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Home Current issue Author guideline Archives
Greenberg, E. I. (2006). Identifying Gender Gaps in Learning Growth in Physics.
Instructional Technology Monographs 3 (2). Retrieved , from
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/itm/archives/fall2005/egreenberg.htm.
Identifying Gender Gaps in Learning Growth in Physics
by
Ethan I. GreenbergUniversity of Georgia
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the gender gap in learning growth or in the
perception of learning among my own physics students. Physics is an important building
block for students who wish to pursue future careers in math, engineering, and thephysical sciences. My assumption is that a significant and recurring gap in achievement
between men and women would indicate failure to provide an equitable educationalexperience. While the research suggests that a gender gap exists in both the enrollment ofwomen in physics courses and their performance once enrolled this study will focused on
the achievement of those students already enrolled in my classes and looked for possible
causes if a gap is found.The study employed a mix-methods approach and used pre and post tests, questionnaires,
teacher observations, and attitude scales to answer the research questions. The results
indicated that there is no significant difference between the scores of male and female
students in this study. These finding may suggest that the varied instructional techniquesand technologies employed in teaching are providing all students opportunities to
succeed.
Literature Review Methods Results and Discussion ConclusionsReferences
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Introduction
Is it possible in the 21 st century that schools still fail to provide all of their students with
equitable learning experiences? Having taught physics in two different school systems,
one where it is a required course and one where it is an elective course, an aspect of theclasses that has caught my attention is the ratio of male to female students in the
classroom. In one county where I taught previously, where physics is a required course,
the balance of male to female students in any particular class was roughly half and half.In the county where I am presently employed, physics is an elective course there is a
larger percentage of male students to their female counterpart enrolled. While the under
enrollment of female student in physics course is an important equity issue, as a
classroom teacher it is an issue beyond my control. I do have control of my ownclassroom and the instructional practices. I want to ensure that all of my students, male
and female, are given equal opportunity to learn and achieve.
My own experience as a physics teacher for several years has led me to wonder whetheror not the gender gaps and inequity suggested and documented in the literature exists in
my own classroom. These experiences include informal observations of my students, testscores, and conversations with students, colleagues, and parents. Physics content is
difficult; however, I do not subscribe to the school of thought that writes off unequal
performance by female students as a result of their gender. I believe that if provided with
the proper instruction that female students should be able to perform at the same levels astheir male counterparts. I believe that while it may require a different approach male and
female students can reach the same level of achievement in the end.
It is the responsibility of an educator to ensure male and female students are provided
with the opportunities they need to succeed. This may mean varying instructional
practices for male and female students. If there is a gender gap in my own classes asdetermine by a pre-test post-test measured learning growth and also comments and
feedback provided by students, I have an obligation to identify the contributing factors
and attempts to ameliorate them.
While current research into gender gaps in physics achievement provides important
information about the existence of such inequity, these studies provide the classroom
teacher with little more than generalities. As a physics teacher, I need to know if thesesame general trends seen in physics education throughout the world are also present in
my classroom. If a gap does exist in my own classes I can try to identify its origin and
improve the issues for future students.
First and foremost, this research topic for me as a concerned physics teacher is not a topic
that had ever been addressed in my training as an educator. The findings of this researchhave the immediate potential to enable me to reevaluate my instructional methods and
techniques. This may also result in greater learning opportunities for all of my students as
best teaching practices are usually best for all students. On a larger scale, issues of gender
equality in learning are relevant for all educators striving to provide their students with
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the best learning experience they can offer. Physics teachers, science teachers, and all
teachers who are concerned about equity in their classroom should evaluate their teaching
practices to ensure that all of their students are being provided with optimal learningconditions.
I employ various instructional methods and materials such as lecture, inquiry based labs,problem solving sessions, computer simulations, discussions, video, web based
assignments, and student presentations. Given the varied nature of the methods I
implement I believe that there is something for everyone, which accommodate as manylearning styles as possible. There is also redundancy between many of these activities
which is also done purposely to allow students to interact with the content in as many
ways as possible.
The purpose of this action research is to discover if gender differences in the ability to
learn physics content exists in my own physics students. If the ability to learn physics
content in my classroom appears to less for a certain gender than I must use the data
collected to try and identify the root cause or causes and work to improve upon them.
Literature Review
Gender equality in society and education has made huge strides over the last century.
Women attend colleges and universities in equal or greater numbers than their malecounterparts and are able to gain employment in all sectors of the work force. However,
there remains a disparity in the representation of women in disciplines for which the
qualifications include science related credentials, other than medical careers (Reid &Skryabina, 2003). Women continue to be underrepresented in mathematics, engineering,
and the physical sciences, making up only 16% of those profitable professions, while
women in general make up 45% of the work force (Tai & Sadler, 2001). Science relatedcareers are more important that ever in our modern society that is rooted in information
and technology. Girls routinely enroll in advanced science courses in lower numbers than
their male counterparts; consequently, limiting their future job prospects in science
related fields (Zohar & Sela, 2003).
This trend of under enrollment is not limited to the United States and can be seen in
educational settings in countries around the world from Israel to Scotland . Efforts havebeen made to investigate this problem in various ways. The factors leading up to the
decision to enroll in advanced science courses, physics in particular, have been examined
along with the influences affecting the performance of girls once they are enrolled. Theaspects contributing to the enrollment and performance of girls in physics have been
examined more closely than other content areas in the literature, due to a particularly
noticeable gender gap, or disparity in achievement, between boys and girls. While many
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biological differences exist between the genders, these differences have been dismissed
by researchers as a reason for the discrepancy (Klein, 2004; Tai & Sadler, 2001).
Motivation, self efficacy, peer pressure, societal and gender norms, family attitudes,
guidance from educational professionals, prior experience, and requirements from high
schools, colleges, and universities are all factors that have been investigated byresearchers in an effort to explain the disparity in enrollment. Issues that have been
examined in an effort to explain performance of girls in physics include attitudes of
teachers and students, teaching and learning styles, classroom culture, and priorexperiences. While this issue is complex and the dynamics that influence enrollment and
performance are complicated, several factors can be addressed immediately by school
and educational professionals, including teachers, administrators, and guidance
counselors. Rather than be overwhelmed by a daunting task, educators must startaddressing the issues that they do have some control over, and hope that societal and
family factors will follow by example. A vast number of the issues currently influencing
our society and economy are affected by and rooted in science and its applications. As a
result, it is imperative that girls are provided an equitable path to pursue educations andcareers in related scientific fields.
The gender gap is seen in two parts of education that require attention. Enrollment and
performance in physics courses reveal a degree of inequity that requires attention. There
are two different types of influences on enrollment and performance. These influences
can be divided into factors that can be addressed in the educational system at all levels,primarily by teachers, administrators, and those who provide guidance. These include
school experiences in science classes, course requirements for high school and college,
guidance, course recommendations, teaching styles, and teaching attitudes. The otherinfluences include motivation, gender norms, family culture, self efficacy, peer group and
the learning styles and attitudes of the students. These factors are much more difficult to
control or adjust from an educational perspective. That is not to say that they are notserious issues that do require attention in order to bring about a serious and lasting
change to the way that girls and all students are educated and the best practices by which
to do so. Rather, these factors are cultural and more personal in nature and, consequently,more difficult to address and change in an educational setting.
This review is the result of a desire to increase enrollment in physics courses from female
students and to ensure that those female students who do enroll are given the opportunityand provided with the best instructional practices to ensure equity and promote success in
a positive learning environment. The literature can be divided into two main categories.
Those studies that look at enrollment factors and those that look at performance factors.As a classroom teacher with a desire to have an impact on student achievement, I believe
that methods to increase performance are most relevant. For physics teachers in particular
the following statement should be of the most concern, The largest gender differences inachievements are consistently found in physics (Zohar & Sela, 2003 p.246).
The purpose of this literature review is to evaluate current thought on gender disparities
in enrollment and performance in physics courses in order to help identify them in my
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own classes if they exists and work to close the gap if one is found . Furthermore, the
review attempted to determine what factors a classroom teacher may be able to control
and attempt to modify with the goal of increasing the academic performance of femalestudents, in order to determine the variables for the study. I believe that whatever gaps in
achievement do exist are not biological and that, under optimal and comparable
circumstances, male and female students perform academically at equal levels. Thepurpose of this study is to determine if there are differences in achievement between the
male and female students in an advanced physics course and to try to identify possible
causes if a significant difference in achievement is found.
Enrollment
In most schools in most countries physics is an elective course. When female studentschoose not to enroll in such a course they begin to limit their future educational and
career choices. Kessels (2005) suggests that enrolment in advance science courses, such
as physics and advanced physics courses may be incompatible with the psychological
development of the identity of young adults. It is not socially acceptable in many peergroups to be smart and such behavior may result in ostracism from the group. The
formation of self-image is strongly influenced in early childhood and adolescence.Gender stereotypes present in many societies and families are incompatible with women
pursuing careers in the physical sciences, which are much more frequently associated as
being masculine professions (DeBacker & Nelson, 2000). Attitudes and achievement in
science for boys and girls are very similar in elementary school and then begin to divergein middle and high school, which can be attributed to both educational and societal
factors (Bacharach, Baumeister, & Furr, 2003).
Educationally, the decline in girls' attitudes towards science may be attributed to early
experiences with science, science curriculum, and teachers (Greenfield, 1997; Zohar &
Bronshtien, 2005). Early positive experiences in science classrooms have a lasting impacton girls and manifest themselves in eagerness and capability to get involved
( Greenfield , 1997). A student's self-efficacy can be affected through positive classroom
experiences. Highly qualified teachers, who actively engage all students equally, arecrucial to fostering a positive attitude towards science at a young and formative age in all
students. While studies indicate that girls recognize science as being important and
valuable in numbers comparable to boys, those same girls believe they have a lesser
ability than their male counterparts (DeBacker & Nelson, 2000).
Course requirements and recommendations also play a role in the enrollment of female
students in physics courses. Many girls, who are qualified to enroll in a physics course,are turned away and placed on another track (Zohar & Bronshtien, 2005). Girls were
more likely than their male counterparts to take both biology and chemistry (Zohar &
Sela, 2003, p246.). Common practices include stressing difficulty rather than the rewardsof taking such a course. Teachers also suggest other courses where they inform girls they
will be able to achieve higher grades (Zohar & Bronshtien, 2005). Girls with average
grades are usually not encouraged to study physics, while boys with similar achievement
get different messages (Zohar & Bronshtien, 2005, p63.).
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Performance
A wide variety of factors have been studied in order to determine their effect on the
performance of female students in physics course. These include, but are not limited to,
attitudes towards learning, perceived societal gender roles, motivation, self efficacy,instructor's gender, classroom learning environment, and teaching styles. Working under
the assumption that male and female students should be able to achieve at comparable
levels, all else being equal, these factors and all other possibilities must be considered aspossible culprits for the achievement gap.
In their study of 242 high school students enrolled in biology, chemistry, and physics,
DeBacker & Nelson (2000) found that of the 128 boys and 113 girls surveyed, girlsreported lower perceived ability than boys did regardless of achievement level and
science class (p. 251). In addition to their deflated feelings regarding their abilities,
when poled, girls also responded to enjoying physics less than their male counterpart
(Zohar & Sela, 2003). Reid and Skryabina (2003) came to similar conclusions in theiranalysis of more than 800 students. Boys show more positive attitudes towards science
than girlsBut is it really a problem of girls? (p. 510.) These negative feelings aboutcourses and their own ability affect female students' motivation and self-efficacy.
Instructional practices, like cooperative learning or problem-based learning, may provide
educators a way to address these issues and bring about a positive change.
Similar suggestions and analysis can be found with Greenfield (1997), who suggests that
such gender-equitable instructional strategies need to take place in school in science
classes at all levels. Hands on laboratory work combined with carefully structuredcollaborative learning can be particularly effective at the elementary levels to help ensure
that girls are as active in science labs as boys, and perhaps will be more likely to remain
that way through subsequent classes (p. 272). When girls are given an opportunity toform a place for themselves in the science classroom early on, their views of themselves
and science have a better chance of developing as the students mature ( Greenfield ,
1997).
While early experience influences girls' self-efficacy, experiences in current physics
courses also have an impact. These factors seem to fall into three main categories:
classroom, content, and teacher. What content is being taught and how the material isbeing presented seems to have a larger impact on female students than male students (Tai
& Sadler, 2001; Zohar & Bronshtien 2005; Zohar & Sela, 2003).
Zohar and Sela (2003) found in the research in mathematics and physics that, In a
written questionnaire 91% of girls regarded understanding as the most important aspect
of learning mathematics, compared with 65% of the boysBoys tended to be moresatisfied than girls with simply attaining the correct answers, rather than understanding
(p. 248).
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The need for girls to reach a deeper understanding of physical concepts and to believe
they only understand when they can place the ideas into a wider scope and make
connections and relationships was also documented by Zohar and Bronshtein (2005).This is not the way that most traditional introductory physics classes are taught.
Teaching physics with more concentration on deep and narrow approaches to the subject
matter appear to be profoundly more beneficial than concentrating on broad and shallowapproachesHowever, the tenet among many practicing high school physics teachers
has remained, Exposure, Exposure, Exposure' (Tai & Sadler, 2001, p.1035). Current
teaching practices appear incongruent with the learning styles and needs of femalestudents.
Further evidence suggests that a failure to grasp a concept effects girls' outlook more than
boys and that girls only feel they understand something when they can apply and see howthe information applies to a larger setting (Zohar & Sela, 2003). In their research Zohar
and Sela also found that 75% of girls thought that their class was too competitive as
opposed to 27.8% of boys. Competition was welcomed and enjoyed by most of the male
students while it bothered many of the female students. One female student in the studyhad this to say, That's another reason why girls don't take physics. I would have
preferred to take chemistry because they [i.e. students in chemistry class] are not ascompetitiveit's pretty disgusting (p. 258). Another female student from the study
commented that, It's much easier for the boys to get along in the physics class. It's
simply that there is always this kind of competition: who solved the problem, who got it
right. It's a bit difficult. I think for girls it's moredifficult sometimesIt suits them alittle better, they get along better in class (Zohar & Sela, 2003, p.258). This issue of
competition and its psychological impact on female students was also noted by Zohar and
Bronshtien (2005), who suggest that small group discussions, which are preferred bygirls, facilitate a greater comprehension of concepts and further clarification of those
concepts.
The competitive nature of the traditional classroom where, rote learning and algorithmic
problem solving (Zohar & Sela, 2003, p.259) dominate is not appealing to girls who,
more so than their male counterparts, strive to form a deeper understanding of contentand the ability to apply their newly acquired knowledge. Clearly, their pleasure in
learning physics is related to their ability to understand (Zohar & Sela, 2003, p.259).
Reid and Skryabina (2003) found similar preferences in their study where girls responded
that they had more interest in physics when they were able to apply to real life situationsin the world around them.
Labuddle and Herzog (2000) found that teaching strategies that had the most success inraising the achievement of girls were addressing preconceived notions and relating
physics to every day phenomenon and thus making it relevant, real, and applicable to
students. However, they go on to say that, The applied strategies improve not only thegirls' but also the boys' achievement in and attitudes toward physics (Labuddle &
Herzog, 2000, p.155.). Teaching strategies and the classroom environment can be control
by the instructor. Consequently, the teacher has a great deal of control of factors that
directly impact the motivation and self-efficacy of girls enrolled in physics courses.
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Teachers may ultimately be responsible for the achievement gap in physics courses,
rather than the students or the course itself. The manner in which information is presentedand the culture of the class have been established as factors to which girls and boys
respond differently. Why the responses are different is not the concern of this review. The
fact that there are differences and its impact on the academic achievement of femalestudents is of concern. In an attempt to determine whether the gap is a result of biological
factors or sociological factors, polls and surveys conducted with educators yielded some
interesting results. Studies suggest that teacher's knowledge and beliefs in this area maybe unsatisfactory for the purpose of gender-fair physics teaching because teachers tend to
underestimate the problem and do not tend to think it needs special treatment and care
(Zohar & Boaz, 2005, p.65.). In their survey the opinion of most teachers was that
science professions are more fitting for boys than girls and those factors beyond theircontrol are responsible for any gender gap (Zohar & Boaz, 2005)
The results from the research done by Zohar and Boaz (2005) are alarming. When
teachers were asked questions gauging whether or not they were aware of a gap 32% saidgender was not an issue, 20% identify that a gap existed but underestimated its
magnitude. A majority of teachers were either ignorant of the gap or underestimated itsactual influence (Zohar & Boaz, 2005). Perhaps even more alarming was the 64% of
teachers who did not identify the gap as an issue that required any remedy (Zohar &
Boaz, 2005). Interestingly, even teachers, who did not believe there was a gap, attempted
to explain the gap in terms of self-efficacy and differences between female interests andtraditional physics curricula (Zohar & Boaz, 2005). In his research Klein (2004) suggests
that the gender of the teacher may play a role in academic achievement. The fact that the
variance is largely due to the gender of the teachers, not pupils, suggests that, left to theirown devices, girls and boys would reach similar achievement levels, and that the gaps
that presently exist have extrinsic causes (p. 189.). Consequently, it would appear that
teachers, who recognize a gap does exist in achievement and are willing to admit thatthey may share in the responsibility for the gap, have the ability to remedy the situation
through modifications in their instructional practices and classroom management.
Summary
The purpose of this literature review was to provide information about the gender
disparity in science, and physics in particular, with respect to courses being taken andperformance in those courses. The literature review details various aspects of the problem
that have been researched and address to this point. When teachers recognize and
acknowledge the disparity the research suggests, using a different approach to presentingmaterial, making connections between that content and society, and changing the
classroom culture could lead to improved achievement for both male and female students.
Strategies used to increased girls' achievement help their male counterparts as well(Labudde & Herzog, 2000).
In the last 100 years women have made leaps and bounds in terms of equality and equal
representation throughout society. Still, there remains a gap in the representation of
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women in physical science and engineering careers. That disparity can be traced back to
physical science class from elementary school through the university level. Girls are
underrepresented in those classes and perform lower than their male counterparts whenthey are enrolled. Self-efficacy and motivation appear to play a role in the performance
gap and are directly related to the instructor and the manner in which that person
conducts their class, instructional styles, and methodologies. The instructional needs offemale students in traditional physics courses are not being met.
Rote memorization and plugging numbers into formulas neither engage most girls norprovide them with the deeper understanding and relationships they desire. Teaching
practices that address these issues are really best practices that should be used with all
students and will benefit both girls and their male counterparts. These types of necessary
pedagogical changes will only take place when teachers acknowledge there is a gendergap in achievement and that they can and must do something to remedy the situation.
Methods
I investigated a class of advanced physics students for this study. The high school is a
predominately Caucasian school and physics classes typically conform to thosedemographics. The class is composed of junior and senior students. Those returning to
the school have had one of two possible backgrounds in science. The seniors will have
taken physical science, biology, and chemistry while the juniors have taken biology andchemistry. In the past, about half of those students have tested into gifted program. As a
gifted certified teacher the school typically keeps my classes below twenty-one students.
The class is made up of 22 students, 13 males and 9 female, that meet for ninety minutesa day for eighteen weeks.
The classroom is a lab room with two large lab tables along with tables and desks toprovide seating for all students. The room is equipped with an interactive white board,
television, VCR, DVD player, and four desk top computers with internet access. To
accommodate the number of students in the class trips will be made weekly to the
computer lab to provide students access and time to view and interact with variouscomputer simulations. There are also 12 x 10 white boards and 24 x 12 white boards for
student presentations and problem solving.
The study was conducted over the course of a unit that covered energy and momentum.
Instructional methods used include lecture, inquiry labs, problem solving sessions,
demonstrations, computer simulations, web based assignments, discussions, studentpresentations, and videos. When students work in groups they will work in homogenous
and heterogeneous based on gender. They varied throughout the unit so that every student
will have the opportunity to work in both types of groups.
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Throughout the study, I collected information regarding learning growth as well as
information regarding predispositions, motivation, and attitudes. I hope to answer the
following questions:
Is there a gender gap in learning growth and mastery?
What are learning growth and overall mastery for both female students and male
students?
How do girls and boys perceive their performance?
Does interest in the subject matter effect learning outcomes?
How do students' perceptions of physics as an important topic to study effect their
performance?
How does technology assist students in learning physics?
What technologies to students believe are the most helpful in learning physics content?
What technologies do students believe are unhelpful or even counterproductive?
Does technology enable student to make relevant connections to the importance of
physics in society?
Data Collection Process
Consent forms were distributed to all students to bring home prior to the study. The pretest and first questionnaire were administered prior to the presentation of content.
Students were coded all forms with their own unique student identification number. This
helped to ensure students' identities remain as anonymous as possible while the data wasbeing collected and during the analysis process.
This study made use of two questionnaires and the use of pre and post-test results. Thepre-test and post test included ten multiple choice questions relating to subject matter
being taught. The pre unit questionnaire will consist of a variety of questions. The
questionnaire contained questions pertaining to demographic information and previous
education. These questions determined gender, age, previous math and science classes
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taken and grades in those classes; PSAT and SAT score (if applicable). Questions were
asked about the students' parents and their current employment, interests, and educational
background.
The remainder of the questionnaire asked questions about the student's interests,
knowledge, and motivation to take physics. These questions took the form of Likertscaled survey questions, and open ended free response questions. There will also be
questions in this section of the questionnaire for students to express and elaborate on their
learning styles and preferred methods of instruction. Lastly, there will be questionsasking students about their own perceptions as they relate to gender and ability in
physics.
The pre and post-test contained 10 multiple choice questions which covered materialfrom the third unit over energy and momentum in the course. The pre and post-test results
were analyzed to determine learning growth and mastery of content. A second
questionnaire will be given after the post test that will ask students questions about their
experiences during the previous unit. It used checklists; Likert scaled questions, and openended questions. The pre and post test questions can be seen in appendix A and the
questionnaire questions used in the questionnaire can be seen in appendix B.
The second questionnaire asked questions about the unit of physics the students had just
studied and the effectiveness of instructional techniques used throughout that unit. These
questions included what technology students thought was helpful and detrimental in theirlearning, what instructional methods were the most and least effective, and how their
actual learning growth and mastery relate to their perceived level of ability and
accomplishment. Students were asked questions about the content they believed was theeasiest and most difficult to master and to postulate reasons why they think they were
successful with some material and not so with other.
Data Analysis
The data analysis had several aspects. First, the scores of the pre and post-test werecompared to determine the level of learning growth. The post-test score were used to
determine overall level of mastery. This data was then compared to the data collected
through the questionnaires. I tried to see if students who have a greater interest in physics
perform better. I also tried to see if there were any relationships between achievement,motivation, and self efficacy. Finally, the questionnaires provided data regarding
instructional methods that students find most effective. This information was compared
with the gender of the subject as well as their level of achievement.
Limitation of the study
As with any study this one has limitations. This is a study of a small group of physics
student who are enrolled in physics as a choice. As a result, the findings of this study may
not be generalized beyond my classroom. I am biased in my belief that male and female
student should be able to attain the same levels of mastery when provided with the
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necessary learning opportunities. Having taught physics for several years in two school
systems and at various levels I believe I have developed practices and use technology that
enable all of my students to succeed.
Results and Discussion
Quantitative Results
Thirteen male students and nine female students took a pre and post test as part of a unit
of study over topics related to energy and momentum in an advanced high school physics
course. The comparison of scores between the female and male pretest, the female andmale post test, and the increase in the female scores compared to the increase in male
scores revealed no significant difference between the female group and the male group.The female pre test had had a mean of 2.66 with a standard deviation of 0.87. The male
pre test had a mean of 3.54 and a standard deviation of 2.03. A t value of 0.138 and p-
value of 0.19, p > 0.05, indicates no significant difference between the scores.
The comparison of the scores between the female and male post test also indicates no
significant difference. The female post test had a mean of 5.44 with a standard deviation
of 1.13. The male post test had a mean of 5.54 with a standard deviation of 1.66. A t-value of 0.158 and a p-value of 0.88, p > 0.05, indicate no significant difference between
scores.
The comparison of the difference between male post test scores and pre test scores to that
of the female post test and pre test scores also indicated no significant difference. The
male scores had a mean increase of 2.00 with a standard deviation of 1.22. The femalescore had a mean increase of 2.78 with a standard deviation of 1.48. A t-value of -1.29
and a p-value of 0.21 indicates no significant difference in achievement.
Table 1. Mean Scores and Standard Deviation for Pretest, Posttest, and Improvement.
Pretest
PosttestImprovements
FemaleMale
Female
Male
Female
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Male
Mean2.67
3.54
5.445.54
2.78
2.00
Std. Deviation
0.87
2.031.33
1.66
1.48
1.22
Qualitative Results
When asked to rank their interest in the subject matter of physics on a scale from 1 to 10
with 10 indicating the largest interest male students responded with a mean of 8 with
standard deviation of 1.47. The female students responded with a mean of 6.33 with astandard deviation of 1.80. A p-value of 0.037, p < 0.05, indicating that there is a
significant difference in how the students report their own interest in the course.
According to their own reporting of their interest the male students claim to be moreinterest in the content and subject matter than the female students.
When asked to rank their ability to achieve and master physics content on a scale from 1to 10 with 10 indicating the largest achievement male students responded with a mean of
8.38 with standard deviation of 0.96. The female students responded with a mean of 8.32
with a standard deviation of 1.31. A t-test gives a p-value of 0.77, p > 0.05, indicating
that there is no significant difference in how the students report their ability to achieveand master physics content. There is no significant difference between how the male
students in the class and the female students in the class see their own abilities to do well
in physics.
Students completed questionnaires that contained several Likert scaled questions,
checklists and open ended questions. Responses to the 8 point Likert scaled questionsregarding most effective instructional technologies have been compiled for the male and
female sub groups. The number of students responding and their percentage of their
subgroup are listed in appendices
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Student Comments
Students identified factors that would cause them to be less successful as having badstudy habits, not spending enough time studying, difficult course loads, weak math
ability, and extra-curricular activities. When asked about study habits the number of
hours a week students report spend on physics related work ranged from thirty minutes aweek to fourteen hours a week. The average was only four hours a week. Fifteen out of
the twenty two students report spending four hours or less on homework every week. The
range of time spent on homework per week for male was from half and hour per week tonine hours a week while the range for the females was from two hours a week to fifteen
hour a week. The average for the males was three hours a week while for the females it
was about five hours and twenty minutes a week.
Student comments regarding instructional methods and their ranking of the various
methods currently being employed in the classroom reveal nothing conclusive; however,
many student comment were focused on more passive activities where the teacher gives
notes or explains, specific quiz and test questions in advance. Other students suggestedthat the teacher should provide them with note in advance of class. Only one student
suggested that more was being done in this course than he was accustom to in otherclasses. He made specific reference to online concepts simulations which are JAVA
applets that allow students to interact with physical situations and manipulate various
properties on situations they would otherwise be unable to observe or manipulate.
Students' comments were brief and not very descriptive when students providedcomments.
When asked about whether they thought they learned better from a male or femaleteacher responses were interesting. Fourteen student, male and female, responded that
they thought they learned better from male teachers, seven students said it did not matter
and only one student said female teacher. Sixty four percent of students believe that theylearn better from male teachers. This was the only question asked to the students where
gender seemed to play a role; although it was not the gender of the students that mattered
(See appendix J). This was especially interesting from the standpoint of the femalestudents. None of the female had indicated that their own gender had anything to do with
their own ability to learn yet 63% of female students believe they learn better from male
teachers. Other than their perception of the gender of teacher they learn from best there
were no noticeable trends or differences in the responses of male and female students toother questions.
Discussion
The t-test of the pre and post test data revealed no significant difference between the
scores of the male and female students. These results are consistent with what I expected
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regarding my own instructional methods and strategies. Given the necessary and varied
learning opportunities all students regardless of gender should be able to achieve in a
physics classroom. Using instructional strategies that focus on a variety of learning stylesand implementing the use of a wide variety of technology, it appears at least with in this
class of physics students, to provide all students with meaningful learning opportunities.
Even with no significant difference in test scores male and female students did show a
significant difference in their self ascribed interest levels in physics. While 100% of
female students stated that one of the reasons they enrolled in the course was because ofhow it appears on a college transcript only 69% of male students responded in the same
manner. 85% of male students identified interest in physics as a reason for enrolling in
the class while only 56% of female students stated the same. These finding only serve to
reinforce that motivation is a very complex behavior. It appears from their responses thatmale and female students were motivated to take the course for different reasons;
however, these various reasons can not be seen to affect their performance to a significant
degree. At least with these students, the nature of the motivation appears to have less with
the achievement than the motivation itself. Overall, the motivation of the male studentswas more intrinsic while the motivation of the female students was more extrinsic.
Ultimately, according the data for the pre and post test indicate that the source of themotivation did not result in a significant difference in scores.
When asked if there were any factors that were likely to make them more or less
successful than other students to be successful, no students answered that their genderwould affect them in either a positive or negative manner. These statements are supported
further from student responses when asked to rank their ability to succeed in physics. The
belief of these students that their own gender is not relevant to their ability to achieve iscontrary to the findings of DeBacker and Nelson (2000) whose study found girls believed
they had lower ability then their male counterparts. A larger percentage of female
students responded that the suggestion of a guidance counselor and recommendation ofprevious science teacher played a part in their decision to enroll. This trend is also
contrary to previous findings of Zohar and Bronshtien (2005).
Based on their responses, students overwhelming believe that videos, demonstrations,
and teacher led problem solving are the most effective in helping them learn. A common
factor in these activities is there passivity. These are the activities that the students
believe are most effective. I think that these responses display an intellectual lazinessamong many students. Many students do not want to be engaged in their own learning
perhaps as a result of many years of not being involved. There seems to be a reluctance to
go out on a limb, experiment, and take and active role in learning. This is troubleespecially because student engagement is key to high levels of learning and achievement.
While students claim that videos are effective, observation of students during a video
shown during this unit indicated that fewer that 25% of students were able to stay focusedduring the 25 minutes clip. Three students who responded that videos were a highly
effective instructional technique fell asleep at least one time during the video. Two
students who also stated that videos were highly effective instructional techniques were
reading a book for another course during the video clip. This type of behavior leads to the
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question of whether students have the ability to determine what instructional methods
really help them learn the most and which one they, like. The comment was made
many time regarding video about how much, I really like them. No one student wasable or willing to articulate how or why they thought videos were an effective
instructional technique.
Physics education research indicates that many students can go through the motion of use
equations and often have little idea about what these equations mean (O'Kuma, Maloney,
& Hieggelke, 1999). The literature on gender difference also indicated that the manner inwhich content is approached is just as important as the content itself (Tai & Sadler, 2001;
Zohar & Bronshtien 2005; Zohar & Sela, 2003). Online concept simulations and task
ranking problems are incorporated into every unit throughout the year in the physics
courses I teach. They allow student to think about physical concept more abstractly andaddress their preconceived notions about the nature of the physical world. Female
students indicated that they believe these two activities helped them more than their male
counterparts indicated. Both activities are very active and require students to be actively
engaged in the process of learning. Even though female students thought that theseactivities were more helpful then male student, both group thought they were less
effective than the traditional more passive activities of videos, demonstrations, problemssolving, and power point presentations. What students believe to be most effective and
what current physics education research says aids most in increasing understanding
appear, at least with these students, to be different. This disparity suggests that more
information is needed about how students' perceptions of effective instructional methodsand what current research says are related to their actual performance. That is to say, do
students really know how they learn best? Maybe they do and maybe they don't. As
professional educators, it is our job to provide all students with as many variedopportunities using as many methods and technologies as are available. This way,
students will be engaged in many ways they believe help them but are also exposed to
and required to go thought other processes that enhance their understand of content andtheir learning styles.
Conclusions
The findings of this study are relevant only to the students and teacher involved. The lack
of a significant difference between the scores of male and female students suggests thatevery student is being provided with the necessary opportunities and instruction to learn
and achieve. The varied instructional techniques and technology implemented with these
students has been done purposely with the forethought of meeting every student'slearning style in as many ways as possible. The focus of all instruction has been to
increase conceptual understanding and problem solving ability. To meet this end,
technology and instructional methods that require students to engage to the concepts and
their preconceived notions about physics have been employed. While the issue of gender
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equality needs to be looked at greater with respect to female students and their
performance in the physics classroom this study hints at and suggests that when students
are taught and engaged in a wide variety of ways in provided different groups of studentswith different learning styles opportunities to succeed. All teachers should evaluate the
achievement of their students to ensure that there are no gaps in achievement between sub
groups and that all students are being provided with equitable learning experiences. Inconclusion, more research is required at all levels of education to address the issues of
gender equality in physics enrollment and performance.
References
Bacharach, V., Baumeister, A., & Furr, M. (2003). Racial and gender science
achievement gaps in science education. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 164, 115-126.
DeBacker, T. K., & Nelson, M. R. (2000). Motivation to learn science: Differences
Related to gender, class type, and ability. The Journal of Educational Research, 93, 245-
254.
Greenfield , T. A. (1997). Gender and grade level differences in science interest and
participation. Science Education, 81, 259-276.
Kessels, U. (2005) Fitting into the stereotype: How gender-stereotyped perceptions of
prototypic peers relate to liking for school subjects. European Journal of Psychology ofEducation, 20, 309-323.
Klein, J. (2004). Who is responsible for gender differences in scholastic achievement:pupils or teachers? Educational Research 46, 183-193.
Labuddle, P., Herzog, W., Neuenschwander, M., Violi, E., & Gerber, C. (2000). Girls and
physics: teaching and learning strategies tested by classroom interventions in grade 11.International Journal of Science Education, 22, 143-157.
O'Kuma, T. L, Maloney, D. P, Hieggelke, C. J (1999). Ranking Task Exercises inPhysics. New Jersey : Prentice Hall
Reid, N., & Skryabina, E. A. (2002). Attitudes towards physics. Research in Science &Technological Education, 20, 67-81.
Reid, N., & Skryabina, E. A. (2003). Gender and Physics. International Journal of
Science Education, 25, 509-536.
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Tai, R. H., & Sadler, P. M. (2001). Gender Differences in introductory undergraduate
physics performance: university physics versus college physics in the USA . InternationalJournal of Science Education, 23, 1017-1038.
Zohar, A., & Sela, D. (2003). Her physics, his physics: gender issues in Israeli advancesplacement physics classes. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 245-268
Zohar, A., & Bronshtien, B. (2005). Physics teachers' knowledge and beliefs regardinggirls' low participation rates in advanced physics classes. International Journal of Science
Education. 27 , 61-77.
Appendix A
ID # __________
Unit 3 Pre-Test / Post Test
AP Prep Physics
Choose the best answer to each question and write the answer in the space provided.
_____1. In which one of the following situations is zero net work done?
(a) A ball rolls down an inclined plane.
(b) A physics student stretches a spring.
A projectile falls toward the surface of Earth.
(d) A box is pulled across a rough floor at constant velocity.
(e) A child pulls a wagon across a rough surface causing it to accelerate.
_____2. Which one of the following situations is an example of an object with a non-zero
kinetic energy?
(a) a drum of diesel fuel on a parked truck
(b) a stationary pendulum
a satellite in geosynchronous orbit
(d) a car parked at the top of a hill
(e) a boulder resting at the bottom of a cliff
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_____3. In which one of the following systems is there a decrease in gravitational
potential energy?
(a) a boy stretches a horizontal spring (d) a car ascends a steep hill
(b) a girl jumps down from a bed (e) water is forced upward through a pipe
a crate rests at the bottom of an inclined plane
_____4. An elevator supported by a single cable descends a shaft at a constant speed. The
only forces acting on the elevator are the tension in the cable and the gravitational force.
Which one of the following statements is true?
(a) The magnitude of the work done by the tension force is larger than that done by the
gravitational force.
(b) The magnitude of the work done by the gravitational force is larger than that done by
the tension force.
The work done by the tension force is zero joules.
(d) The work done by the gravitational force is zero joules.
(e) The net work done by the two forces is zero joules.
_____5. A physics student shoves a 0.50-kg block from the bottom of a frictionless 30.0
inclined plane. The student performs 4.0 J of work and the block slides a distance s alongthe incline before it stops. Determine the value of s .
(a) 8.0 cm (c) 82 cm (e) 330 cm
(b) 16 cm (d) 160 cm
_____6. Which one of the following statements concerning momentum is true?
(a) Momentum is a force.
(b) Momentum is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit of momentum is kg m 2 /s.
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(d) The momentum of an object is always positive.
(e) Momentum and impulse are measured in the same units.
_____7. A rock is dropped from a high tower and falls freely under the influence of
gravity. Which one of the following statements concerning the rock as it falls is true?Neglect the effects of air resistance.
(a) The rock will gain an equal amount of momentum during each second.
(b) The rock will gain an equal amount of kinetic energy during each second.
The rock will gain an equal amount of speed for each meter through which it falls.
(d) The rock will gain an equal amount of momentum for each meter through which it
falls.
(e) The amount of momentum the rock gains will be proportional to the amount of
potential energy that it loses.
_____8. A stationary bomb explodes in space breaking into a number of small fragments.
At the location of the explosion, the net force due to gravity is zero newtons. Which one
of the following statements concerning this event is true?
(a) Kinetic energy is conserved in this process.
(b) The fragments must have equal kinetic energies.
The sum of the kinetic energies of the fragments must be zero.
(d) The vector sum of the linear momenta of the fragments must be zero.
(e) The velocity of any one fragment must be equal to the velocity of any other fragment.
_____9. An object of mass 3 m , initially at rest, explodes breaking into two fragments of
mass m and 2 m, respectively. Which one of the following statements concerning thefragments after the explosion is true?
(a) They will fly off at right angles.
(b) They will fly off in the same direction.
The smaller fragment will have twice the speed of the larger fragment.
(d) The larger fragment will have twice the speed of the smaller fragment.
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(e) The smaller fragment will have four times the speed of the larger fragment.
_____10. Two objects of equal mass traveling toward each other with equal speedsundergo a head on collision. Which one of the following statements concerning their
velocities after the collision is necessarily true?
(a) They will exchange velocities. (d) Their velocities will be zero.
(b) Their velocities will be reduced. (e) Their velocities may be zero.
Their velocities will be unchanged.
Appendix B
Students Questionnaire Questions
ID #
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Mother's occupation and highest degree earned:
4. Father's occupations and highest degree earned
5. What science courses had you taken in high school prior to this course and what grades
did you earn?
Freshman year
Sophomore year
Junior year
6. What math courses had you taken in high school prior to this course and what gradesdid you earn?
Freshman year
Sophomore year
Junior year
7. PSAT Scores- MATH: VERBAL: _____
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8. SAT Scores - MATH: _____ VERBAL: _____ WRITING: ____
9. Do you think a student's gender affects their ability to achieve in physics? Explain.
10. Do you think you learn better from male or female teachers? Explain.
11. What factors do you think make you more likely to be successful in this course than
other students?
12. What factors do you think make you less likely to be successful in this course than
other students?
13. What factors do you think make you more likely to be successful in this course thanother courses?
14. What factors do you think make you less likely to be successful in this course than
other courses?
15. How would you rate you interest in physics and the subject matter being studied?Least
Circle the number the best reflects your answer
Greatest
1
2
34
5
67
8
910
16. How would you rate your ability to achieve and master physics content?Least
Circle the number the best reflects your answer
Greatest
1
23
4
5
6
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7
8
910
17. Since the course began, how would you rate your interest in the course?
Least
Circle the number the best reflects your answerGreatest
1
23
4
5
67
89
10
18. Before you began the course, how would rate your parents desire for you to take the
course?
LeastCircle the number the best reflects your answer
Greatest
1
2
34
5
6
78
9
10
19. How would you rate you mother's interest in physics?Least
Circle the number the best reflects your answer
Greatest
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1
2
34
5
67
8
910
20. How would you rate you father's interest in physics?Least
Circle the number the best reflects your answer
Greatest
1
23
4
5
67
8
910
21. Approximately how many hours a week to spend working for this course?
__________
22. What were your reasons for enrolling in this course? Mark as many choices as
applicable and rank the choices from most to least influential factor.
Least influential 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-most influential
_____ Looks good on transcript for college admission
_____ Prerequisite to taking AP Physics
_____Recommended for it and didn't give it a second thought
_____ Interested in physics
_____ Parents wanted you to take it
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6-5
4-3
Least Effective
2-1
Concept simulations
4 31%
1 8%6 46%
2 15 %
Power point presentations2 15 %
6 46%
2 15 %
3 23%
Hands on laboratory activities4 31%
5 38%
4 31%
1 8%
Videos
8 62%3 23%
1 8%
1 8%
Task ranking problems
2 15 %5 38%
1 8%
5 38%
Students presented solutions to problems
2 15 %
4 31%4 31%
3 23%
Teacher presented solutions to problems
6 46%
3 23%
3 23%
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1 8%
Demonstrations4 31%
9 69%
1 8%
Appendix D
Table 3
Number of Female Responses and Percentage of Females responding to Which
Instructional Methods are believed to be most effective
Most Effective
8-7
6-5
4-3Least Effective
2-1
Concept simulations
2 22%3 33%
3 33%
1 11%
Power point presentations
3 33%
3 33%2 22%
1 11%
Hands on laboratory activities
1 11%
4 - 44%1 11%
3 33%
Videos
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3 33%
5 56%
1 11%
Task ranking problems2 22%
4 - 44%
1 11%2 22%
Students presented solutions to problems
3 33%4 - 44%
1 11%
1 11%
Teacher presented solutions to problems
3 33%5 56%
1 11%
Demonstrations
6 67%
1 11%2 22%
Appendix E
Table 4
Percentage of Male (M) Students versus the Percentage of Female (F) Students
Responding as to the Level of Effectiveness of Various Instructional Methods
Most Effective
8-76-5
4-3
Least Effective
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2-1
M
F
MF
M
FM
F
Concept simulations31%
22%
8%
33%46%
33%15%
11%
Power point presentations15%
33%
46%33%
15%
22%23%
11%
Hands on laboratory activities
31%
11%
38%44%
31%
11%8%
33%
Videos
62%
33%
23%
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56%
8%
11%8%
NA
Task ranking problems
15%
22%38%
44%
8%
11%38%
22%
Students presented solutions to problems15%
33%31%
44%
31%
11%23%
11%
Teacher presented solutions to problems
46%
33%23%
56%
23%11%
8%
NA
Demonstrations
31%
67%69%
11%
NA22%
8%
NA
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Appendix F
Table 5
Percentage of Male (M) Students versus the Percentage of Female (F) Students
Responding as to the Level of Effectiveness of Various Instructional Methods
Most Effective
8-7-6-5
Least Effective
4-3-2-1
MF
M
F
Concept simulations
38%55%
61%
44%
Power point presentations
61%
66%38%
33%
Hands on laboratory activities
69%
55%39%
44%
Videos
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85%
89%
16%11%
Task ranking problems53%
66%
46%33%
Students presented solutions to problems
46%77%
54%
22%
Teacher presented solutions to problems
69%89%
31%
22%
Demonstrations
100%
78%8%
22%
Appendix G
Table 6
Reasons for enrolling in the course as given by number of male students and percentage
of male students responding.
Number of Male Students Responding
Looks good on transcript for college admission
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9 69%
Prerequisite to taking AP Physics8 62%
Recommending by previous teacher4 31%
Interest in Physics11 85%
Parents wanted you to take it
5 38%
Guidance counselor suggestion
3 - 23 %
Guidance counselor placement
Other Please Explain
3 23%
Appendix H
Table 7
Reasons for enrolling in the course as given by number of female students and percentage
of female students responding
Number of Female Students Responding
Looks good on transcript for college admission9 100%
Prerequisite to taking AP Physics6 67%
Recommending by previous teacher4 44%
Interest in Physics
5 56%
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Parents wanted you to take it
4 44%
Guidance counselor suggestion
2 22%
Guidance counselor placement
1 11%
Other Please Explain
4 44%
Appendix I
Table 8
Reasons for enrolling in the course as given by percentage of male students compared to
the percentage of female students
Percent Males Responding
Percent Females Responding
Looks good on transcript for college admission
69%
100%
Prerequisite to taking AP Physics
62%67%
Recommending by previous teacher
31%44%
Interest in Physics85%
56%
Parents wanted you to take it
38%
44%
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Guidance counselor suggestion
3 %
22%
Guidance counselor placement
11%
Other Please Explain23%
44%
Appendix J
Table 9
Gender Preference of Teacher from Number of Male and Female Students Responding
Male Teachers
Female TeachersNo Preference
Male Students9
0
4
Female Students
51
3