Generalization

• Occurs when a CR results from stimuli that are similar to the CS, even though these stimuli may never have been associated with US.

• The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the likelihood of generalization.

• Ex: Watson’s Little Albert experiment

Generalization

• John Watson’s “Little Albert”– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI

Generalization

The likelihood of a CR based on similarity in color to the original CS

Discrimination

• Occurs when stimuli similar to the CS do not result in a CR. This will happen only after repeated training in which the CS is paired with a UCS, but the similar stimuli are not paired with the UCS.

• The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the difficulty of discrimination.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Advertising: it is suggested that consumer attitudes for advertised products are influenced by pairing the product with other pleasant things such as good music and pleasant photographs.

• Examples?

Applications

• Taste Aversions: The CS is a novel taste, the US is typically a drug that produces nausea UR, and the CR is avoidance of the taste.

• Ex:– Pairing radiation (US) with sweetened water (CS)

caused rats to become nauseated (UR).– Chemotherapy and Kool-Aid– Weight loss: pairing favorite foods (CS) with noxious

odors (US) so they are less likely to eat them in the future.

Operant Conditioning

• Learning through reinforcement or punishment.

• OP-The learner is not passive, learning based on consequence. (unlike classical conditioning)

• OP-Organism learns associations between its behavior & resulting events

• CC-Organism learns associations between events it doesn’t control.

Edward Thorndike

• The Law of Effect– Placed cats in wooden

puzzle box where they had to get out by pressing a lever.

• Behavior followed by reward is more likely to reoccur.

• Behavior followed by unfavorable consequences, less likely reoccur.

Operant Conditioning• B.F Skinner (Operant

Chamber)

– Skinner Box

– Shaping

– Measuring device that recorded responses of rats according to rewards.

– Conditioning process where reinforcers guide behavior closer to desired behavior.• Builds upon existing behaviors• Through shaping pigeons can

be taught to discriminate images (human face vs. other objects)

• Often used in animal training

Cool_bird_loves_Ray_Charles.wmv

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcement

• Reinforcer

• Positive Reinforcement

• Negative Reinforcement

• Event that strengthens behavior.

• Addition of something pleasant.– Food, Stickers in grade school

• Removal of something unpleasant.– Seatbelt Ding, Mother

Nagging, taking aspirin to relieve headache

Operant Conditioning: Types of Punishment

• Punishment

• Positive Punishment

• Negative Punishment

• Decreases a behavior

• Addition of something unpleasant.– Spanking, parking ticket

• Removal of something pleasant.– Taking away cell phone, taking away

license

– Big Bang Theory & Operant Conditioning– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euINCrDbbD

4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

Comparing CC & OC

classical• Learning associations

between events that aren’t controlled/responses automatic

• Associations made between unconnected stimuli (bell/salivation)

• Responses are involuntary/automatic

operant

• Operating from the environment depending on reinforcements & punishments

• Organisms associate their own actions with consequences through reinforcements/punishments (cussing/getting time out)

• Voluntary responses

Practice• John walks into his first period class. His adrenaline starts flowing when he

has to take a test. He flunked the last test.• Your car has a light that blinks annoyingly until you buckle your seatbelt so

you buckle your seatbelt.• The professor announced a policy of exempting students from the final

exam if they attend regularly. Attendance in the class has dramatically increased.

• Every time someone flushes the toilet in the building the water in the shower becomes very hot. Overtime the person begins to jump back when hearing the toilet flush.

• Tara dated someone she was very attracted to who frequently had onion breath. She is no longer dating him but feels aroused when she encounters onion breath.

• Johnny gets spanked for teasing his sister. He no longer teases his sister to avoid getting spanked.

• Every time the bell rings the dogs now salivate.• Every time Leonard’s girlfriend speaks in a lower tone Sheldon, gives her

chocolate where she continues to speak in a low tone.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Which do you think is more effective in getting you to study more?

• Have a quiz every week• Have random quizzes that you

don’t know when they will be given.

• After completing a certain amount of work, you take a quiz then get credit. There is a set time for when it must be done.

• You will be given a quiz which you will receive credit for but it is dependent on how much work you do but you don’t know when it will be given.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement

• Reinforcing response every time it occurs.– Learning occurs quickly– So does extinction– Difficult to administer

Reinforcement Schedules• Partial Reinforcement

• Ratio– Relies on response

• Interval – Relies on time

• Fixed schedules– Stay the same

• Variable schedules– Vary, change

• Responses are sometimes reinforced– Learning slower– Lasts longer & more

resistant to extinction

Partial reinforcement schedules

• Fixed-Ratio – Results in high, steady

responding until the reinforcement is delivered

• Behavior reinforced after a set (fixed)number of responses.

• Action (reinforcer) stays the same– Buy 10 get one free– Production Line Work: Workers

at a product factory are paid for every 15 products they make. • This results in a high production

rate and workers tend to take few breaks. It can, however, lead to burnout and lower-quality work

• Variable –Ratio– Leads to a high, steady

response rate

• Reinforcers applied after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Action (reinforcer) changing– Slot machines– Fishing– Sales-Don’t know when your will

make a sale so you make more attempts knowing that a sale will be made at some point.

– Sales bonuses: Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers don’t know how many calls they need to make in order to receive the bonus, but they know that they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.

• Variable Interval– The rate of response is

relatively slow, but steady

• Reinforcing response at unpredictable times.

• Amount of time changing– Sometimes your mom calls

when you get home from school

– Your boss checks in on you randomly 3 or so times a week

– Pop Quizzes: sometimes you have one once a week, may be twice, then nothing one week

– Email/facebook: no set time for checking but you check several times a day looking for something interesting

• Fixed Interval– Responses tend to

increase gradually as the reinforcement time draws close

• Reinforcing response after a time has been set.

• Amount of time stays the same– Every Friday is date

night– You get paid on

Fridays, after seven days have past

– Black Friday

Relevance of Operant Conditioning

• 3 conditions of children showing interest in drawing– Which group spent the

most amount of time on the drawings?

– Which group worked harder?

• Expected reward group:– If they did a good job they

could get a badge & their name on the honor-roll board

• Unexpected reward group:– Told to draw without mention

of any rewards, unexpectedly children were given rewards

• Condition Control Group:– Told to draw without promise of

reward or presentation of reward.

Results

• Expected reward group spent the least amount of time

• No significant differences between control & unexpected group

• Over Justification– Promising rewards for

doing what one already likes to do encourages one to see the reward rather then the intrinsic interest.

– Can excessive rewards/praise undermine intrinsic motivation or have an aversive effect?

Operant Conditioning

• Primary Reinforcers

• Conditioned reinforcers

• Innate reinforcer as stimulus/one that satisfies biological need.– Food in Skinner Box

• Stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcer.– Light that goes on before food

is dispensed, rat works to make the light go on

Observational Learning

• Observational Learning

• Modeling

• Learning by observing others.

• Observing behavior and imitating behavior.

Observational Learning• Biological Explanation– Mirror Neurons

– Neurons in the frontal lobe that fire when observing another's actions.• Monkeys observe another’s

actions then imitate: these neurons are activated.

• Humans– Assist in language

development– Empathy, to infer another’s

emotional state– Children imitating behavior

Observational Learning & Albert Bandura (& the bobo dolls)

• Bandura’s Experiments • In 1 room child is drawing• In another part of room

adult is working with toys• Adult begins to pound,

kick, & throw things & the large inflated bob doll while yelling at it.

• Child observes & is taken to a room with a bobo doll– What happens next?

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0iWpSNu3NU

• Bandura’s conclusions • Children not exposed to adult model far less likely to act aggressively– Bandura suggested that

we are far more likely to imitate those who are similar to us, we admire, or perceive as successful.

Applications of Observational Learning

• Antisocial Effects• Sex portrayed in media• Abuse• Television & Violence

• Columbine• Desensitization to casual

sexual behavior• Men who beat wives

more likely to have had fathers were abusive

• The average child views 8,000 murders & 100,000 acts of violence before end of elementary

Nurture Shock

• “The Inverse Power of Praise”– Pro Bronson & Ashley Merryman

• Seminar Discussion Monday

• Read & Complete Ticket for Monday!