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This article was downloaded by: [North Dakota State University]On: 22 October 2014, At: 08:53Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Education for Teaching:International research and pedagogyPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjet20
Gender balance in primary initialteacher education: some currentperspectivesChristine Szwed aa School of Education , The University of Birmingham ,Birmingham, UKPublished online: 14 Jul 2010.
To cite this article: Christine Szwed (2010) Gender balance in primary initial teacher education:some current perspectives, Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy,36:3, 303-317
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2010.497392
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Journal of Education for TeachingVol. 36, No. 3, August 2010, 303–317
ISSN 0260-7476 print/ISSN 1360-0540 online© 2010 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/02607476.2010.497392http://www.informaworld.com
Gender balance in primary initial teacher education: some current perspectives
Christine Szwed*
School of Education, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Taylor and FrancisCJET_A_497392.sgm(Received 29 March 2009; final version received 9 February 2010)10.1080/02607476.2010.497392Journal of Education for Teaching0260-7476 (print)/1360-0540 (online)Original Article2010Taylor & Francis363000000August 2010Dr [email protected]
The drive to recruit more male primary teachers has been a longstanding aim ofmany Western countries. Within England the Training and Development Agencyfor Schools has undertaken a 10-year marketing campaign to increase the numberswith limited success. Researchers have attempted to analyse the reasons for thisfailure, considering many areas, for example, the feminisation of the teachingprofession, the low status of the primary teacher and concerns about childprotection. This paper discusses the findings of a research study undertaken by agroup of providers of ITE (initial teacher education) aiming to examine currentissues relating to the recruitment and retention of male students in primary ITE.Many similar studies have researched only the male ‘voice’. However, in anattempt to explore any differences in contributory factors, the research reportedhere examined views of both successful male and female trainees on ITE coursesand their course providers. The findings indicated that gender wasoverwhelmingly seen as irrelevant by trainees themselves. Where there was asignificant difference to other studies it was that there was no significant genderdifference observed in relation to concerns about child protection. The study alsoidentified successful strategies for retention and completion. Within these therewas however a gender divide and the research highlighted that some strategieswere seen as particularly supportive for male trainees. Where this is the case it isimportant that providers/policy makers acknowledge these and continue to addressparticular groups’ needs.
Keywords: gender equity; primary ITE; support strategies; retention
Introduction
The last 25 years have seen a period of sustained and increasingly radical reforms toinitial teacher education in England as successive governments have progressivelyincreased prescription and accountability through the regulation and subsequentinspection of courses. The resulting changes to training provision have been bothpractical and ideological and have attempted to align primary ITE with wider Englisheducation reform agendas. The impact of education reforms and other contextualfactors on the sector as a whole has been to reconsider the number and balance oftrainees within the primary field. One realised aim was to increase primary trainingnumbers and attract a somewhat more diverse population in terms of age and ethnic-ity, although not in terms of gender. The proportion of primary male trainees remainsa consistently low 14%, with marked variation across routes and government officeregions (McNamara et al. 2008). These numbers stay low in spite of government
*Email: [email protected]
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initiatives over the last decade to increase numbers of males in primary/early yearsteaching.
It is taken for granted that the teaching profession should represent the entirecommunity, attracting people from both genders. In recent years, the body responsiblefor recruitment in England, the Training and Development Agency for Schools, hasintroduced measures to increase levels of male recruitment, particularly to the primarysector. Such measures have included targeted advertising, ‘taster’ courses and mentor-ing systems. The measures have been supported by the setting of recruitment targetsfor initial teacher training providers. Over the past few years, those targets have beenincreasingly difficult for providers to meet, particularly in the primary/early yearssector.
Developing and sustaining strategies that promote the recruitment and retention oftrainees is challenging. The importance of such initiatives is widely recognised butthere is a need for caution. Simply increasing numbers of male trainees can be viewedas a rather simplistic solution. What is essential is that the quality of such trainees isimproved by any quota agreement with providers. The challenge for providersremains, therefore, to recruit and retain high quality male trainees.
Research background
It is important to note that the literature on male primary/student teachers is writtenfrom different perspectives. However, a number of studies have focused on recruitingmales in teaching, finding that teaching is unattractive to males (Drudy et al. 2005)and that primary teaching is perceived to be a female-friendly profession (Edmondset al. 2002). In a review of the influence of gender on the choice of teaching as acareer, Edmonds et al. (2002) conclude that, whereas females place greater impor-tance on intrinsic reasons, males place greater emphasis on extrinsic reasons such asfinancial reward, a difference that needs to be factored into a review of recruitment.The authors also point to evidence that some male primary teachers are discouragedby negative perceptions of males working with young children.
Indeed, empirical research points to the tensions that male primary teachers expe-rience between showing care and concerns about child protection (Hansen andMulholland 2005). In a more recent consideration of gender, policy and initial teachereducation, Skelton (2007) advises that the government strategies on male recruitmentand retention need to pay attention to the issue of child abuse, and to develop practical,realistic and transparent means of enabling men to work effectively in schools partic-ularly with young children.
Much of the literature identifies barriers to recruitment, but studies on retentionhave also focused upon why men are more likely to drop out of initial teacher training(ITT) courses and how courses can accommodate the needs of male trainees moreeffectively. Mulholland and Hansen (2003) report the ‘shock’ of male trainees inembarking upon teacher education, describing how they seek out the company of othermales. This initial shock may be followed by various ‘knockbacks’ which ‘bruise’their identity (Foster and Newman 2005). Indeed, Skelton (2007) observes that, forsome male teachers, their gender is ‘constantly being attended to by others’ (684), andthat focusing on men as role models is perceived by males as being both positive andnegative. For example, some males became irritated at being perceived as role modelswhilst others welcomed the chance to be a compensatory male influence.
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The relative lack of experience in schools prior to entry of male trainees (comparedto females) has been identified as an issue contributing to limited awareness of thechallenges of beginning teaching (Mulholland and Hansen 2003). While ITT provid-ers have identified challenges for male trainees, such as academic work, planning andpreparation (Moyles and Cavendish 2001) the value of strategies to support males tosuccessful completion has received limited attention in the UK context. Male traineeshave identified the value of support from other males in university groups as well assupport by school mentors (Lewis 2002): sharing such good practice could be used ina positive way to inform the decisions of key stakeholders in the retention as well asrecruitment of males.
The overall aim of the research reported here was to identify successful strategiesin the recruitment, selection and retention of males onto primary and early years initialteacher training programmes, with a particular focus on strategies perceived to lead tosuccessful completion. These strategies are presented below.
The study
Sites and samples
Training and Development Agency for Schools census data analysed indicated thatthere was a need within the West Midlands to recruit and retain male trainees withinthe primary sector. This was particularly evident within the early years sector wherethe number of males is very low. Some providers had identified new recruitment andretention activities that could be evaluated through research. We aimed to evaluatetheir perceived impact by gathering the views of the stakeholders. As providers ofinitial teacher education (ITE) with strong regional links in the training of teachers wewere well placed to undertake a small-scale research study. The study was a jointinitiative involving five ITE providers with a variety of training routes. Utilising fund-ing provided by the Training and Development Agency for Schools for recruitmentand retention activities, we decided to seek to gain a better understanding of thecurrent context in relation to retention of males on primary courses
Many studies in this area have focused only on male trainees. It was felt to beessential to include the views of both male and female trainees. We wanted to gatherthe views of both genders to seek out if indeed there was a gender perspective. Inparticular, we wanted to gain a deeper understanding of what contributed to thesuccess of trainees on initial teacher education courses and felt this was bestachieved through a qualitative study. We particularly wanted to focus on the teachervoice and felt that this study would add to previous research where a smaller numberof males alone had been the focus of the research. It was therefore decided that inorder to gain some clarity regarding issues relating to retention and completion, weshould gather the views of those trainees who had successfully completed theircourses, and their course managers. Therefore, nine course managers/admissionstutors were interviewed.
More specifically, we aimed to identify providers with strategies perceived to besuccessful in recruiting, selecting and retaining high-quality male trainees. We alsowanted to identify successful support strategies in retaining male trainees through tosuccessful completion and employment with a view to making recommendations forfuture action in the area.
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It could be argued that the sample of 75 trainees is rather small to comprise arepresentative sample, given the overall number of primary trainees in England. Aquestionnaire could have been utilised to ascertain the views of a larger sample andindeed this method has been used previously (Carrington 2003). We wanted to add tosuch research findings to examine the factors identified in more depth by utilisingstudent voice and by discussion and debate. Indeed, as Schofield (2000) asserts,generalisability is increased by performing multi-site studies, while Miles andHuberman (1994) suggest that cross-case analysis of the kind carried out in thisresearch embraces confidence that the findings have some relevance beyond thespecific cases. Indeed, the sample here reflected the regional distribution with bothethnic minority and mature student representation, although age and ethnic back-ground were not specifically recorded as variables. There was, however, a greaternumber of younger students in the BA/BEd groups. The sample also included thedifferent routes into teaching i.e. undergraduate, postgraduate and employment-based, although the majority of participants were from the one-year postgraduateroute. This however reflects the national training pattern and so can be viewed as arepresentative sample. Nevertheless, care needs to be taken to avoid drawing generalconclusions on the basis of this sample only. The aim is to present a rich picture ofthe experiences of trainees seeking to tentatively establish ‘working hypotheses’(Lincoln and Guba 1985) that add incrementally to our understanding of the issuesrelating to recruitment and retention.
Research tools
The research methods undertaken involved data analysis, focus group interviews andinterviews with all course providers. Mixed gender groups were interviewed at the endof their courses providing an opportunity to examine factors that the students felt hadcontributed to their success on the course. Course managers acted as group facilitators,guiding the discussion according to a pre-designed standardised, open-ended questionformat undertaken in an informal setting. This approach allowed all participants torespond to the same questions but also allowed for modification and extended discus-sion as areas of interest and concern arose. The set of questions utilised by the researchteam in their interviews with trainees was carefully formulated at a group meeting(Appendix A). As the emphasis of the research was the retention of high-quality train-ees, the target groups therefore consisted of ‘successful’ trainees at the end of theircourses who had been recommended for QTS. Most had secured employment. Thequestions were also intended to follow on from previous research findings in the areato assess whether there were any similarities with that research.
Also we were keen to see how relevant gender actually was in this area. It was ourintention to collect data that would provide information about gender issues in ITE,current practice in recruitment and retention and successful support strategies.
Table 1. Composition of sample.
PGCE 52 Males 26 Females 26BA/BEd 19 Males 9 Females 10GTP 4 Males 1 Females 3Overall 75 Males 36 Females 39
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Discussions were audiotaped and subsequently transcribed with comments attrib-uted by gender. These findings were then collected and an inductive analysis under-taken in relation to emerging themes around each area of question. Subsequently,semi-structured interviews were carried out by the project co-ordinator with all courseproviders to discuss overall findings and consider further any gender specific issues/strategies. Again interviews were taped and analysed by theme.
Data analysis
A rich range of data was collected and contributed to the evidence base. No predeter-mined categories for analysis were defined. In analysing the research data, it wasessential to ensure the inclusion of the participants’ own perspectives so that the find-ings did not rely solely on the researcher’s interpretation. It was also necessary tomaintain an ethical commitment to honesty, by not ignoring data that did not supportthe dominant emerging findings. The purpose of analysis therefore was to ‘bring orderand structure’ (Brewer 2000, 14) in order to make sense of the data, searching forpatterns and themes.
At the conclusion of the fieldwork, substantial time was spent in reading andre-reading the data, at the time adding to the list of possible categories for analysis.Subsequently it was possible to begin the process of data reduction (Miles andHuberman 1994) to form a manageable number of units for analysis of the data. Thesewere then reduced into key themes following on from the key questions utilised in theresearch and were broken down into roughly five key areas:
(1) The relevance of gender in relation to experiences in ITE and motivation forteaching.
(2) Government recruitment strategies.(3) Contributory success factors (recruitment and retention).(4) Support strategies in place.(5) Advice for success.
The main findings from each of these areas are reported below.
Should gender be a consideration for a career in primary teaching?
Research findings over recent years would indicate that gender is an issue whenundertaking primary teaching. Some, but not all, of the overall findings from thisresearch, confirm other studies; for example Skelton (2007), whereby there are moresimilarities between those who opt for primary teaching as a career than differencesbetween the responses of men and women. The main reason given by both males andfemales for opting for teaching was that they had always wanted to teach and that theywanted to make a difference by doing a worthwhile job.
There were slight gender differences, however, in being motivated to teach by theexperiences gained during prior school experience, with females mentioning thisfactor more, commented on by 16 females but only one male. However, this reflectsthe fact that more females undertake work experience in schools prior to joiningcourses. There was a significant difference, however, in the number of males viewingsalary and job security as a motivating factor (commented on by 10 males and only
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three females). Half of the males mentioned job security as a significant factor withonly 10 percent of the females referring to this.
In summary, however, there was no significant gender difference overall reportedby the trainees concerning their motivations for teaching. As Skelton (2007) indicates,teaching will always attract people who have similar values regarding children e.g. theylike them, want to work with them and make a difference. Indeed, in this study thevast majority of participants felt that their gender was inconsequential and had had littleimpact on their overall experiences as a trainee teacher. Typical comments follow:
Male: I don’t think it’s your gender that makes you successful. I think it’s yourpersonality.
Female: Surely it’s about how you operate in the classroom rather than who you are?Male: I actually think that age has had a greater impact than gender especially with
the staff – they like someone who’s young and keen.Male: There was an initial reaction of shock amongst the other students at my pres-
ence on the early years course but once people overcame that surprise mygender had no impact.
However, three of the nine course managers were surprised by these findings, asevidenced by the following comment:
I think that overall I was most surprised that there wasn’t more distinction between whatmen and women said. I did expect the men to say that they felt differently in schools.
Although these particular students did not report any significant personal impact,there were however several instances where both males and females felt that theirgender went against them. For example:
Female: My heart sinks when I go for a job interview and see a man because I some-how just feel he’s going to get the job.
There was a real sense of frustration, however, regarding such assumptions asarticulated by several men interviewed. This related to wanting to be valued for theircontributions to teaching not because of their gender. Thus:
Male: I don’t want to get a job just because I’m male but because I’m the best forthe job.
Furthermore, there was a sense of resentment regarding gendered expectations,supporting the research findings of authors such as Mulholland and Hansen (2003).This was reported here equally by both males and females. Where males commentedthat they were expected to run sports clubs, discipline naughty boys and so on, thefemale teachers were just as dissatisfied when given ‘netball rather than football tosupervise’. One female felt strongly that there were different expectations for maleand female students also on the ITE course. This was supported by two other femalestudents who cited examples of males passing the course in spite of poor attendance.Male students did not dispute this but one said that he felt frustrated because of theassumption that he would enjoy a successful career just because he was male.
The evidence from the providers interviewed was that this is not the case and threemale students indicated that they felt there was disparity between what they had beentold about the job market and the reality. The point made was that they had been toldby people outside the course that they would have a significant advantage when apply-ing for work. The reality was otherwise.
Again, we can note stereotypical expectations and gender assumptions beingattended to by others as evidenced in previous research, but here both the males and
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females express frustration. Several males clearly resented being called upon to under-take certain roles, in that:
Having spent my last placement in a predominantly female environment I feel that some-times males are forced into a disciplinary role or into taking sport.
I think that definitely in some of the schools there’s a male role model thing going on.I don’t like that at all.
Two course tutors reported that certain schools seemed to act in this way:
Male tutor: My feeling is that there are certain teachers and these seem to be from myexperience the older generation of teachers who still hold very stereotypi-cal expectations about gender roles for our student teachers. It’s somethingI would like to address through our mentor training. In my opinion thebarrier to males entering the teaching profession is often the professionitself.
In this research, only three of the males interviewed reported that they enjoyed therole model element they had experienced.
Issues relating to child protection
One particularly significant difference also in these research findings was around thearea of child protection. Several previous research studies have focused upon the areaof possible child abuse allegations preventing males from entering or remaining inprimary teaching (Cushman 2005; Skelton 2007). Interestingly, this was not givenprominence in our study. Little attention was given to this by the respondents. Veryfew males (five) mentioned this area and when they did female students alsoexpressed similar concerns.
A typical female comment follows:
Everyone says it’s difficult for the men to deal with issues relating to child protection butI am just as concerned. I was asked by Y5 boys why I was allowed in their changingrooms.
One male trainee within a group did raise the issue stating that:
What I found interesting was that a female teacher said to me when the class were chang-ing for PE, ‘Are you OK being in here’ and I was suddenly thinking you’re in here andthe boys are getting changed so what’s the difference – there seems to be this extra safetyprecaution because you’re a male.
However, a female student interjected:
No – sorry, I disagree. Equally I think it could be thrown back at females as well; whenthe boys went to get changed I waited quite subtly at a position where I felt the boyswould be comfortable with my presence.
The findings indicated that child protection issues had not had a significant impacton this group and there was no evidence here of a gender divide. Course organisersagain were surprised by these findings, although one reported that:
I think things have moved on considerably in the area of child protection/vulnerable chil-dren. There is no longer the gender bias and concern that there was previously. All teach-ers are concerned about the physical contact they are allowed to have with children. It isnot gender specific.
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This area of the study indicates the most significant difference from previousresearch findings such as those by Cushman (2005) in which the area of physicalcontact with children was seen as a key barrier in relation to recruiting males into theprofession. Our research here clearly did not mirror that and what was clear was thatissues of concern relating to child protection are experienced by all trainees.
Furthermore, there was overwhelming agreement by both students and ITE staffthat positive discrimination would not help. The quality of applicants, not their quan-tity, was essential, as one admissions tutor made clear:
We don’t positively discriminate for men. They have to be as good and we refuse to godown that road. That does not mean, however, that we are not sympathetic to the differ-ing gender characteristics. For example, we have realised that more males than femalesapply late for the course so we keep a few places open for late applicants.
Male students in particular felt strongly that positive discrimination was unhelpfulas it would create false expectations of their worthiness and suitability for ITEcourses. The only reason for their acceptance on the courses should be on merit.
These findings clearly question the value of some of the government’s recruitmentdrive initiatives in England. Indeed, what the findings of this and other studies (suchas Francis 2008) indicate is that the focus on teacher identities is not a helpful one, asit privileges some over others. This focus results in an overemphasis on areas such asmales acting as role models, which, as this research has noted is not always desired orwelcomed.
Contributory success factors: retention
A key feature of this research was the aim of identifying any factors that had contrib-uted significantly to the success of trainees on our courses and then to note if genderwas a consideration within such factors.
Retention and employment rates within the region are high for both male andfemale trainees, although there is still a slighter lower retention rate for males overall.In terms of our research, it was interesting to note the individual course managers’responses to this. Anecdotally several of the providers told stories relating to the strug-gles of several males. Whilst clearly there are highly able and successful males on thecourses, there was a disproportionate number of men requiring extra support. Thefollowing comment was typical:
Our retention rates are really good and whilst I don’t want to make a big claim here I doknow that as course manager there are more boys than girls proportionately who requireextra help to complete the course successfully.
This support element of the course was reported by the trainees overwhelminglyas a central factor in their success on the course. All trainees reported that supportfrom tutors and school mentors had contributed in many ways to their progress on thecourse. Contributory success factors are discussed below in rank order.
All trainees reported that support mechanisms had been essential, i.e. support fromtutors, support from friends and family. The availability of tutors was also commendedby all trainees. Interestingly, 60% of the male trainees reported that support from peerswas a key factor against only 10% of females. Conversely, prior school experience wasseen as essential by 70% of females and only 20% of males. Furthermore, more
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females – 60% as opposed to 10% of males – reported that good organisation and theability to meet deadlines was a key factor in success.
An interesting finding here was the importance male students attached to supportfrom other males. For example:
The policy of the course to place men in groups with other men is important to me.
It’s not about our gender but it’s about the fact that we want to be good teachers and wewant to be close to our mates and have a little support group. It’s really annoying whenthe tutors split us up. They wouldn’t say, would they, all you students from ethnic minor-ities stop sitting together.
Some course managers noted that this was a revelation:
I was really surprised to see how many males mentioned the fact that they valued andwelcomed the opportunity to work with other males on the course – maybe it’s a securitything but I will now take this into consideration myself.
However, this finding does reflect the importance of the kinds of support thatThornton (1985), for example, refers to in her article on male support clubs.
What is also significant here however is the high level of support offered to allstudents on the courses. Most students felt that they had relied on the support of staff,especially personal tutors on the course. Many noted that the personal tutor schemehad enabled them to develop a close relationship with an identified member of staff.This had the potential to be a negative as well as a positive experience:
I had a personal tutor with whom I did not get on; this made me consider leaving thecourse. Luckily he left first and I got on well with my new tutor.
Many interviewees also felt that the ITE course was far more onerous than othercourses they had undertaken in terms of time and demands, especially the school expe-rience element. Therefore, support from others was sought and valued as a key successfactor on the ITE courses. Similarly, course managers acknowledged this. One coursemanager was considering developing tutorial time further in order to meet this need.Others were fighting to keep personal tutors within the ITE team.
One particular area of difference was that of prior school experience as a successfactor on the course. While 60% of females referred to this, only 10% of males did.However, as indicated previously, this is probably due to the fact that males had nothad the same amount of prior school experience as the females. Traditionally moregirls undertake school placements as part of their school work experience schemes andwithin university volunteering schemes. They spoke of this experience as of real bene-fit to them on the course, for example:
Having worked for a year previously as a TA (teaching assistant) I feel I was quite wellprepared for the school placements compared to some of my peers.
Support strategies in place
Responses here mirrored those given in relation to achieving success on the course.The three key strategies respondents mentioned were support mechanisms in place (alltrainees), support from peers, and prior school experience. In relation to these areashowever, more males (73% as opposed to 16% of females) referred to the value ofpeer support and accompanying strategies: ‘The policy of the course to place men ingroups with other men is very important to me’. Prior school experience conversely
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was referred to more by females (80–10%). Other areas mentioned by all were theavailability and understanding of staff/personal tutors, including what they perceivedas ‘open door policies’. Good organisation was a more frequent factor discussed byhalf of the female respondents but only a quarter of the males. Use of the learningdevelopment unit and virtual learning environments were suggested by six males butonly by one female respondent.
The overwhelming conclusion from these responses indicated the high level ofsupport offered and relied upon by ITE students:
Male BA trainee: I found the workload very difficult, especially in year 3 when wehad two teaching practices and lots of assignments to submit.I found talking to others on the course helpful as we were all goingthrough the same things. Moaning to the course director also helped– changes were made for the following year.
All students valued highly the support they gained from their tutors and mentorsin schools. Many felt that this was the essential factor for success on the course. Theopportunity to talk through problems with tutors was mentioned several times, as wasaccess to a university tutor whilst on school placement. This role was valued as veryimportant by many trainees alongside building up good relationships with mentors andteachers in school. This was echoed by course staff, who acknowledged that support-ing ITE students was demanding in terms of time and the nature of the relationship. Itwas also seen as crucial to be viewed by the students as someone who was supportivein school, and who valued the school partnership link. This in itself was time intensivebut accepted as necessary.
Although most students commented on the intensive workload, male traineesreferred to it more frequently as an area they struggled with. Another difference wasthat male trainees commented that their friends outside the course did not understandor appreciate the demands they were under on the course. As a result, they felt thatthis put pressure on them. This perhaps could be a factor in males’ stated choice ofsupport as being gained from other males on the course. One concern discussed byseveral course managers was the lack of time to meet the support requirements for ITEtrainees.
Advice for success
Interviewees were asked to indicate what advice they would give to other prospectivestudents for achieving success on the course. Significantly, all trainees mentioned theimportance of gaining prior school experience. These findings were interesting in thatnearly all of the students focussed on having prior school experiences as one of themain factors for successful completion of the course. There was a significant differ-ence in the way that this was reported however. The majority of females citing thiswere doing so from having undertaken the experience, whilst several males wereacknowledging that their limited prior school experience had negatively affected theirfirst experiences on the course. A typical comment follows:
I think it’s really important that you know what you are letting yourself in for. I came onthe course with only one week of school experience whereas my student partner had beena TA and was much more comfortable with the school setting.
This theme of having realistic expectations of the course was a common one.Students agreed that someone applying should really make sure that this was what
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they really wanted to do and to undertake as much prior research as possible. Courseorganisers reinforced this, agreeing that in the main it was clear that female traineeswere more fully conversant with school life and had more realistic expectations of thecourse than the males. One female student’s advice was:
spend as much time in school as possible – find out as much as you can – what’s ateacher doing before school, after school and all the little bits in between because thatwill give you a better picture of the role.
All tutors commented that they felt there were real benefits gained from experi-ences such as the Students Associates Scheme (in which undergraduates gain schoolexperience) and felt that if more males were to take up this opportunity it would havea beneficial effect on recruitment. Two admissions tutors suggested that male applica-tions were often weak in terms of relevant experience. Many had limited themselvesto the minimum course requirements but had little experience at school level, whereasfemales had often undertaken some work experience with children as part of theirstudies in school. One tutor suggested that careers advice should be better targeted andundertaken earlier at the point where teenagers start to make decisions about theircareers.
One final area that was recommended for success was the importance of accessingall the support available in both university and school. Again, over half of the femalesalluded to this area but only a third of the males. Some course leaders felt that maleswere not as forthcoming about seeking advice, but overall there was little genderdifference reported in the uptake of academic writing support.
Good organisation was seen as very important. Several trainees (but more females)commented on being able to plan ahead, stick to deadlines and be able to work at week-ends when necessary as good advice to give. One male trainee found the paperworkassociated with teaching as ‘frightening’ and another said that he disliked the ‘plasticwallet syndrome’ stating that he felt that paperwork was overvalued by schools andheadteachers.
Conclusion
Whilst firm conclusions cannot be drawn from a limited number of primary trainees,the discussion in this paper offers a contribution to the debate concerning successfulrecruitment and retention of male student teachers in primary schools. However, therich data they provide does offer a powerful insight into their experiences. It can benoted that whilst there were many differences in the opinions and experiences of therespondents, there were also patterns arising around shared characteristics. The find-ings of this research have in some ways reflected and reinforced those of other similarstudies. In particular, the concerns raised by authors such as Skelton (2009) and Francis(2008) regarding the need to remove the focus on teacher identities has been reinforcedby the findings that the recruitment drives had no significant impact on any of the train-ees or course providers in our sample. Indeed, the government’s policy of focusing ongender as a means of attracting more male primary teachers is valued by some men,but seen as irritating and frustrating by others. What is again clear from this study isthat the students themselves do not cite gender as a reason for either not applying orbeing less successful on the courses. Male students within this study were strugglingnot to be seen as gendered in a profession that, ironically, is at times desperately
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attempting to gender them. It is therefore not surprising that they seek each other outas support.
These issues still need to be addressed in future teacher recruitment strategies. AsSkelton (2007) suggests, recruitment drives should be aimed at obtaining as broad agroup as possible rather than specific groups. It is recognised, however, that primaryteaching is a mainly female profession and that there is a need to break down some ofthe stereotypical expectations of teaching staff, parents and pupils. Skelton (2009)asserts that this can be attempted through policy interventions in recruitmentcampaigns and grass roots initiatives in schools and higher education institutions toaddress actively how stereotypes can be eradicated.
It is important that recruitment drives focus on what teachers or prospective teach-ers share. As evidenced in this study, what is clear is that teaching will attract peoplewho have similar values regarding children and are motivated by the same aspirations.These research findings, especially the concern of gender being ‘attended to’, shouldbe relayed and shared with partnership schools. They also affirm that this issue, too,is not gender specific.
Although our study did confirm and extend findings from other studies, a signifi-cant shift in views from previous studies was evidenced in the findings relating tochild protection. By focusing on the views of male and female students in this studywe were able to demonstrate that anxieties relating to child abuse and physical contactwith children were not gender specific. Arguably, the extensive media exposure givento the small number of cases where teachers have abused children has created an over-heightened awareness amongst teachers, parents and children. This factor has beenregularly attributed as a barrier for prospective male teachers. It is clear, however, thatthese anxieties are real but are not gender specific. With the recent high-profile mediacases in the UK relating to child abuse undertaken by female childcare workers,perhaps stereotypes are beginning to be challenged.
Whilst acknowledging the conclusions above, it is also important to note that, asour research demonstrates, there remain significant gender differences regardingstudents’ experiences on teacher education programmes, both in relation to recruit-ment and retention. Therefore, gender does currently exist as an issue to be consideredin practice. Findings such as these regarding differing prior course experience and soon need to be acknowledged and responded to, whether through short-term strategiessuch as male-only interview days, or longer-term strategies such as the targeting ofmales at an earlier stage of career choice. Whilst it is not essential that males are inter-viewed together, or by males, or to have male only support groups and mentors, it isimportant to acknowledge that for some males having access to these support mecha-nisms is valued highly. Through their own monitoring and feedback systems, institu-tions should be aware of any particular needs identified.
What is important is the need to act with sensitivity. The students’ willingness toparticipate in this research suggests that opportunities for critical reflection are impor-tant. Whilst not wanting to continue to highlight difference as an important variable,it is rare that students are given the chance to consider gender as an issue and toconsider the implications of ‘rarity value’ on students, school staff and pupils. In termsof retention, we can learn from what all students see as essential (i.e. support) and thentarget that support appropriately.
In considering these areas and attempting to outline some possible ways forward,the following recommendations for future action are suggested to inform policy
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makers in the field. First, the Training and Development Agency for Schools shouldreconsider recruitment drives by eliminating the targeting of particular groups andbroadening the overall campaign. Second, key findings from this research highlightedseveral factors that had been viewed as valuable in recruitment and retention. Provid-ers might therefore wish to consider strategies that support males, such as male inter-view days, later application dates, male support networks and male groupings in theiruniversity. They should also acknowledge the difference males might have in muchreduced prior school experience as compared to that of females, perhaps by promotingStudent Associate Schemes that offers school placements and consider targetingcareers advice much earlier. Providers could also include more opportunities for tuto-rial/personal support in course programmes and plan for a variety of assessment proce-dures to suit all styles of learning.
The continuing emphasis on increasing the number of males in primary schools isoften seen as being based on the rather simplistic view of males as role models. Whatthis research has highlighted is the importance of learning from and listening tosuccessful male students, many of whom actively disliked the roles assigned to themby others. We need to pay closer attention to teachers’ professional identities. Writerssuch as Drudy (2008) remind us that there is strong evidence emerging from a numberof countries that the critical issue in policy is to attract high-calibre candidates,whether male or female, into teaching. In recognising the importance of a teachingprofession that is representative of both sexes, we need to recognise that male studentsmay need to be supported and encouraged to undertake the full range of opportunitiesand roles available to them as primary school teachers.
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primary teaching as a career. Education Studies 28: 289–305.Cushman, P. 2005. Let’s hear it from the males: Issues facing male primary school teachers.
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Appendix
Interview schedule focus questions
1. You’re a successful student coming to the completion of your course. What factorsdo you feel have contributed to this success?
2. How does your experience on this course compare to your undergraduate course/othercourses that you are familiar with?
3. Are you aware of the government drive to increase the number of men teachers work-ing in primary school?
4. Do you feel that your gender has impacted on your experiences as a student teacherat all?
Supplementary questiona) If so can you explain why and think of strategies that could overcome any
difficulties?
5. What support strategies do you feel have helped you succeed on the course? a) During the university componentb) During school placements
6. Some of your peers may have experienced challenges on this course that led them toquestion whether they want to continue or they have dropped out. How have youmanaged to overcome any challenges the course has presented you with?
Supplementary question
Have you ever felt that this course was not for you?
7. What advice would you give to someone applying for the course to ensure success?
Supplementary question
What were your motivations for teaching?
8. Has the course redefined your views about the role of the primary teacher?
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