EYAFJALLAJÖKULL (pronounced ‘Eh-ya-fyath-a-yuh-kull’) was the site of Iceland’s volcanic eruption which so greatly disrupted European air traffic in 2010. The eruption began in earnest on 20 March 2010 and finally ceased some seven months later, in October 2010.

Eyafjallajökull refers both to the volcano and the permanent ice sheet that normally covers most of it (Figure 1). Eyafjallajökull actually means: ‘island mountain under a glacier’.

The Eyafjallajökull is the sixth biggest ice sheet in Iceland and covers an area of approximately 100 km2. The central ice sheet rises to 1,666 metres. From here, a series of outlet glaciers allow ice to surge outwards. These feed a number of short streams and rivers which make their way south to the sea across the narrow coastal plain.

Beneath the ice sheet lies a magma chamber. This is the source of lava for the normally dormant volcano. Apart from the 2010 eruption, Eyafjallajökull is also known to have erupted in 920, 1612, and between 1821 and 1823.

The magma that powers the volcano is produced along a zone of tectonic divergence between the Eurasian and North American plates (see Figure 1). This continues under the sea to form the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

General impactsThe impacts of the 2010 volcanic eruption were felt both locally in Iceland and across northern Europe. The main problem was the

impact of volcanic ash on aircraft movements. Volcanic ash consists of fine particles of abrasive silicate. These act as a kind of ‘sandpaper’ when sucked into the jet air intakes of aircraft. It can also lead to a jet engine’s turbine melting, causing engine failure.

Interestingly, the damage within Iceland itself was much more limited, although the eruption did pose some problems for farmers, for the general water supply and for road transport in the immediate vicinity of the volcano itself.

Economic impactsWhen Eyafjallajökull first erupted in March 2010, a

large area of atmospheric high pressure lay across the north Atlantic. This led to a high-altitude wind circulation which blew clockwise around the high pressure system, spreading the volcanic ash cloud to the south and east of Iceland. Figure 2 indicates how the volcanic ash cloud was circulating around the high pressure system at heights of up to 7,000 metres. It also shows clearly how most of Iceland escaped the impact whereas the cloud covered large areas of northern Europe.

Aircraft operating in Europe must follow Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) when flying in

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by David Woodeyafjallajökull volcanic eruption 2010

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Figure 1: Iceland, Eyafjallajökull and the tectonic plate boundariesSource: United States Geological Survey

conditions where severe weather (including ash clouds) may cause operational problems. The European flight authorities decided to ban all IFR flights for several days in April 2010. Figure 3 shows the number of closed airports across Europe on 19 April 2010.

Airport shut-downs were at their height in mid-April, with major airlines said to be losing an estimated £130 million a day

in revenue. An assessment in September 2010 by the Association of European Airlines estimated that its members lost a total of £709 million, while globally airlines lost an estimated £1.05 billion.

On 18 April, during one of the worst periods of the eruption, 313 airports across Europe were forced to close. This was bad news for airline companies – it means extra costs incurred by putting up those

who are stranded in hotels, and no new passengers. The International Air Transport Association assessed the loss to the European travel industry as £.1.7 billion. On the London Stock Exchange, prices of stocks and shares in companies relying on air freight fell steeply, while demand for jet oil also slumped by 2 million barrels a day.

Freight was also badly affected. Around 40% of the world’s goods are moved by air. Examples include high-value/low-weight goods such as medical drugs, ‘time-sensitive’ high-tech items, and ‘premium’ goods such as Scotch whisky.

Also hit were producers of specialised crops such as flowers and fruit in Africa and the Caribbean, whose products were left to rot. Kenya alone was said to be losing £2.4 million a day.

On the other hand, there were some ‘winners’ from this global catastrophe. For example, the Eurostar rail services from London to France and Germany carried up to 50,000 extra passengers per day. Others that benefited were the long-distance rail services between Scotland and England and the cross-Channel ferries. Car rental companies also did extra business, with travellers driving home across Europe.

Environmental impactsThere were initial worries that the volcanic eruption might have negative environmental impacts on northern Europe. Eruptions release gases such as sulphur dioxide leading to an increase in acid rain which may kill trees and other vegetation. However, the Eyafjallajökull eruption was not large by world standards, and no long-term negative impacts were found.

Localised impactsIceland is a sparsely populated country. The total population is only 318,200 with an average population density of only 3 persons per km2. Of these, around

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Figure 2: Spread of the ash cloud across Europe, 20 April 2010

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Figure 3: Airport closures across Europe, 19 April 2010Source: Joergen Brandt, National Environment Research Institute, Department of Atmospheric Environment, Aarhus University, Denmark

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202,000 live in the greater Reykjavik region, which includes Iceland’s capital city.

During the height of the eruption, the ash cloud mainly blew south-eastwards away from the volcano. Reykjavik lies 160 km to the west. Flights were cancelled, however, to the Vestmannaeyjar or, in English, the Westman Islands. The 4,000 or so people who live here rely mainly on fishing. Although fishing continued, the islands had to use the slow ferry links to export their fish until air flights were eventually reinstated.

The eruption did affect parts of Iceland’s coastal sand plain in the immediate vicinity of Eyafjallajökull. This glacial outwash plain has few inhabitants. However, the best land produces most of Iceland’s limited cereal crops.

A thin layer of ash was deposited across the landscape (Figure 4). Although the ash layer was often as thin as 3 mm, it became wet and compact, smothering young crops and pasture. Livestock had to be kept indoors during periods of ash fall. In addition, the ash contained fluoride which can contaminate water supplies and be dangerous to animals.

At the height of the eruptions, much of the area lay under a pall of darkness and breathing masks were recommended when venturing out of doors. Route 1, Iceland’s main all-weather routeway, circles the whole country (see Figure 1). Sections of it were washed away after meltwater surges formed as hot lava quickly melted sections of the ice sheet, forming flash floods, known as jökulhlaup in Icelandic (Figure 5). Delivery trucks carrying milk from the outlying farms were temporarily held up.

During much of the period of the eruption, Reykjavik airport stayed open but many flights to Europe were cancelled, with some tourists

being stranded for a few days. On the the other hand, the eruptions were actually said to have boosted the tourist industry, with many travellers keen to see what was happening!

Meanwhile, life in Reykjavik virtually carried on as normal. Fortunately, the wind direction saved the city from any major ash deposits. In fact, many Icelanders were so relaxed about the situation that jokes about the eruption began to circulate (see Figure 6).

Responses to the eruptionFollowing the eruption, the European Commission permitted state aid to those airlines and airports that were badly hit by the shut-downs. Full compensation was not available, however.

As the ash cloud spread, individual European countries made decisions on whether or not to ban flights from the airspace they each controlled. Many in the industry now argue it would be much better to have one single European airspace. Currently, around 1,000 European airports operate with 1,000 separate control sectors dealing with 25,000 flights per day. By creating new larger ‘blocks’, Europe would both save money and be able to react better to future crises.

In September 2010, representatives from the world’s air industries met at Keflavik Airport in Iceland to discuss future responses to eruptions. More detail on how dust densities affect jet engines was required from manufacturers to judge if and when to ground future flights.

IcelandIceland and its people are familiar with volcanic eruptions. The government operates an efficient Civil Protection Department which liaises with all parties concerned, including geological experts, the police and emergency services, the highway authorities and local populations.

All volcanic events are monitored and response units are fast to react. Most local Icelanders are well aware of their country’s environmental hazards and usually understand what to do. Following any natural event that causes damage, assistance and compensation may be available for any losses, e.g. to farmers.

Latest news!In May 2011, Grimsvotn, also in Iceland, erupted. Flights across Scotland were disrupted for two days …

Figure 4: Ash deposits near EyafjallajökullSource: Photo by David Wood

Figure 5: Section of Route 1 washed out by a jökulhlaupSource: Photo by David Wood

1 You will need to refer to an atlas or web-based map of Iceland in order to complete the following mapping exercise. Draw a large outline map of Iceland (use Figure 1, or an atlas map). Use appropriate symbols and colours to show locations.(a) Locate and name Reykjavik, Iceland’s capital city.(b) Mark and name Iceland’s circular main road, Route 1.(c) Show the location of Eyafjallajökull.(d) Shade in the locations of Iceland’s four largest permanent ice sheets.(e) Mark the location of the Arctic Circle.(f) Locate and name Iceland’s international airport, Keflavik.(g) Locate and name the Westman Islands (‘Vestmannaeyjar’ in Icelandic).

2 Refer to the text.(a) For how many months did Eyafjallajökull erupt?(b) What normally covers large parts of the volcano?(c) When did Eyafjallajökull last erupt?

3 Study Figure 1.(a) Name the tectonic plates on which Iceland is located.(b) Which geological feature separates the two plates?(c) Thingvellir is the site of Iceland’s ancient meeting place or parliament. In which continent does it lie?(d) Sketch the outline of the plate boundaries onto your blank map of Iceland and label as appropriate.

4 Refer to the text.(a) Apart from the airlines themselves, which other industries and activities suffered the most from the flight disruptions?(b) Which transport groups actually gained from the flight disruptions?

5 Study Figure 3.Write a paragraph describing the varying levels of disruption to air flights across Europe on 20 April 2010.

6 Copy the statement below and then refer to the text under ‘Localised impacts’ to fill in the blank spaces.The population of Iceland is only ______. Most people live in the ______ region but it lies ____ km west of the eruption zone. Flights to one group of islands called __________ were affected, however. The ash temporarily affected young crops, _______ them in the fields. There were worries that water would be poisoned with the chemical _______. Route 1, Iceland’s main circular road, was ______ away in several places. However, most Icelanders were quite _____ about the whole event.

7 Study Figure 6. Explain the ‘joke’ (which seemed to be at the expense of the British!) that was circulating among Icelanders at the time of the eruption.

8 Produce an annotated sketch of Figure 5 explaining the impact of the flash floods or jökulhlaup on Iceland’s Route 1.

9 Study Figure 2. With the aid of an atlas name the European countries affected by the Icelandic ash cloud on 20 April 2010.

10 Form groups of 3–5 people. Each group will be chaired by an official of the European Union who is trying to reduce the number of individual flight zones for aircraft across Europe. Members of the group can represent individual countries, airline businesses or industries affected by the travel disruptions, e.g. travel firms. Produce arguments for and against the current divisions in European airspace and air traffic control, should there be another volcanic eruption.

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Activities Figure 6: An Icelandic joke at the time of the 2010 eruption

Britain: Iceland are you crazy? Why did you send us volcanic ash? Our airspace has shut down.

Iceland: What? That’s what you asked for isn’t it?

Britain: NO! We said cash! Cash, you idiot. Cash, not ASH!

Iceland: Whoooops...

[The joke refers both to the volcanic ash cloud and to the financial crisis in Iceland in 2008–09 when many British savers were worried that they would lose the cash they had deposited in Iceland’s banks.]