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Gemma Hobbs
Professor Philbin
WRTC 230
April 28, 2011
An Investigation into the Influence of the Media on Adolescent Overweight and Obesity:
Does food advertising through television, movies, and the Internet translate to an
epidemic?
Introduction
The rates of overweight and obesity in America are frightening, and continue to
worsen. This epidemic should come as no surprise to anyone interested in the health of
America’s population, or its adolescents, for that matter. The current state of affairs for
children and adolescents up to age 19 is worrisome; it could even be argued that food
corporations and marketers have a fair amount to gain from our younger generation
becoming, and remaining, fat. Extensive research has been collected surrounding the
extent of influence media has on the health of America’s adolescents. It is true that the
food marketing industry is vital to our nation’s economy, and billions of dollars are
invested into marketing and advertising of food brands each year. But what is the real
cost for child and adolescent health in America? This paper seeks to investigate the
undeniable influence food marketing has on the health of American adolescents, and why
food marketing tactics have such a strong effect.
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Defining Overweight and Obesity
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, overweight and
obesity for children and teens aged 2 to 20 are defined by using BMI (body mass index)
measurements (CDC.gov). The body mass index equation calculates the ratio of weight to
height and provides a baseline for an individual’s body fat. BMI-for-age growth charts
specific to boys and girls are used to determine if an adolescent is overweight or obese.
For example, a 10-year old boy with a BMI of 23 is placed in the obese category for his
age, as exhibited by Figure 1 following.
Figure 1. Body mass index-for-age percentile chart for boys 2 to 20 years of age
Source: http://imonitorhealth.com/
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Figure 1 shows a growth chart based on BMI-for-age percentile for boys aged 2 to
20 years. The green area, between the 5th and 85th percentiles, shows the approximate
range for which a boy would be considered at an acceptable BMI for his age, whereas the
yellow and red areas indicate health risks associated with BMI.
According to one study, a child is overweight if he or she is above the 85th
percentile, and obese if above the 95th percentile (Anderson et al, 34). NHANES, also
known as the National Health and Nutrition Surveys, defines overweight as 85th to 95th
percentiles of weight for length-growth references (Deckelbaum, 240).
To read a growth chart correctly, one must employ the following rule: if the child
is in the 85th percentile, it means that 85% of children the same age have the same or less
BMI, and the child is heavier than 85% of children his or her age. One can see that being
in the 97th percentile, for example, means that a child is heavier than most of his or her
age-specific population, which translates to being overweight or obese. While percentiles
are imprecise and do not necessarily convey ill health or high risk of disease, they are
useful measures for determining the health of a child or adolescent.
Current Statistics and Risks Associated with Overweight and Obesity
As noted previously, the rates of obesity for our younger generation are startlingly
high, and these rates carry risks of chronic health problems. According to Healthy People
2020, a nationwide initiative to promote healthy behaviors and reduce the incidence of
chronic disease by 2020, the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents is the
highest in Mexican-American children and non-Hispanic black girls
(HealthyPeople.gov). In a study done between the years of 2007 and 2008, 12% of
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children 2 to 19 were at or above the 97th percentile of BMI-for-age, and 32% were at or
above the 85th percentile; America currently holds with a shocking 17.1% of children and
adolescents overweight (Ogden, 246). It has been noted that, “since the late 1970s,
obesity rates have more than doubled among children 6 to 11 years of age, and more than
tripled among those 12 to 19 years of age” (Nestle, 2528). Clearly, the word “epidemic”
is not used lightly to describe the prevalence of these conditions among our youth.
The risks attributed to being overweight or obese are numerous. Chronic diseases
such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, and cancer, and chronic disease risk
factors such as high blood pressure and dyslipidemia, are more common in those who are
overweight or obese (Deckelbaum, 239). In addition to physical maladies, being
overweight or obese can cause a child social and psychological distress. Negative self-
esteem, withdrawal from interaction with peers, anxiety and depression, and a feeling of
rejection are common among children and adolescents with extra weight (Deckelbaum,
241). These are all personality characteristics that can develop early on and persist into
adulthood, affecting one’s quality of life for years to come.
Marketing of Food Products in Current Media
Children and adolescents in America are exposed to a gross amount of food
advertisements almost incessantly via television, movies, the Internet, and other ad
mediums. PBS, Disney, and Nickelodeon are some of the main channels that children
view regularly, and each of these popular networks showcase a significant amount of
advertisements. In a sick turn of history, cartoons were explicitly created for food
marketers to advertise their sugary cereals (De Graaf et al, 56). TV provided yet another
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way for food marketers to edge their way into children’s spheres of consciousness.
Today, American children “may view between 20,000 and 40,000 commercials each
year…and may see as many as three hours of food commercials each week,” with most of
these foods heavy in fats and sugars (Linn, 557). With most of the commercials
promoting nutritionally poor items, how could one not see the connection between the
ever-plummeting health statuses of our nation’s younger generation?
Movies also serve as prime hosts for brand names and product placement.
Research has shown that from 1996 to 2005, of 200 movies audited, 69% contained at
least one food brand advertisement (Sutherland, 468). Shrek the Third, the 2007 hit kids
film, featured McDonalds, M&M’s, and Kellogg’s deals throughout its promotion, so any
child could find Shrek himself adorning the packaging of an M&M’s bag or the like
(Linn, 141). Children who see their beloved characters smiling on bags of food tend to
ask for these foods to be bought when they are invading the aisles of supermarkets.
Spongebob Squarepants is featured on Kraft’s macaroni and cheese boxes (2002) and
Kellogg’s fruit flavored snacks feature characters from Nickelodeon and Cartoon
Network (Linn, 138). The as-seen-on-TV factor seems to be a pique point of interest for
young viewership, which translates into asking for these products at the supermarket and
purchasing them individually.
Popular gaming web sites and sites of food companies themselves are infected
with marketing propaganda: the McDonald’s website features games, puzzles, and
quizzes, while Kellogg’s mini-site for Apple Jacks proudly displays “Great news, NO
apple taste” as a slogan (kelloggs.com/applejacks). In-game advertising on the Internet is
a “highly sophisticated, finely tuned strategy that combines product placement,
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behavioral targeting, and viral marketing to forge ongoing relationships between brands
and individual gamers” - of course, the companies implicated in this volatile quotation
are McDonalds, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Burger King, Gatorade, and Mountain Dew (Frith and
Mueller, 151).
Websites used primarily by children are steadily rising in the ranks as a prime
medium for advertisement. Neopets, an adolescent gaming site of the early 2000s that is
still in existence, allows marketers to make use of “immersive advertising,” a tactic in
which games and gaming sites slyly feature images of certain products (Linn, 140). A
Heinz executive noted that after the EZ squirt ketchup was immersed in a game on
Neopets, “awareness just went through the roof [and] trials of the product increased by 18
percent” (Linn, 140). The rise of the immersive advertising technique is certainly one to
be concerned with, as it is a less blatant and more “fun” way of building brand loyalty
and curiosity in young gamers. Figure 2 on the following page (page 7) shows a
screencap of the Neopets marketplace – can you find the immersive advertising example?
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Figure 2. Neopets screenshot showing the infiltration of McDonalds, Lucky Charms, and
Trix onto the children’s popular website
Source: Google Images.
Here we see that the Neopets Marketplace features a McDonalds and the mascots
for Lucky Charms and Trix. One can see that the average American adolescent is
exposed to aggressive and almost constant food advertisement, with most of this
advertising for unhealthy foods that contribute to weight gain and poor health.
Investing in Overweight
Major food brands dedicate a staggering amount of money to advertising. In the
United States in 2001, Coca-Cola allotted $224 million, Nestle candy $65 million, Frito-
Lay Company $24.8 million, and McDonalds $635 million, Burger King $298 million,
and KFC $206 million all to advertising (Story). Aquafina bottled water, on the other
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hand, only allotted $13.2 million for advertisements. This money is well-spent for its
purpose: it has been shown that children under the age of eight are vulnerable to
misleading advertising, as they have not developed a sense of bias and believe
advertisements at their word (Sutherland, 469). Food marketers realize the value of
building brand loyalty from a young age and tend to associate beloved characters from
TV shows, movies, and the Internet with food products, in addition to making their
products seem fun and exciting. These marketing tricks are clearly having some sort of
influence on the population at hand.
Targeting of Children
As decades have passed, the emphasis placed on television marketing has
increased. In 1983, a conglomerate of food companies spent $100 million on TV
advertising to children, yet by 2000 Burger King alone spent $80 million and in 2007
food and beverage marketers spent $10-$15 billion a year targeting the youth in all sorts
of media (Linn, 134). Moreover, food companies cater to the changing technology and
viewership of their ads. For example, in the 1970s when children’s programming was
mostly on broadcast TV, 77% of product advertising for these channels was for food –
yet by the mid-1990s, when cable TV was more prevalent for children, 80% of product
advertising was for food in these channels (Powell, 557).
It is clear that food companies pursue prime-time spots in order to market as much
as they can to younger viewers and build brand loyalty in future purchasers. Because
children younger than the age of about eight years “cannot differentiate between program
content and advertisements,” building brand loyalty in youngsters is not particularly hard,
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but is very effective (Linn, 135). It should also be noted that research has shown by the
age of two, most children in the United States can recognize products in supermarkets
(Nestle, 2528). Marketing to younger children can pay off nicely in the future.
How much are they advertising?
Extensive research has been conducted on the time allotted for advertisements for
different networks, a number of which are food-oriented advertisements. Furthermore,
many of these food advertisements contain fat- and sugar-laden items. Obviously, it is
worthwhile to quantify the amount of food advertisements children typically see on their
favorite channels, and the proportion of which are for nutritionally-poor foods.
One station is easy to pick on. Nickelodeon is touted as the “most-watched
children’s television station, hosting 47 of the top 50 children’s programs” – quite a
monopoly and potential breeding ground for young would-be consumers (Batada, 48).
While Nick does address childhood obesity with its “Let’s Just Play” campaign and
character endorsement for fruits and vegetables, it also markets its characters as the faces
for fast-food goodie-bag toys, and as adornments in magazines, websites, live tours, and
on food products such as Pop-Tarts. In 2006, a study audited 28 hours of Nickelodeon
broadcasting, with the results being that food ads accounted for 26% of the total 28 hours
of Nick watching; of those 26% food ads, 88% were for foods of poor nutritional quality
(Batada, 49). Similar findings were published in relation to Nickelodeon’s contributions
for packaging in store products, meal combinations at restaurants, and magazine food
ads. Here one can see a typical example of food companies and institutions running
rampant with advertising due to the lack of marketing regulations for targeting children.
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Tables 1 and 2 following display quantitative data taken on the number and
content of advertisements for three popular children’s networks.
Table 1. Product Categories of Promotional Spots Aimed at Children
Source: Connor, Susan M. “Food-Related Advertising on Preschool Television: Building
Brand Recognition in Young Viewers.” Pediatrics 118 (2006): 1478-1485.
This table breaks down the content of advertisements shown on popular children’s
networks Disney, PBS and Nickelodeon in terms of the types of ads seen in a time-slot
for each channel. One can see that the number of fast food ads comprises 32% of the total
ad time, a significantly large amount.
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Table 2. Prevalence of Advertising in Preschool Programming on Each Network
Source: Connor, Susan M. “Food-Related Advertising on Preschool Television: Building
Brand Recognition in Young Viewers.” Pediatrics 118 (2006): 1478-1485.
This table details both the number and type of food advertisements aimed at
preschool-aged children from the three networks: Disney, PBS, and Nickelodeon. Instead
of investigating the content of the ads, it notes the proportion of ads that are for food and
which of those are specifically aimed towards children. One can see that the percentage
of food-related advertisements for Disney, PBS, and Nickelodeon was 35%, 60%, and
29%, respectively, with a significant number of each network’s food-related ads aimed
specifically at children (9, 23, and 44, respectively). The numbers speak for themselves.
How Food Marketing Influences Childhood Overweight and Obesity
So how does one draw the connection from food advertising in the media to the
major increase in overweight and obesity of the younger generation? For one, food
advertisements aired on popular adolescent channels seem to have a massive influence.
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TV-watching replaces activity time with sedentary lounging, decreases the time spent
eating meals with the family, leading to mindless snacking, and influences the thought
processes and desires of adolescents overall (Powell, 553). A conclusion can be drawn
between the facts that “food is the single largest product category advertised and often
makes up most of the TV ads directed to children,” and that “the items most frequently
purchased by children are sweets, snacks, and beverages” (Powell, 554). Children are
persuaded to eat foods made “just for them,” which gives kids what they are all looking
for – a sense of autonomy and adulthood (Nestle, 2528).
Marketers are especially adept at identifying parents as the gatekeepers to the real
goldmines – the children. The mutiny against adults is a common agenda used by
marketers that works by influencing kids to think of their parents as “fools and fuddy-
duddies who aren’t smart enough to realize their children’s need for the product being
sold” (De Graaf, 57). Encouraging this mutiny creates an environment where the parents’
ideals don’t matter, and loyalty shifts from the parents to the brand.
In addition to simply being shown in food advertisements, foods are often
presented in a fun-oriented way that make it seem as if eating the food in question is a fun
experience filled with laughter. These experiences are often endorsed with a favorite
character from shows or movies. Animation and the use of licensed characters is a tactic
used to encourage the idea of fun and carefree eating. Animation and licensed characters
are frequently used on the Disney and PBS channel advertisements – 50% and 55% of
advertisements, respectively (Connor, 1481). Occasionally, food is not even the main
focus of an advertiser’s campaign. Chuck E. Cheese and McDonald’s use the promise of
fun and the “inducements of free toys or the chance to play games” to build brand loyalty
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(Connor, 1481). With the emphasis on fun and games associated with junk food, it is easy
to see how children in America are influenced to make the types of food choices they are
making.
Several studies have been conducted on behalf of identifying the exact correlation
current media has to childhood overweight and obesity. There have been positive
relationships found between adiposity, or fatness, and amount of TV viewing, due to the
fact that more energy-dense foods and drinks are consumed with more TV viewing
(Dixon, 1319). Moreover, children exposed to embedded commercials in videos showed
more likelihood of selecting advertised food items in a supermarket rather than items at
random (Dixon, 1319). TV exposure has also been shown to increase children’s ideas that
other kids are eating junk food and consumption of the junk food itself (Dixon, 1319).
Food companies and marketers have created a culture of desire associated with fun and
rebelling against adults. This culture seamlessly directs children towards consumption of
unhealthy foods.
Individuals and Groups Combating the Epidemic
There are quite a few individuals and groups taking a stand against the growing
rates of adolescent overweight and obesity. Some are fighting the epidemic on a personal
basis via layperson blogs or websites, while others are pushing for political change.
Michelle Obama
First Lady Michelle Obama has taken a strong leadership role against childhood
and adolescent obesity and overweight. She launched the “Let’s Move” campaign in
February of 2010, intending it to encourage a healthy lifestyle by engaging schools,
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families, and communities in healthy habits. Obama has worked closely with the USDA
to “give more power to consumers” in the form of food labeling and personal nutrition
information (Wikipedia).
Fitness and activity is also a goal that is stressed by the campaign by providing
guidelines for schools and improving accessibility to activity (LetsMove.gov). The “Let’s
Move” campaign website is an interactive and easily navigable website that provides
helpful tips for each sector of the community so that they can do their part to combat and
prevent childhood health issues. See Figure 3 following.
Figure 3. A screencap of the Let’s Move Campaign website
Source: http://www.letsmove.gov
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This screen cap is a page from the “Let’s Move” campaign’s website. One can see
that each colored block provides a link to how different sectors of the population can
contribute to healthy habits. For example, school systems can “add healthy living to the
lesson plan” and individual chefs can “create healthy dishes to teach about food and
nutrition” (letsmove.gov). The website shies from dispensing catch-all health tips and
information – instead, it encourages, through interactive colors and links, active
participation from many types of individuals in our country.
Marion Nestle
Nestle, a premiere registered dietitian, runs a personal blog devoted to accurate
nutrition information and governmental regulation of ads aimed towards children. In her
article “Food Marketing and Childhood Obesity – A Matter of Policy,” she notes that
regulation of ad material for children is superior in other countries. Australia bans food
advertisements aimed at children younger than 14, and the Netherlands bans sugar
advertisements to those under the age of 12. Cartoon characters as mediums of
advertising for food products are banned in Sweden. Nestle notes that if the US adopted
some of these regulations, it would put a dent in the ever-increasing rate of childhood
obesity and overweight. The Federal Trade Commission, in 1984, deregulated children’s
television, which allowed TV shows and products to “be marketed together as a package”
(De Graaf et al, 57). This is a severe source of discontent among those who reprehend the
motives of food marketers.
The following table on page 16 details the levels of regulation on promotional
marketing to children. One can see that the absolute least regulation would be zero
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intervention, whereas the strictest regulations include local, national, international, and
private litigation concerning the restrictions on marketing of food products.
Table 3. Approaches to Protecting Children
Source: Harris, Jennifer L. et al. “A Crisis in the Marketplace: How Food Marketing
Contributes to Childhood Obesity and What Can Be Done.” Annual Review of Public
Health 30 (2009): 211-225.
The sentiment Nestle puts forth is supported by research on the issue – a case
model shows that decreasing TV food advertising to children to zero minutes per week
would decrease total consumption by 4.5%, which would translate to a weight of 2.1%
less for children (Veerman, 367). This means that potentially one in seven obese children
would not have been obese had they never been exposed to food advertising on TV. Of
course, zero minutes per week of advertisement is a highly idealistic goal. But some
organizations strive for just that, as we will see in the following section.
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Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood
The Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood is comprised of healthcare
professionals, educators, advocacy groups, parents, and individuals. It is a national
organization meant to promote the values of commercial-free TV-watching. It also
desires to bring to light problems with current political measures on advertisements
aimed towards adolescents.
“The commercialization of childhood is the link between many of the
most serious problems facing children, and society today. Childhood
obesity, eating disorders, youth violence, sexualization, family stress,
underage alcohol and tobacco use, rampant materialism, and the erosion of
children’s creative play, are all exacerbated by advertising and marketing”
(commercialfreechildhood.org).
One can see that CCFC is fairly radical in its views and measures against
advertising and marketing, but this blatant frustration is the result of many healthcare
professionals realizing the extent to which marketing has an effect on the impressionable
minds of children and adolescents.
Fit WIC
Women, Infants, and Children is a government-funded program that aims to
provide low-income families with food and nutritional awareness in order to raise healthy
children. Fit WIC was a USDA-funded project that lasted only three years and only
reached 5 states, but was intended to be a national model for evaluating childhood obesity
prevention strategies vital for low-income families that often present with overweight or
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obese family members. Fit WIC provides a model for WIC agencies to use to combat
obesity and overweight risk when approaching clients.
Conclusions
Childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity statistics continue to rise in the
United States. One cannot deny that some food companies’ primary goals are to earn
money, and it can be further argued that this moneymaking mindset comes with a health
implication for the younger generation of America. While the facts compiled in this paper
are dismal, an increase in awareness surrounding the effect current media quite obviously
has on childhood overweight and obesity has the power to turn these statistics around.
Individuals and organizations are working hard to broadcast the effects of nutritionally
poor food marketing. With any luck, marketers and food companies will soon encounter
barriers in their attempts to indoctrinate young viewers into a culture of unhealthy food.
TV, movie, and Internet marketing is surely not the only facet contributing to the
epidemic of overweight and obesity. However, eradicating or reducing the parts of our
society that serve to promote unhealthy behavior is a goal we should all be focusing on.