel 4 TV series (2002). Clips available on YouTube.

BBCElizabeth: From Prison To Palace Presented by David Starkey.

Documentaryseries

Accessible for students. BBC TV documentary (2004). Clips available on YouTube.

BBCA History of Britain Presented by Simon Schama.Particularly the programmes Burning Convictions and The Body of the Queen.

Documentary series

Accessible for students. BBC TV series. Available on YouTube.

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Was there a general crisis of government in the last years of Elizabeth I’s reign, 1589–1603? This table lists additional resources that may be useful for the historical interpretations section of this topic.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?

A L Beier, The Problem of the Poor in Tudor and Early Stuart England (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, 1983)

Academic Accessible for students.Short descriptive analysis of poverty and responses to it.

Susan Doran, Elizabeth I and Foreign Policy, 1558–1603 (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, 2000)

Academic Accessible for students.Short descriptive analysis.

Michael A R Graves, Tudor Parliaments: The Crown, Lords and Commons,1485–1603 (Studies In Modern History, Routledge, 1985)

Academic For teachers.Detailed analysis of the role of Tudor Parliaments.

Michael A R Graves, Elizabethan Parliaments 1559–1601 (Seminar Studies In History, Longman, 1996) Chapters 6–8

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

John Guy (editor), The Reign of Elizabeth I: Court and Culture in the Last Decade (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Academic For teachers.Specialist essays on the late Elizabethan period covering patronage, factionalism and the court.

Christopher Haigh (editor), The Reign of Elizabeth I (Problems in Focus, Macmillan, 1984)

Academic For teachers.Specialist essays covering various aspects of Elizabeth’s reign.

Christopher Haigh, Elizabeth I (Routledge, 2001)

Biography For teachers.Thematic treatment of Elizabeth’s life. Chapters 5 and 6 cover the court and parliament.

D M Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors 1547–1603 (Social and Economic History of England, Routledge, 1992)

Academic For teachers.Focuses on economic and social developments under Elizabeth.

John F Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England (Seminar Studies In History, Routledge, 1986)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

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Conrad Russell, The Crisis of Parliaments: English History 1509–1660 (Short Oxford History of the Modern World, Oxford University Press, 1971)

For teachers

J A Sharpe, Early Modern England: A Social History 1550–1760 (Bloomsbury Academic, 1997)

Academic For teachers

Paul Slack, The English Poor Law, 1531–1782 (New Studies in Economic and Social History, Cambridge University Press, 1995)

Academic For teachers

Paul Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England (Themes In British Social History, Longman, 1988)

Academic For teachers

R B Wernham, The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 1558–1603 (University of California Press, 1992)

Academic For teachers.Detailed analysis of Elizabethan foreign policy.

Keith Wrightson, Earthly Necessities: Economic Lives in Early Modern Britain, 1470–1750 (The Penguin Economic History of Britain, Penguin, 2002)

Academic For teachers.Detailed thematic economic overview.

Keith Wrightson, English Society 1580–1680 (Routledge, 2003) Chapters 5 and 6 in particular.

Academic For teachers.

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History Today and History Review Will Saunders, Faction in the reign of Elizabeth I, History Review, 2004:www.historytoday.com/will-saunders/faction-reign-elizabeth-iPaul E J Hammer, The Last Decade, Volume 53, 2003: www.historytoday.com/paul-ej-hammer/last-decade Paul Slack, Poverty in Elizabethan England, Volume 34, 1984: www.historytoday.com/paul-slack/poverty-elizabethan-england R E Foster, Conflicts and Loyalties: the Parliaments of Elizabeth I, History Review, 2006: www.historytoday.com/re-foster/conflicts-and-loyalties-parliaments-elizabeth-i Simon Adams, The Succession and Foreign Policy, Volume 53, 2003: www.historytoday.com/simon-adams/succession-and-foreign-policy

Articles (£) For teachers and students.Note that a subscription is required to read the online articles.

Historical Association podcastsHistorian Sue Doran discusses the development of parliament during the Tudor period: www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/p/36 Historian Sue Doran discusses poverty, population increase and unemployment under the Tudors: www.history.org.uk/podcasts/#/p/35

Podcasts Accessible for students. Note that a subscription is required (£).

Channel 4Elizabeth Presented by David Starkey

Documentary series

Accessible for students. Channel 4 TV series on the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Clips available on YouTube.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55Overview

This option comprises a study in depth of Luther’s challenge to the Catholic Church, the development of a separate Lutheran Church within the German states, and the response of Empire and the papacy to this challenge to 1555. This would cause a fracture in the religious unity of western Christianity which would, in time, spread through Europe and beyond. Germany in the early sixteenth century was a collection of separate states collectively called the Holy Roman Empire. However, the emperors had little power and there was no strong central government: instead, power rested with the princes of each state, which was to prove vital for the development of the Reformation. The German Church had become a very corrupt organisation, though there were no widespread demands for reform in 1517. Humanists such as Erasmus of Rotterdam criticised the church through satires such as In Praise of Folly, but he and his fellow thinkers sought to reform the church from within.It was an explosive mixture of Luther’s theology, growing German nationalism, the new learning of the Renaissance and, more prosaically, the printing press that sparked the German Reformation and explains its rapid growth. Luther, an Augustinian monk from Wittenberg, spent years trying to understand how salvation (spending the afterlife in heaven) could be achieved. He concluded that salvation was a gift from God, and so there was no need for individuals to do good works. Luther’s chief target in 1517 was indulgences, which promised salvation on payment of large sums of money to the church. Luther’s attack on indulgences broadened out after 1517 into a general condemnation of many Catholic beliefs. He refused to recant his views in front of the Emperor Charles V in 1521 and thus set the German Reformation in motion. Luther’s beliefs spread like wildfire across Germany and beyond, thanks to the publication of a number of religious pamphlets which flooded the country (and, incidentally, encouraged the growth of literacy).Although Luther’s beliefs were condemned by Emperor and papacy, neither was able to stem the Lutheran Reformation. Charles V ruled over large areas of Europe, and throughout his reign (1519–56) was preoccupied with other concerns, notably revolts in Spain and the threat to Europe from the Ottoman Turks. The papacy underestimated the Lutheran challenge, and it was only in 1545 that the Council of Trent was summoned to respond to Protestantism and clarify Catholic teachings.From the late 1520s, Luther’s influence waned as Protestantism took hold in Germany and the direction of the new religion was guided by the German princes. Some of the princes were motivated by genuine religious fervour, but many saw the potential for enhancing their power by controlling religion in their state and, by extension, church lands and the money that flowed from them. The Schmalkaldic League was founded in 1531 for mutual defence against Charles V. Although the League was defeated in 1547, it remained powerful enough to force concessions from Charles in 1555, when the Religious Peace of Augsburg of 1555 neutralised the threat of further conflict. It was to last until 1618 with the start of the Thirty Years War.The option is divided into the following four key topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one key topic.Topic 1 Conditions in early sixteenth-century Germany

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Topic 2 Luther’s early challenge to the Catholic Church, 1517–20

Topic 3 The development of Lutheranism, 1521–46Topic 4 The spread and survival of Lutheranism, 1521–55

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.OverviewThe focus of this unit is on key religious and political changes within Germany from Luther’s initial challenge to the Catholic Church in 1517, through the development of Lutheranism as a separate church, to the compromise between Charles V and the Lutheran princes at Augsburg in 1555. Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical content, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics. Although the topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from each of Topics 1 and 2 and 4 to consider the development of Luther’s theology and beliefs between 1517 and 1546, or they might draw on content from Topics 3 and 4 to examine the role of the princes in the German Reformation and the link between their religious and political concerns.

Topic 1: Conditions in early sixteenth-century Germany The topic addresses political and economic conditions in Germany in the early

sixteenth century, and the involvement of the papacy within Germany, especially the financial demands of successive popes. Students will need to be aware of the limited powers exercised by the Emperor, and his reliance on the cooperation of the princes.

Topic 2: Luther’s early challenge to the Catholic Church, 1517–20The topic covers Luther’s early attempts at promoting reform within the Catholic Church, and the development of his ideas which led to his excommunication in 1520. Students need to be aware of Leo X’s limited response to Luther before the excommunication of 1520. Students need to understand the different messages contained in the 1520 pamphlets and the reasons for their popularity among different groups of people.

Topic 3: The development of Lutheranism, 1521–46The topic covers the change and development of Lutheran ideas over time and the establishment of a separate Lutheran Church. Students should understand the differences between Lutheran and Catholic beliefs and religious practices which made any compromise between the two churches increasingly difficult. Detailed knowledge of the revolt of the Imperial Knights and the Peasants’ War is not required, but students need to understand Luther’s attitude towards both revolts.Students need to be aware of the central authority of the Bible in Lutheranism, and how this belief undermined the authority of the Catholic Church.Students will need to understand the importance of Philip Melanchthon in organising and promoting Lutheran beliefs.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Topic 4: The spread and survival of Lutheranism, 1521–55The topic considers reasons for the spread and survival of Lutheranism in the years 1521–55. Students will need to understand the various motives which led to the conversion of princes to Lutheranism, and the significance of the Schmalkaldic League in this process. They should be aware of the reasons for the growing appeal of Lutheranism for ordinary people.Students need to be aware of the difficulties which Charles V faced in different parts of Europe, and the limits of his power to deal with Lutheranism. They should understand the compromises he made at various times in order to secure the princes’ support for his military campaigns, especially against the Ottomans. They will need to be aware of his ambitions in Italy which made joint action with the papacy impossible to achieve. While detailed knowledge of the events of the Schmalkaldic War is not required, students should understand its significance for the survival of Lutheranism.Students need to be aware of the limitations of Paul III’s reforms. The work of the Council of Trent from 1545 will not be assessed.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Mapping to 2008 specification There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 1, Option B, Topic B1: Luther, Lutheranism and the German Reformation, 1517–55.

2015 specification 2008 specificationConditions in early sixteenth- century Germany

The Holy Roman Empire: the structure of central government; the seven electors; the respective powers of the Emperor and the princes; the Imperial election of 1519.

Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the structure of the Holy Roman Empire, the nature of Habsburg power, and relations between the emperors, princes and the papacy. They are likely to have covered key events such as the imperial election of 1519.

The state of the German economy: growing towns and cities; trade and communications between the states.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the social and economic context of Germany, including printing, literacy and urban development.

The German Catholic Church: the religious and secular power of the bishops; the parish clergy; anticlericalism and popular piety; the influence of humanism.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the state of the Catholic Church in 1517 and the criticisms to which it was subjected, for example in the work of humanists like Erasmus.

The papacy and Germany: the corruption of the papal court; papal financial demands on Germany; Tetzel and the sale of indulgences.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered a range of abuses, in particular the role and characteristics of the papacy. They are likely to have covered the impact of papal authority and taxation in Germany by 1517, possibly including the authorisation of Tetzel’s indulgence campaign.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Luther’s early challenge to the Catholic Church, 1517–20

Luther’s early life and influences on him: his reasons for becoming a monk; his views on corruption within the Catholic Church.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered the role of Luther himself and the stages by which his ideas developed.

The Ninety-Five Theses 1517: Luther’s rejection of indulgences; his aim of promoting academic debate; the publication of the Ninety-Five Theses and their impact; the importance of the printing press.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered why Luther was provoked into action in 1517 and how the reaction of the church and its leaders encouraged him to develop his challenge to 1521. They are likely to have covered how he was able to spread his ideas by writing and preaching.

The shaping of Luther’s beliefs: his protest to Albert of Mainz; the response of Leo X to Luther’s early challenge; the debate with Cajetan in 1518; significance of the debate with Eck in 1519.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered why Luther was provoked into action in 1517 and how the reaction of the church and its leaders encouraged him to develop his challenge to 1521.

Luther’s excommunication 1520: Luther’s tower experience and his acceptance of justification by faith alone; the 1520 pamphlets addressed to the clergy, nobility and the German people; the burning of the Bull of excommunication in 1520.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered how the reaction of the church and its leaders encouraged Luther to develop his challenge to 1521. They are likely to have covered how he was able to spread his ideas by writing and preaching, including the three great pamphlets that he published in 1520.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

The development of Lutheranism, 1521–46

The Diet of Worms and its aftermath: Luther’s condemnation as a heretic and an outlaw; the attitude of Charles V; the protection of Frederick the Wise at Wartburg Castle. Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered the

reaction of the church and its leaders.Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered key individuals such as Frederick the Wise.

Luther’s attitude to religious and political radicalism: views on the Radical Reformation by Carlstadt and the Zwickau prophets in Wittenberg, his lack of support for the revolt of the Imperial Knights; the reasons for, and consequences of, his denunciation of the Peasants’ War 1525; the effect of Luther’s political conservatism on the German princes.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered Luther’s rejection of radicalism and his condemnation of the Peasants’ Revolt in 1525.Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the role played by leading princes and the formation of the princely leagues.

Lutheran beliefs and their influence: the importance of justification; the German Mass; the doctrine of the Real Presence; Luther’s translation of the Bible; the Large Catechism and Small Catechism; the growing popularity of Lutheranism within Germany.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered the role of Luther himself and the stages by which his ideas developed and how he gained support.

Luther’s declining influence, 1530–46: Philip Melanchthon’s codification of Lutheran beliefs; the Loci Communes 1521; the Augsburg Confession, 1530 and its importance; growing divergence between Catholic and Lutheran beliefs; Luther and the Philip of Hesse affair 1540.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered the nature of Luther’s work after 1525 and the extent to which his role diminished as others came forward to offer leadership and support.

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Paper 2, Option 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

The spread and survival of Lutheranism, 1521–55

The failure of Lutheran-Catholic negotiations: the Diets of Speyer 1526 and 1529; the Diet of Regensburg 1541.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the role of other factors in the survival and spread of Lutheranism, including the wider problems facing the papacy.Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the relations between the emperors, princes and papacy.

The role of the German princes: Luther’s protection by Frederick the Wise; the significance of conversion of Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Philip of Hesse and John of Saxony; formation of the Schmalkaldic League 1531; the League’s significance for the spread of Lutheranism.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the role of other factors in the survival and spread of Lutheranism, including the role played by leading princes and the formation of the princely leagues.Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered key individuals such as Frederick the Wise and Maurice of Saxony and princely attitudes and motives.

Charles V and Lutheranism: his conflicting priorities in Spain, France and against the Ottomans; limited support for Charles from the Catholic princes; the significance of the Schmalkaldic War; the Peace of Passau 1552; the Peace of Augsburg 1555.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the role of other factors in the survival and spread of Lutheranism, including the the wider problems facing the empire. They are likely to have covered the role of the French and the external threat from the Ottoman Empire.Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the nature of Habsburg power, and relations between the emperors and princes and the difficulties faced by Charles V.

The papacy and Lutheranism: the failure to respond effectively to Luther; Paul III and attempts at reform; the Consilium 1537; the summoning of the Council of Trent.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered the reaction of the church and its leaders to Luther’s actions in 1517.Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the role of other factors in the survival and spread of Lutheranism, including the wider problems facing the papacy.Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered relations between the emperors, princes and papacy.

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Student timelines

Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. New textbooks for this route are expected to be published by Hodder and Pearson in 2015.Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?

Alastair Armstrong, The European Reformation, 1500–1610 (Heinemann Advanced History, Heinemann, 2002)Chapters 1–4

Textbook Written for students.

Tony Imperato, An Introduction to Early Modern European History, 1450–1610 (Access to History Context, Hodder Murray, 2000)

Textbook Written for students.

J A P Jones, Europe 1500–1600 (Challenging History, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1997)Chapter 4

Textbook Written for students.

John Lotherington (editor), Years of Renewal: European History, 1470–1600 (Hodder Murray, 1999)Chapter 6

Textbook Written for students.

Stewart Macdonald, Charles V: Ruler, Dynast and Defender of the Faith, 1500–58 (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 2000)

Textbook Written for students.

Derrick Murphy, Michael Tillbrook and Patrick Walsh-Atkins, Europe, 1450–1661 (Flagship History, Collins Educational, 2000)Chapter 4

Textbook Written for students.

Keith Randell, Luther and the German Reformation, 1517–55 (Access to History, Hodder Murray, 2000)

Textbook Written for students.

Geoffrey Woodward, The Development of Early Modern Europe (Longman, Advanced History, Longman, 1997)

Textbook Written for students.

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Student timelines

Geoffrey Woodward, The Sixteenth Century Reformation (Access to History Themes, Hodder Murray, 2001)

Textbook

Written for students.

Andrew Johnston, The Reformation in Europe (History at Source, Hodder Murray, 1996)

Documents and commentaries

Accessible for students.

Katherine Leach, The German Reformation (Documents and Debates Extended Series, Macmillan, 1990)

Document collection

For teachers but also accessible for students.

E G Rupp and Benjamin Drewery, Martin Luther (Documents of Modern History, Macmillan, 1970)

Documentary reader with commentaries

For teachers

Euan Cameron, The European Reformation (Oxford University Press, 2012)

Academic For teachers.Detailed thematic analysis of the Reformation in Europe.

Patrick Collinson, The Reformation (Phoenix, 2005)

Academic For teachers.Thematic analysis of the Reformation.

A G Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther (Fontana, 1976)

Academic Accessible for students.

Andrew Johnston, The Protestant Reformation in Europe (Seminar Studies in History, Routledge, 1992)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Peter Marshall, The Reformation: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions, Oxford University Press, 2009)

Academic Accessible for students.

Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700 (Penguin, 2004)

Academic For teachers.Detailed historical overview of the Reformation with an extensive bibliography.

C Scott Dixon (editor), The German Reformation: The Essential Readings (Blackwell Essential Readings in History, Blackwell, 1999)

Academic For teachers.Specialist essays on aspects of the German Reformation.

R W Scribner and C Scott Dixon, The German Reformation (Studies in European History, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003)

Academic Accessible for students.

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Student timelines

Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A life of Martin Luther (Classic Reprint, Forgotten Books, 2012)

Biography For teachers but also accessible for students.

Scott H Hendrix, Martin Luther: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions, Oxford University Press, 2010)

Biography For teachers but also accessible for students.Brief analysis of Luther’s life and impact.

Michael Mullett, Luther (Lancaster Pamphlets, Routledge, 1986)

Biography Accessible for students.Short account of Luther’s work and influence.

Michael Mullett, Martin Luther (Routledge Historical Biographies, Routledge, 2014)

Biography For teachers but also accessible for students.

History Today and History Review Michael Mullett, Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses, History Review, 2003: www.historytoday.com/michael-mullett/martin-luther-ninety-five-thesesMichael Mullett, Luther: Conservative or Revolutionary?, Volume 33 (£): www.historytoday.com/michael-mullett/luther-conservative-or-revolutionary Gerald Strauss, Capturing Hearts and Minds in the German Reformation, 1981 (£): www.historytoday.com/gerald-strauss/capturing-hearts-and-minds-german-reformation Alex Barker, Charles V defeats German Protestants in Battle at Muhlberg, 1997: www.historytoday.com/alex-barker/charles-v-defeats-german-protestants-battle-muhlberg

Articles For teachers and students. Note that a subscription is required to read some online articles (£).

Internet History Sourcebook (Fordham University)Primary sources on Luther and the German Reformationwww.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1y.asp

Website – primary sources

For teachers but also accessible for students.

History Learning Site: The German Reformationwww.historylearningsite.co.uk/german_reformation.htm

Website Accessible for students. Extensive website on various aspects of the German Reformation.

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Student timelines

Khan Academy: An Introduction to the Protestant Reformationwww.khanacademy.org/humanities/history/1500-1600-Renaissance-Reformation/protestant-reformation/a/an-introduction-to-the-protestant-reformation

Website

Accessible for students. Includes short films on key features of the German Reformation.

Historical Association podcastHistory of the Reformationwww.history.org.uk/resources/student_resource_3170_108.html

Podcast Accessible for students. Note that a subscription is required (£).

PBSMartin Luther2 parts

TV programme Accessible for students. Clips available on YouTube.

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Student timelines

Paper 2, Option 2B.2:The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609

Overview This option comprises a study in depth of the successful challenge which the northern provinces of the Netherlands mounted against the power of the Spanish Empire in the years c1563–1609, a challenge that would contribute to a dramatic decline in Spain’s power and produce one of the first republics of the era. The Netherlands in the mid-sixteenth century was a loose confederation of seventeen provinces ruled by the Habsburg kings of Spain. Local privileges were guaranteed, and the loyalty of the higher nobility was assured by their involvement in central government. All this changed when Philip II succeeded Charles V in 1555. Within a decade revolts had broken out throughout the country, ushering in what was to become the Eighty Years War which was only settled with the Peace of Münster in 1648. The revolt was linked to three main issues confronting states in early modern Europe: religious change; the authority of rulers; and a growing sense of nationhood.Philip left Brussels in 1559 never to return, leaving government in the hands of his regents. The first revolt, in 1566, was sparked by religious divisions. Dutch trade was flourishing, and allowed new religious ideas to enter the country from elsewhere in Europe. Swiss Calvinism grew rapidly in popularity, leading to attacks on Catholic churches in the Iconoclastic Fury of 1566. Philip sent Alva, the ‘iron duke’, to suppress the rising. His harsh rule, marked by repression and executions, led to the revolt of 1572, led by William of Orange. The conflict which broke out ended only in 1607, the longest period of fighting in modern times.The revolt took on a political complexion as Orange consolidated his rule in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. Neither Alva nor his successors could re-establish control in the north, though Spain remained in firm control of the south. The growing religious divide between north and south led to the largely Protestant northern provinces breaking away from Spanish rule in 1581 by establishing the Republic of the United Provinces, while the Catholic south remained under Spanish control.In the 1580s and 1590s the revolt assumed an international dimension. Elizabeth I of England supported the Republic with money and troops, while Spain was diverted from the conflict by the Spanish Armada and intervention in French affairs. It was Spain’s growing financial weakness, and the sheer logistical problems of transporting troops and supplies to the Netherlands, that led to the Twelve Years Truce in 1609.The Dutch Republic flourished as a de facto independent state in the early seventeenth century. It established highly profitable overseas trade, and used its growing navy to establish colonies in the Far East and in the Americas. When war started again in 1621, it assumed global significance. As Geoffrey Parker wrote, ‘the Dutch Revolt spread until it affected the lives of millions of people and became, so to say, the First World War’.The option is divided into the following four topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one topic.Topic 1 Origins of the Dutch Revolt, c1563–67Topic 2 Alva and Orange, 1567–73

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Student timelines

Topic 3 Spain and the reconquest, 1573–84

Topic 4 Securing the independence of the United Provinces, 1584–1609

Content guidanceThis section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.OverviewThe focus of this unit is on key developments in the history of the Netherlands, from growing discontent with and open rebellion against the government of Spain, to the recognition of the independence of the seven United Provinces in 1609. Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical context, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics. Although the topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from each of Topics 2, 3 and 4 to consider the contribution made by the House of Orange to the Dutch revolt, or they might draw on content from all four topics to examine the growing influence of Calvinism in the whole period.

Topic 1: Origins of the Dutch revolt, c1563–67The topic covers the nature of Spanish rule in the Netherlands under Philip II, and the growing opposition of the Dutch grandees, who resented the erosion of their traditional role in government. Students are not required to have detailed knowledge of events prior to 1563, but they need to understand the extent to which Philip II broke with established Dutch traditions. Students need to understand that, during the given period, Calvinism was not a powerful force, despite the dramatic events of the Iconoclast Fury of 1566.

Topic 2: Alva and Orange, 1567–73The topic covers the years of Alva’s rule, during which William of Orange emerged as the leader of an open revolt against Spanish rule. Students need to be aware of the reasons for the growing divide between the northern and southern provinces during this period.Students need to understand the significance of the sea power provided by the Sea Beggars from 1572, and the growing power of rebel forces controlled by Orange.

Topic 3: Spain and the reconquest, 1573–84The topic covers the growing success of Parma in restoring Spanish control in the southern provinces, and the division of the Netherlands established in the years 1579–81. Students will need to understand Parma’s military tactics, and the reasons why they were more successful than those of his predecessors. Students need to understand the significance of the establishment of republican government in the northern United Provinces in 1581.

Topic 4: Securing the independence of the United Provinces, 1584–1609

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Student timelines

The topic covers the growing political, military and economic success of the United

Provinces, and the contribution of Maurice of Nassau and Oldenbarnevelt in achieving these feats. Students need to be aware of the economic power which enabled the United Provinces to pay for the war against Spain, the Republic’s growing naval power, and the establishing of trading routes in many parts of the world. In examining the growing divergence of the northern and southern provinces, students need to be aware of economic and political divisions. They also need to know that the people of the southern provinces were not prepared to form a union with the north, and the part played in their decision by religious differences between the Catholic south and the increasingly Calvinist north.

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Student timelines

Mapping to 2008 specification There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 1 Option B, Topic B3: The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1559–1609.

2015 specification 2008 specificationOrigins of the Dutch Revolt, c1563–67

The Habsburg Netherlands: the 17 provinces; the extent of local autonomy; the traditional rights of the Dutch grandees.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the structure of authority in the Netherlands during the late 1550s/early 1560s.

The situation c1563: Philip II’s policy towards the Netherlands and the lack of regard for established traditions; the regency of Margaret of Parma; the influence of Granvelle.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the rule of the Spanish under Margaret of Parma and the extent to which Spanish handling of the situation increased the likelihood and extent of revolt. They are likely to have covered individuals such as Philip II.

Opposition of the Dutch grandees: the alliance of Orange, Hoorn and Egmont; resistance to the reform of the bishoprics; the removal of Granvelle; Margaret and the heresy laws; the Confederacy of Noblemen; the Compromise of 1566; the ‘Beggars’.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the rule of the Spanish under Margaret of Parma and the extent to which Spanish handling of the situation increased the likelihood and extent of revolt. They are likely to have covered individuals such as Philip II.

The impact of Calvinism: the Huguenot migration from France; hedge preaching; the revolt (Iconoclast Fury) of 1566; the restoration of order; the effects of Calvinism on the Netherlands.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the impact of Calvinism in the Netherlands.

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Student timelines

Alva and Orange, 1567–73

Alva’s rule: the replacement of Margaret of Parma; the execution of Egmont and Hoorn; the Council of Troubles and the attacks on heresy; reasons for the introduction of the Tenth Penny; growing opposition to the tax. Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the

rule of the Spanish under the Duke of Alva and the extent to which Spanish handling of the situation increased the likelihood and extent of revolt.

Orange’s failure: his power and influence in the northern provinces; the invasions of 1568; the rebels’ victory at Heiligerlee; disintegration of rebel forces and Alva’s triumph.

Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the rule of the Spanish under the Duke of Alva.Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have considered the significance of the House of Orange within the government of the provinces and William’s role as an early leader.

The role of the Sea Beggars: Louis of Nassau and the privateers; the closing of English ports to the Sea Beggars by Elizabeth I of England 1572; the seizure of Brill and Flushing; development of a general revolt in the province of Holland.

Not specifically mentioned but detail likely to have been covered.

Orange’s triumph: the invasion of 1572; establishing control over Holland and Zeeland; Alva’s failure to reconquer the northern provinces.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered William’s contribution to the success of the revolt and his role as an early leader.Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the rule of the Spanish under the Duke of Alva.

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Student timelines

Spain and the reconquest, 1573–84

The failure of Requesens, 1573–76: his inability to defeat the northern provinces or to pay his troops; mutinies within the Spanish forces; the Spanish Fury of 1576; the Pacification of Ghent 1576; the advance of Calvinism in the southern provinces.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered Spanish aims, the difficulties related to maintaining authority after 1572 and the role of Requesens.Bullet point 1: Centres are likely to have covered the impact of Calvinism in the Netherlands.

Reasons for the success of Parma, 1577–84: re-establishing Spanish rule in the south; the Union of Arras 1579 and its religious and political significance; Parma’s diplomacy, military tactics and strategy; the fall of Antwerp 1584.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered Spanish aims, the difficulties related to maintaining authority after 1572 and the role of Parma. They are likely to have covered the reasons why the southern provinces returned to Spanish control by 1585, including the significance of religious differences, the role of the Grandees, the Unions of Arras and Utrecht, and of the role of the archdukes in consolidating Spanish rule.

Foreign intervention in the Netherlands: Orange’s decision to seek foreign help; the invitation to the Duke of Anjou 1578; the Duke’s unpopularity and his withdrawal in 1583.

Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered William’s contribution to the success of the revolt and his role as an early leader.

The growing independence of the northern provinces: the Union of Utrecht 1579; the Act of Abjuration 1581 and the establishing of the republic of the United Provinces; the declining influence of Orange; his assassination in 1584.

Bullet point 3: Centres are likely to have covered the division of north and south by 1585.Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered William’s role as an early leader and the significance of his assassination.

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Student timelines

Securing the independence of the United Provinces, 1584–1609

Maurice of Nassau: his military reforms and changes in strategy and tactics; siege warfare against fortresses and border towns; the victories at Turnhout 1597 and Nieuwpoort 1600; Maurice as Stadtholder. Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered

Maurice of Nassau and his contribution to the success of the revolt and to creating a sense of national identity. They are likely to have covered the emergence of Maurice, the quality of his military leadership, his relations with other factions and individuals such as Oldenbarnevelt, and his role in achieving independence by 1609.

Reasons for Spanish failures: support for the United Provinces by Elizabeth I of England; the Treaty of Nonsuch 1585; the diversion of Parma’s troops to support the Spanish Armada 1588; intervention in France 1589.

Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the role of foreign powers, French and particularly English intervention, and the interaction of the revolt with other conflicts involving Spain.

The growing power of the United Provinces: Oldenbarnevelt’s reforms; the Dutch East India Company and the development of overseas trade; the growing divergence of north and south; Oldenbarnevelt’s success in curbing Calvinist excesses.

Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the growing strength of Dutch resources and the role of religion and migration in this process.Bullet point 2: Centres are likely to have covered Oldenbarnevelt.

The declining power of Spain in the Netherlands: Spain’s inability to pay its troops; the armistice of 1607; the Truce of Antwerp 1609; Spain’s de facto recognition of the independence of the United Provinces.

Bullet point 4: Centres are likely to have covered the extent of the Spanish Empire and the military and economic constraints faced by its rulers.

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Student timelines

Resources and referencesThe table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published. New textbooks for this route are expected to be published by Hodder and Pearson in 2015.Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

Resource Type For students and/or teachers?

Tony Imperato, An Introduction to Early Modern European History, 1450–1610 (Access to History Context, Hodder Murray, 2000)

Textbook Written for students.

J A P Jones, Europe 1500–1600 (Challenging History, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1997)Chapter 14

Textbook Written for students.

John Lotherington (editor), Years of Renewal: European History, 1470–1600, (Hodder Murray, 1999)Chapter 14

Textbook Written for students.

Derrick Murphy, Michael Tillbrook and Patrick Walsh-Atkins, Europe, 1450–1661 (Flagship History, Collins Educational, 2000)Chapter 10

Textbook Written for students.

Martyn Rady, From Revolt to Independence: The Netherlands, 1550–1650 (Access to History, Hodder Education, 1990)

Textbook Written for students.

Geoffrey Woodward, The Development of Early Modern Europe (Longman, Advanced History, Longman, 1997).Chapters 18 and 19

Textbook Written for students.

Katherine Leach, Sixteenth Century Europe (Documents and Debates, Macmillan, 1980)

Document collection

For teachers but also accessible for students.

Graham Darby (editor), The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt (Routledge, 2000)

Academic For teachers.A collection of specialist essays on various aspects of the Dutch Revolt.

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Student timelines

Alastair Duke, The Reformation and Revolt in the Low Countries (Bloomsbury, 2003)

Academic For teachers.Detailed analytical historical overview of religion and conflict in the Low Countries.

Pieter Geyl, Revolt of the Netherlands 1555–1609 (Littlefield Adams, 1980)

Academic For teachers.Detailed analytical overview of the Dutch Revolt.

Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall (Clarendon Press, 1998)

Academic For teachers.Extensive specialist history of the Dutch Republic.

Peter Limm, The Dutch Revolt, 1559–1648 (Seminar Studies in History, Longman, 1989)

Academic with documents

Accessible for students.

Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Penguin, 1990)

Academic For teachers.Detailed analytical overview of the Dutch Revolt.

K W Swart, William the Silent and the Revolt of the Netherlands (Historical Association Pamphlet, Blackwell, 1979)

Academic Accessible for students.

James D Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Academic For teachers.Specialist text on the earlier stages of the Dutch Revolt.

Lisa Jardine, The Awful End of Prince William the Silent: The First Assassination of a Head of State with a Hand-Gun (Harper Perennial, 2006)

Biography For teachers but also accessible for students.

C V Wedgwood, William the Silent: William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, 1533–84 (Weidenfeld Nicolson Illustrated, 1989)

Biography Teachers but also accessible for students.

History Today and History ReviewGeoffrey Parker, The Origins of the Dutch Revolt, 2005: www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-parker/origins-dutch-revoltMack P Holt, Foreign Powers and the Dutch Revolt, 1984: www.historytoday.com/mack-p-holt/foreign-powers-and-dutch-revoltGraham Darby, The Dutch Revolt, History Review, 2002: www.historytoday.com/graham-darby/dutch-revolt

Articles For teachers and students. Note that a subscription is required to read the online articles (£).

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Student timelines

University of Massachusetts resourceswww1.umassd.edu/euro/resources/netherlands/

Website – primary sources

Accessible for students. Primary sources on the Revolt of the Netherlands and the creation of the Dutch Republic.

University of Leiden website www.dutchrevolt.leiden.edu/english/sources/Pages/default.aspx

Website – primary sources

Accessible for students. Primary sources on the Revolt of the Netherlands.

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Student timelines

Student timelines

These timelines are intended to be shared with students, and could be further edited and added to by them. There are two timelines below: both have the same Paper 1 dates and events listed in the left-hand column; dates and events for the relevant Paper 2 topic are given on the right-hand side. Students may find it useful to colour-code events, for example highlighting the different Paper 1 themes in different colours.

1B: England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion with 2B.1: Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55

Entries in italics are outside the date range of the topic in the specification but are included as useful background.

England Europe1483 Luther born

Henry, Duke of York, born (Henry VIII) 14911505 Luther became a monk1507 Luther became a priest

Henry VIII’s accessionHenry married Catherine of Aragon

1509

Execution of Empson and Dudley 1510Wolsey appointed Lord Chancellor 1515

1517 Ninety-Five Theses published1518 Debate with Cajetan at Augsburg1519 Imperial election

Death of Maximilian and accession of Charles VDebate with Eck at Leipzig

1520 Luther’s excommunicationLuther published pamphlets addressed to the clergy, nobility and the German peopleBurning of the papal bull Exsurge Domine

Defence of the Seven Sacraments is publishedThe pope bestowed the title ’Defender of the Faith’ on Henry VIII

1521 Diet of WormsLuther placed under ‘Ban of the Empire’Melanchthon published the Loci Communes

1522 Luther published New Testament in GermanKnights’ War

1523 Accession of Pope Clement VIILuther published the Reformed Mass

1524 Peasants’ War beganConversion of Philip of Hesse

Rioting against taxes 1525 Luther published Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of PeasantsConversion of John of Saxony and Albrecht of Hohenzollern

Negotiations took place with Rome about Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon (1526–29)

1526 League of Torgau formedFirst Diet of SpeyerLuther published the German MassCatholic League of Dessau formed

Poor harvests (1527–29) 1527Fall of WolseyThomas More appointed Lord ChancellorHenry VIII’s reformation parliaments meet (1529–36)

1529 Luther published the Small Catechism and Large CatechismColloquy of MarburgSecond Diet of Speyer and the ‘Letter of Protestation’

1530 Diet of Augsburg and Augsburg Confession

1531 Schmalkaldic League formed

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Student timelines

England Europe

More resignedAct of SubmissionThomas Cromwell became Henry’s chief minister

1532 The Religious Peace of Nuremberg

Henry VIII married Anne BoleynAct of Restraint of AppealsThomas Cranmer became Archbishop of CanterburyBirth of Princess Elizabeth

1533

Revolt in IrelandAct of SupremacyTreasons Act

1534 Luther’s German translation of the Bible published

Visitations of monasteries and churches orderedExecutions of More, Fisher and the leaders of the Carthusians

1535

Act for the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Pilgrimage of GraceAnne Boleyn executedHenry VIII married Jane Seymour

1536

Coverdale’s 1535 translation of The English Bible authorisedDeath of Jane Seymour Good harvests to mid-1540s

1537 Consilium report on abuses in the Catholic Church presented to Pope Paul III

Six Articles ActAct for the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries

1539

Thomas Cromwell executedHenry VIII married Anne of ClevesMarriage declared voidHenry VIII married Catherine Howard

1540 Philip of Hesse affair

Henry VIII took the title of King of Ireland 1541 Diet of RegensburgSir Antony St Leger promoted the policy of ‘Surrender and Regrant’ in IrelandCatherine Howard executedMary Queen of Scots bornCoinage debased

1542

The King’s Book publishedHenry VIII married Catherine Parr

1543

Third Succession Act passed 1544Death of Henry VIIISuccession of Edward VIAscendancy of Protector SomersetAct for the Dissolution of Chantries, Guilds and Colleges

1547 Battle of Muhlberg

Act of UniformityFirst Book of Common PrayerEarl of Warwick’s coupWestern RebellionThe ‘rebellions of Commonwealth’, including Kett’s Rebellion

1549

Second Book of Common PrayerSomerset executed

1552 Peace of Passau

Edward VI’s ‘device’ for the successionLady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England Mary’s counter-coup and accessionNorthumberland executedMass restored

1553

Wyatt’s RebellionJane Grey executedMary married Philip of SpainCardinal Pole returnedReunion with Rome began

1554

Persecution of Protestants beganThe law De heretico comburendo revived

1555 Peace of Augsburg established the principle of cuius regio eius religio

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Student timelines

England Europe

Worst harvest of the century Influenza epidemic beganArchbishop Cranmer burnt at the stake

1556

Mary I died and was succeeded by Elizabeth I

1558

The Elizabethan Settlement of ReligionRevolt of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation in ScotlandCatholic bishops removed

1559

Mary Queen of Scots landed in Scotland 1561Convocation approved the 39 Articles 1563Mary Queen of Scots married Henry Darnley

1565

Darnley murderedMary Queen of Scots married James BothwellMary forced to abdicate as Queen of Scots

1567

Mary Queen of Scots fled to England 1568Northern Rising 1569Papal bull Regnans in Excelsis declared Elizabeth I excommunicated and deposed

1570

Puritans published the first and second Admonition to ParliamentRidolfi Plot uncovered

1571

Duke of Norfolk executed for involvement in plots

1572

Irish Rebellion began 1579The Jesuit mission arrived in England 1580Recusancy fines increasedEdward Campion arrested and sentenced to death

1581

Throckmorton Plot discovered 1583All Catholic priests ordered to leave the realm

1585

Mary Queen of Scots implicated in Babington ConspiracyTrial of Mary Queen of Scots

1586

Mary Queen of Scots executedPeter Wentworth challenged Elizabeth I’s absolutism in church affairs

1587

Spanish Armada defeated 1588Trinity College, Dublin founded to train Protestant clergy

1592

Act against ‘seditious sectaries and disloyal persons’Greenwood, Barrow and Penry (opponents of royal supremacy) executed

1593

Outbreak of Tyrone’s Rebellion (the Nine Years War)First of four poor harvests

1594

Spanish sacked CalaisEnglish sacked Cadiz

1596

Spanish naval expeditions against England failed

1597

Irish victory at Yellow FordDeath of Lord Burghley, Elizabeth I’s chief minister

1598

Essex appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland 1599Lord Mountjoy appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland

1600

Essex executed for attempted rebellionSpanish troops landed at KinsaleSiege and Battle of KinsaleElizabethan Poor Law

1601

Spanish surrendered to Mountjoy 1602

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Student timelines

England Europe

O’Neill submitted to Mountjoy at MellifontElizabeth I died and was succeeded by James I of England, Scotland, Ireland and France (James VI of Scotland)

1603

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Student timelines

1B: England, 1509–1603: authority, nation and religion with 2B.2: The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609

Entries in italics are outside the date range of the topic in the specification but are included as useful background.

England EuropeHenry, Duke of York, born (Henry VIII) 1491Henry VIII’s accessionHenry married Catherine of Aragon

1509

Execution of Empson and Dudley 1510Wolsey appointed Lord Chancellor 1515Defence of the Seven Sacraments is publishedThe pope bestowed the title ’Defender of the Faith’ on Henry VIII

1521

Rioting against taxes 1525Negotiations took place with Rome about Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon (1526–29)

1526

Poor harvests (1527-29) 1527Fall of WolseyThomas More appointed Lord ChancellorHenry VIII’s reformation parliaments meet (1529–36)

1529

More resignedAct of SubmissionThomas Cromwell became Henry’s chief minister

1532

Henry VIII married Anne BoleynAct of Restraint of AppealsThomas Cranmer became Archbishop of CanterburyBirth of Princess Elizabeth

1533

Revolt in IrelandAct of SupremacyTreasons Act

1534

Visitations of monasteries and churches orderedExecutions of More, Fisher and the leaders of the Carthusians

1535

Act for the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Pilgrimage of GraceAnne Boleyn executedHenry VIII married Jane Seymour

1536

Coverdale’s 1535 translation of The English Bible authorisedDeath of Jane Seymour Good harvests to mid-1540s

1537

Six Articles ActAct for the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries

1539

Thomas Cromwell executedHenry VIII married Anne of ClevesMarriage declared voidHenry VIII married Catherine Howard

1540

Henry VIII took the title of King of Ireland 1541Sir Antony St Leger promoted the policy of ‘Surrender and Regrant’ in IrelandCatherine Howard executedMary Queen of Scots bornCoinage debased

1542

The King’s Book publishedHenry VIII married Catherine Parr

1543

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Student timelines

England Europe

Death of Henry VIIISuccession of Edward VIAscendancy of Protector SomersetAct for the Dissolution of Chantries, Guilds and Colleges

1547

Act of UniformityFirst Book of Common PrayerEarl of Warwick’s coupWestern RebellionThe ‘rebellions of Commonwealth’ including Kett’s Rebellion

1549

Second Book of Common PrayerSomerset executed

1552

Edward VI’s ‘device’ for the successionLady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England Mary’s counter-coup and accessionNorthumberland executedMass restored

1553

Wyatt’s RebellionJane Grey executedMary married Philip of SpainCardinal Pole returnedReunion with Rome began

1554

Persecution of Protestants beganThe law De heretico comburendo revived

1555 Charles handed sovereign authority in the Netherlands over to his son Philip

Worst harvest of the century Influenza epidemic beganArchbishop Cranmer burnt at the stake

1556

Mary I died and was succeeded by Elizabeth I

1558

The Elizabethan Settlement of ReligionRevolt of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation in ScotlandCatholic bishops removed

1559 Margaret of Parma appointed regent

Mary Queen of Scots landed in Scotland 1561 The bishoprics schemeConvocation approved the 39 Articles 1563 Orange and Egmont withdrew from Council of

State meetings1564 Philip II blamed Granvelle for the failure of

church reorganisationMary Queen of Scots married Henry Darnley

1565 Letters from the Segovia WoodsBad harvest raised food prices

1566 Iconoclastic FuryMargaret’s Accord with the nobility and CalvinistsBreakdown of Accord

Darnley murderedMary Queen of Scots married James BothwellMary forced to abdicate as Queen of Scots

1567 Defeat of ‘First Revolt’Egmont and Hoorn executedAlva set up Council of Troubles (the Council of Blood)

Mary Queen of Scots fled to England 1568 Orange condemned by Council of TroublesNorthern Rising 1569 Alva began imposition of Tenth Penny

States-General refused imposition of Tenth Penny

Papal bull Regnans in Excelsis declared Elizabeth I excommunicated and deposed

1570

Puritans published the first and second Admonition to ParliamentRidolfi Plot uncovered

1571

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Student timelines

England Europe

1573 Alva recalled and replaced by Requesens1574 Spanish troops vacated South Holland1575 Philip II declared himself bankrupt

Failure of attempts at Breda to broker a peace1576 Death of Requesens

Spanish FuryPacification of GhentOutbreak of Third Revolt

1577 Don John of Austria became regentPerpetual Edict signed

1578 Holland, Zeeland and Gelderland agreed a defence treatyDuke of Parma appointed regent

Irish Rebellion began 1579 Union of Arras (the southern provinces)Union of Utrecht established the United Provinces of the NetherlandsDuke of Parma captured Maastricht

The Jesuit mission arrived in England 1580 Province of Groningen left Union of Utrecht and declared allegiance to Philip IIWilliam of Orange outlawed by Philip II

Recusancy fines increasedEdward Campion arrested and sentenced to death

1581 Act of AbjurationWilliam of Orange published his ‘Apology’

Throckmorton Plot discovered 1583 French Fury1584 William of Orange assassinated

Parma captured GhentAll Catholic priests ordered to leave the realm

1585 Parma captured AntwerpTreaty of Nonsuch signed between England and the Dutch rebelsEarl of Leicester assumed title of Governor-GeneralMaurice of Nassau became Stadtholder of the United Provinces

Mary Queen of Scots implicated in Babington ConspiracyTrial of Mary Queen of Scots

1586

Mary Queen of Scots executedPeter Wentworth challenged Elizabeth I’s absolutism in church affairs

1587 Maurice of Nassau took control of the armies of the United Provinces

Spanish Armada defeated 1588 Earl of Leicester resignedPhilip II ordered Parma to join the Armada against England

1590 Philip II ordered Parma to intervene in France

United Provinces declared a RepublicTrinity College, Dublin founded to train Protestant clergy

1592 Death of Parma

Act against ‘seditious sectaries and disloyal persons’Greenwood, Barrow and Penry (opponents of royal supremacy) executed

1593

Outbreak of Tyrone’s Rebellion (the Nine Years War)First of four poor harvests

1594 Maurice of Nassau captured Groningen

Spanish sacked CalaisEnglish sacked Cadiz

1596 Treaty of Greenwich

Spanish naval expeditions against England failed

1597 Maurice of Nassau’s victory at Turnhout.

Irish victory at Yellow FordDeath of Lord Burghley, Elizabeth I’s chief minister

1598 Rule of the archdukes begins in the Southern Netherlands

Essex appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland 1599

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Student timelines

England Europe

Spanish troops landed at KinsaleSiege and Battle of KinsaleElizabethan Poor Law

1601

Spanish surrendered to Mountjoy 1602O’Neill submitted to Mountjoy at MellifontElizabeth I died and was succeeded by James I of England, Scotland, Ireland and France (James VI of Scotland)

1603

1604 Spinola captured Ostend1605 Spinola’s forces recaptured territory in north-

east Netherlands1606 Spanish forces crossed Ijssel line1607 Armistice1609 Truce of Antwerp (‘Twelve Years Truce’)

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