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7/30/2019 Geog 121 2010 Lecture Outlines
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Geography 121 Lecture Outlines, 2010September 7, 2010Prepared by Dr. Matthew Evenden
Please note:The following lecture outlines provide students with a basic framework for note-takingduring lectures. Feel free to write on them, or annotate them on your laptop. It goeswithout saying that outlines do not replace attendance at lectures, or note-taking. Asthese outlines have been prepared well in advance for ease of access, I reserve the right tochange them in small or large part before any given lecture. When I do this, I will postrevised outlines to the class website.
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Geography, Modernity and Globalization
Lecture objectives:Define and describe Geography
Define concepts: Modernity and GlobalizationRaise critical questions
I) Geography
A way of seeing, A long history, A discipline
Two interacting halves: physical and human
Core themes of human geography:1) Human-environment relationships
2) Spatial patterns and processes, and the differences between peoples and places
Is a one-line definition possible?
Critical Questions:-Are human and environment separate categories?-Can spatial patterns and processes be abstracted from society and the worldaround us?-Does our descriptive language about peoples and places replicate assumptions orchallenge them?
The problem of authority
II) Modernity
Modo;Modernus (Latin), Modernity (1627)Modern: a period of timeModern -ism, -ization, -ity
Modernity= the condition of being modern
Modernity has been described as:-A constellation of power, knowledge and social practices (Gregory)-An experience of unending change (Berman)-A project (Habermas)
Modernity implies a break with the past, or tradition. Characteristically, this breakrevolves around several oppositions:
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Localization: GlobalizationSuperstition: RationalizationStagnation: TransformationRural life: Urban lifeAgriculture: Industry
Critical questions:Is modernity a caricature?A misleading vision of progress?Are there multiple modernities?
III) Globalization
Global: 1. spherical, 2. an inclusive totality.Globalization: earliest use, c. 1959; draws on global village concept (McLuhan)
Globalization:1) Asserts the stretching and operation of linkages and connections across theworld,
2) Implies an intensification in the levels of interaction, trade andcommunication among states, societies and economies.
Critical questions:Are the processes of globalization geographically uniform?Do some forms of connection also produce disconnections for others?Is globalization only a contemporary process?
How do geographers define geography?
An appreciation of the diversity and variety of peoples and places is a theme that runsthrough the entire span of human geography, the study of the spatial organization ofhuman activity and of peoples relationships with their environments.(Paul Knox, Sallie A. Marston and Alan E. Nash,Human Geography, 2001)
Geography is a Los Angeles among academic cities in that it sprawls over a very largearea and merges with its neighbours. It is also hard to be sure which is the centralbusiness district. (Peter Haggett, Geography: A Global Synthesis, 2001, prologue)
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Archaic Globalization (1): Interacting Networks
Lecture objectives:1) To describe and analyze the range and extent of networks, c.14002) To consider the constraints on networks
3) To consider the implications of these constraints
Archaic Globalization: The older networks and dominances created by geographicalexpansion of ideas and social forces from the local and regional level to the inter-regionaland inter-continental level. (Bayly,Birth of the Modern World, 2004, p. 43)
I. Some preliminary observations:How populous was the world in c. 1400?Dominant lifeways
A peasant majorityA small but growing urban population
Few but powerful nomadic peoplesA small group of foragers who nevertheless controlled vast territoriesHow was the world imagined?
II. The realms of long distance exchange:Three primary, but differentiated, realms:
i) The Eurasia-Africa networkii) The American networkiii) The Pacific network
What precipitated movement within networks?Did the networks ever intersect?
III. Some constraints:i) On movement: Long-distance vs. local tradeii) On communication: Oral and writteniii) On energy generation: Somatic energyiv) On population growth
Some implications of constraints:i) For the distribution of populationii) For the distribution of productioniii) For the distribution of knowledge and ideas
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Archaic Globalization (2) Land and Life in Agrarian States
Lecture Objectives:To define and analyze the geographical features of agrarian states, c. 1400.To examine how social hierarchies were organized spatially.
To consider the dynamism and limits of peasant lifeways.
A generic definition:A large area with a centralized system of control, culminating in a point of
sovereign authority (King, Emperor).The growth, power and limits of state authority, c. 1400
A crucial geographical division: city/town and countrysideFundamental division between
dense nodes of settlement (towns and cities), anddispersed rural hinterlands (encompassing villages, and more dispersed
settlements).A crucial geographical division: city/town and countrysideA range of scales and sizes
Upward limit: nearly a million (Nanjing)Largest city in Germany: Cologne, about 20,000
Why not more and bigger cities?Demographic drains/ dependent on immigration
Cities and the state: a dynamic relationship
FunctionsAdministrativeReligiousCommercial
Spatial ElementsWalls, streets and public spacesPalimpsest landscapes
Rural hinterlands: Wealth GeneratorsThe peasants burden: taxes, tithes, rents, labour servitude, conscriptionThe peasants problem: balancing external and household demands
Dispersed settlement patternsVariations:
topography and ecologysite and situationcultural and regional influencescrop staples and labour requirements
In western EuropeA characteristic pattern of small plots and customary access to common lands.
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Common lands were sometimes farmed in common, or served as a pool of extraresources for households.
Peasant livelihoodsA family economy
Aims: subsistence and reproduction.village economies, exchange and reciprocity.
Local lives and connectionsThe village worldThe limits of movementTrade: a one-way relationship?
ButLong-term processesReligion as a connecting forceRelationships of power
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Archaic Globalization (3) : Foraging Societies
Lecture Objective:Consider peoples and lifeways that did not connect strongly with the interactive networksof archaic globalization.
Definition:
Livelihoods based primarily on hunting, gathering, fishing
No domesticated plants, and few animals.
Social organization depended upon mobility (to exploit different environmentsseasonally) and flexibility (in group size and make up).
In the context of archaic globalization
Importance of foragers
Territorial control
Global distribution
The oldest and most successful economic form
Common misconceptions
Foragers led poor, hard, miserable lives
Foragers used primitive technology
Foragers lived in harmony with one another and nature
Man the Hunter
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Encounters across the Atlantic
Learning objectives:
To analyze the conditions shaping the Iberian crossings of the Atlantic in the 15thand 16th centuries.
To consider some of the consequences of these crossings for the Americas,Europe and global power relations.
Encounter?
Encounter rather than discovery
Discovery is a one-sided process: one group is active, the other passive.
Encounter provides a sense of mutual discovery and action on both sidesof the cultural divide.
Before 1492
Polynesian voyages across the Pacific, 10th Century(?) (settlement of New
Zealand) Viking voyages across the North Atlantic, mid-9th Century (Iceland), 10th
Century (Greenland, Baffin Island, Newfoundland)
Chinese Sea Power, c. 1405-1433
Iberian expansion: contributing factors:
The lure of Asian trade (and its difficulties)
Reconquista: a militant mission
Technological preconditions: ship technology (caravel/ lateen sails), instruments,experience
Search for wealth (gold): Our lord in his goodness guide me that I may find gold(Columbus, 1/11/1492)
Iberian approaches
The Atlantic (Bartholomeu Dias, Cape of Good Hope, 1487; Vasco de Gama,Indian Ocean, 1497)
The Columbian Voyages (1492, 1493-95, 1498-1500, 1502-04)
The Caribbean and beyondEncountering Others
Societies of the Americas
Conquests (Cortez and Aztecs, 1521, Alvarado and the Maya, 1524-25, Pizarroand the Incas, 1531-33)
Some military advantages: introduced disease; Spanish fighting techniques(horses, steel weaponry); exploiting internal rivalries.
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The Columbian Exchange
Lecture Objectives:
To consider what plants, animals and microbes crossed the Atlantic withColumbus and his followers and in both directions.
To analyze what were the effects of this biological exchange?Disease Exchanges:
The origins and diffusion of Old World diseases
How did diseases diffuse through Eurasia and Africa?
Why were many of these diseases unknown in the Americas?Disease Introductions to the Americas:
Disease types: Eruptive fevers: small pox, measles, typhus Respiratory Infections: whooping cough and pneumonia
Patterns of diffusion: virgin soil epidemics An immunologically defenceless host population
Rapid spread Almost universal infection
Profound population losses, not abating in Central Mexico until the 1620s.
. . . an epidemic broke out, a sickness of pustules Large bumps spread on people;some were entirely covered. . . .[The victims] could no longer walk about, but lay in theirdwellings and sleeping places, . . . And when they made a motion, they called out loudly.The pustules that covered people caused great desolation; very many people died of them,and many just starved to death; starvation reigned, and no one took care of others anylonger. -Excerpt from Sahagn,Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espaa, c.1575-1580; ed., tr., James Lockhart, We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest
Mexico (Univ. of California Press, 1993)
Disease introductions to Eurasia and AfricaVenereal Syphilis: a debated case
Plant and Animal Exchanges
What Europeans brought to the Americas
Patterns of Diffusion and Adoption
In Agrarian Societies Selective adoption: plants and animals Tribute crops
In Foraging Societies The horse
Uncontrolled diffusions
What the Americas sent to Eurasia and Africa
Patterns of Diffusion and Adoption
Demographic consequences
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Some important food crops from the Americas
Maize PumpkinBeans of many kinds PapayaPeanuts Avocado
Potato PineappleSweet Potato TomatoManioc (cassava, tapioca) Chili PeppersSquashes Cocoa
Other important non-food crops include:
Tobacco
Rubber
Varieties of Old and New World Staples
(in millions of calories per hectare)American crops Old World crops
Maize (7.3) Rice (7.3)
Potatoes (7.5) Wheat (4.2)
Sweet Potatoes (7.1) Barley (5.1)
Manioc (9.9) Oats (5.5)
(Source: Crosby and Food and Agricultural Organization)
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A Plague of Sheep: Resettling the Valle de Mezquital
Learning Objectives:
Consider how the Spanish sought to extract American resources and establishauthority in the sixteenth Century.
Consider the tactics and consequences of Spanish imperialism on the land.
Strategies of Imperialism
The imperial problem: How to organize power, convert the population and extractrevenue?
A new centralized political system:Audiencias (legislative, judicial and executive functions)
Resettlement and rights of control: Congregaciones (Christian missions) Encomiendas (Tribute and indigenous labour power)
Geography and Imperialism TheRelaciones Geogrficas
Spanish Crown survey (starting in 1577).
Seeks to document: population jurisdictions language(s) land and vegetation
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/rg
Valle de Mezquital
Or, the Valley of Mesquite
Highland, Central Mexico
In New Spain, it bore the reputation of a barren land with an impoverishedindigenous population
Strategies of Dispossession
Thirty-five encomiendas granted in Valle in 1520s.
Missionaries and Merchants follow.
Importation of Old World foods for tribute: Wheat, barley, fruits.
Hard-hoofed grazing animals (ungulates) pastured on indigenous agricultural
areas and uplands.
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A Plague of Sheep
Animals introduced in successive waves by Spanish pastoralists: sheep, cattle,horses, goats.
Mid-century, Spanish authorities ban cattle and horses from region aftercomplaints.
Sheep become dominant and numbers soar: about 420,000 (late 1550s) to2,000,000 (1565).
Declines
Sheep increases coincide with major epidemic from 1576-81.
Spanish pastoralism begins to displace indigenous agriculture.
Expansion of sheep population changes environment and carrying capacity.
After rapid growth, sheep populations crash in 1580s and 1590s.
Why declines?
Ungulate irruption thesis:
Unmediated population expansion within a confined space->
Over-taxes resource base and diminishes food supply ->
Ungulate populations decline.
New Spain/ New Land
Melville:
The depiction of the Valle de Mezquital is a consequence of Conquest.
Vegetation cover follows intensive pastoralism.
Social and environmental change woven together.
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Demographic (and other) effects of the slave trade in Africa
Lecture Objectives:
To consider the range of demographic effects in Africa of the Trans-AtlanticSlave trade.
To analyze the effects of the slave trade on state formation, slave-holdingpractices and commodity production.
Demographic consequences
Did the removal of millions of people from Africa over several centuries impairthe reproductive potential of African societies?
What would we need to know to answer this question, or make an informedestimate?
Some contributing factors:
# of slaves in the Trans-Atlantic trade and sending societies by year/region/ageand sex ratio.
Fertility and mortality rate in sending societies Family formation patterns/ age of marriage/ nutrition/ health
Mannings conclusions
The slave trade had a seriously negative and distorting impacton the Africanpopulation. (p.59)
The greatest impact was in the 18th and 19th centuries before the decline of theexport trade.
Africa had a smaller proportion of world population in 1900 than in 1700.On state formation
The trade presented commercial opportunities benefiting:
Merchants/Centers of slave commerce/Authorities who taxed the trade
Europeans introduced firearms to allied groups
Military forces emerge to carve out slave-trading statesTransformations in slavery
The end of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade does not produce the end of slavery
Slavery expands in several parts of west-central Africa in the 19th century
Domestic slavery> Plantation slavery
Emerging commodity trades use slave labour
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China, commercial capital and networks of trade
Lecture objectives:
To consider what forces drove the formation of a global system of trade andexchange?
To analyze how European trading powers engaged dominant states from theIndian Ocean to the Eastern Pacific?
China at the centre
China a major world power in 1500:
a population probably over 100 million
Land-based imperialism under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
Influence over a vast ocean realm into the 15th Century
The Importance of Silver
European expansion for Asian connections?
Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean de Gama/ Indian Ocean (1497)
Portuguese armed trade disrupts existing networks
Portuguese seize important locations
Engage in spice trade to Europe and carrying trade between China and Japan
Challenges in the 17th Century
The importance of spices from India and South-East Asia
Trading post empire
Commercial outposts of a small group of traders and settlers along trade routes.
Territory seized for post, trade channelled to posts.
Bounded settlements, limited political reach.
A Pacific link emerges
Magellans circumnavigation (1519-1522)/ Balboa sights Pacific (1513)/ Spanishseize Manila (1571)
Global links of trade emerge:
Acapulco silver to Manila and traded for silks and spices and otherprecious cargo.
Silver traded to China for gold and goods.
Gold traded for goods in Asia and then shipped to Europe.
The challenge to Iberian powers
Dutch displace Portuguese (except at Goa and Macao) and establish control ofspice trade.
English encounter the Mughal Empire and local states in India and establishtrading posts.
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Advantages over Iberian powers in ship design and commercial organization:joint stock companies with broad powers.
Consequences?
Did trading-post imperialism provide a foothold for a broader-based Europeanimperialism?
Did the wealth generated in European overseas trade provide the foundations ofindustrial capitalism?
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The English East India Company and the transition to formal empire
Lecture objectives:
To analyze the operations of the English East India Company
To consider how political changes in south Asia and in Europe shaped the
territorial expansion of Company authority
The Companys origins:
Charter from Queen Elizabeth I, 1600
Granted exclusive trading rights east from the Cape of Good Hope to the Straits ofMagellan: Asia and Pacific
A response to Dutch initiatives.
Investors include Levant traders.
Why an exclusive charter? Whats in it for the merchants and investors? Whatsin it for the Crown?
Voyages/ CargoesDuration: there and back, 16 monthsHeavy loss of life: why?Cargoes:
Export : broadcloth (wool), metals, looking glasses, coral, ivory
Import : Spices
Indian textiles (Bengal, Coromandel Coast, Gujarat)
silks (from Iran)
coffee (Yemen)
Operating at a Distance:
The Board of Directors vs. distance
Moving from single voyage business to a joint stock organization (shareholdersand dividends)
The Presidency structure
Governor and Council
Company vs. Private interests
The country trade becomes legitimate, 1674 (almost)
Consolidating fortunes: both company and private
Geopolitical Change in South Asia and Europe
Instabilities in the Mughal realm, c. 1700 The rise of regional authorities
French-English rivalry played out on India soil
Battle of Plassey (1757): Clive defeats Nawab of Bengal.
The company becomes a ruler
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Connections and disconnections, c. 1750
Learning objectives:
To consider some cartographic representations of the world, c 1750
To ask what connections and disconnections had been struck at a global scale
from 1450 to 1750 To analyze critically the utility of the term globalization in the context of the
world, c. 1750
Show visuals from Guillaume de LislesAtlas Nouveau, published in 1742 by Covensand Mortier in Amsterdam. de Lisle was the first Royal Geographer of France (PremierGeographe du Roi)
Connections? Disconnections?
In what ways were different world regions more connected in 1750 than 1450?
How significant were new connections?
Can the processes of change be usefully described as globalization?Connections: travel/trade
Seaborne travel and trade transforms the circulation of people and goods.
Land-based travel remains difficult and expensive.
Evidence of trade connections: tea and sugar in English countryside diet/ SpanishAmerican silver in China/ Slave societies of the Caribbean clothed with cottonsfrom India.
Connections: Communications:
Oral culture remains dominant. But confronted increasingly by the power of thepress and printed word.
Many books in vernacular tongues: systematize national languages.
News broad sheets first appear in England in 1702. By 1753, 20,000 dailynewspapers being sold. Probably read by more than one person.
Imagined Communities? (Benedict Anderson)Disconnections:
Connections produce inequalities/ relative disconnections/ and foreclose otherkinds of connection.
Some parts of the world still largely disconnected from the global web:Australasia and Pacific Islands, parts of African interior, vast sections of Northand South America, northern sections of Eurasia.
Taking a step back: 18th C globalization?
Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question (2005): There are two problems withthe concept of globalization, first the global, and second the ization. (p. 91)
Concept emphasizes a single set of connections and a profound presentism: this isthe global age.
Coopers critique:
Political and economic relations at a global scale were highly uneven, lumpy.
Structures and networks penetrate certain places and do certain things with greatintensity, but their effects tail off elsewhere. (p. 92)
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Some kinds of interconnection stand alongside profound disconnections: Creolesocieties seek to separate politically from imperial powers, but claim status andauthority through cultural connections.
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Enclosures: property, people and power
Lecture objectives:
To consider how the privatization of common lands and the assault on custom inrural 18th C England commodified land and labour.
Definitions:
Enclosure : A legal process by which landed interests expropriated formerlycommon lands and converted them to private lands, fenced and developed forcommercial agriculture.
Commons : Lands held in common by rural peoples, which provided additionalresources to the family economy. Commons might include: open fields,woodlands, or marshes.
Forces of Change in the 18th C:
New transportation infrastructure: Turnpike roads, canals, and sea-based commerce.
Significance: Supports commercial interaction Links rural agriculture to urban demand Creates more standardized prices over distance
Agricultural Improvement:
A movement amongst the landed classes to improve yields
Promotes changes in agricultural techniques: New crop mixtures, systems of rotation and fertilizers
Enclosure:
Legal process required landowners to apply to Parliament to enclosecommons on their land.
Uneven application across England: Some areas had long been subject to intensive commercial
agriculture. Different effects north and south. Outer regions affected somewhat later: Scotland and the Highland
Clearances
Class Consequences
Landowners: increased rents; increased value of land.
Commercial farmers: more land for commercial operations; greater accessto pasture; possibility to introduce improvements.
Small holders, farm labourers, rural poor: lost access to commons; greaterreliance on wages; lost traditional rights; becoming a rural collective ofwage earners.
Reactions to Enclosure:
The rural poor protest:
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Direct action to break physical enclosures
Poaching, illegal subsistence
Violence and threat of violence, machine breaking
Survival strategies:
Wage labour Putting-out system
Out-migration
Poor laws (Speenhamland, 1795) Subsidizes rural wages to subsistence Therefore also a subsidy to commercial farmers Depends on parish for administration
Consequences:
Transforms rural life and agricultural mode of production.
Makes a more flexible and commercial agricultural sector.
Provides impetus to commercial market in land.
Creates a rural wage-earning class with few options but to sell labour.
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Industrialization: Cotton, Lancashire and the World
Lecture objectives:
To consider the term industrial revolution: its origins and meanings.
To analyze the place of cotton in English industrial change.
To consider the global linkages shaping English industrialization.Industrial ? Revolution?
Origins of the term
Blanqui, 1837/ Toynbee, late 19th C
Pollard: By general consent, the term has come to be applied to particularchanges in industrial structure and technology, together with changes in otheraspects of social life.
Fores: A myth: virtually useless for serious debate.
Competing terms: proto-industrialization, industrious revolutions (De Vries)Why England?
The first industrial nation
England as the workshop of the worldWhy Cotton?
Important commodity in industrial growth
Cotton textiles a primary British export
Closely associated with emergence of a factory system and regional growth
Cotton helps us to see British industrialization in its global setting
The expansion in textiles:
Contributing factors:
Background of woolen trades and textiles in northern England and
Scotland. Rising consumption of Indian textiles: produces a market.
Mercantile strategies of the British state: ban imports of Indian cottongoods (1707); overseas markets in the empire.
Investment in industrial capacity.
Mechanization.
An available pool of free labour.Advances in weaving and spinning technologies
Mechanization breaks bottle-necks between spinning and weaving.
Shift from cottage production to factory system increases output.
Water and steam power provide industrial drive.At the center: Manchester
A new Hades (de Tocqueville)
Sublime as Niagara (Carlyle)
The birth place of the English proletariat (Engels)
Population change:
1773: 24,000> 1851: 250,000 (a ten-fold increase)
By 1850, 2/3rds of Manchester residents over 20yrs born elsewhere.
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Consequences for workers:
Time, work discipline and industrial capitalism (E.P. Thompson)
Re-location/ workers housing
Age and gender in work
Making a working class
English textiles and global linkages
Cotton, war and imperialism
Shocks in the international system reverberate through the commodity chain
By late 1850s US supplies 77 % of British raw cotton demand
1860-1864 US Civil War disrupts cotton production in the South
Cotton famine leads to search for new cotton production sources:
Egypt, India and Brazil
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Steam power and commodity circulation
Lecture objectives:
To outline the connections between coal, steam power and railways.
To analyze the development of railroad systems and their geographical effects.
To consider how railroads structured human-environment relations in new ways.Before railroads: turnpikes and canals
Steam engine development
Early 18th Century: Newcomen engine
Boiler underneath cylinder; steam condensed in cylinder
A stationary engine
Steam power and mining
Steam engines used to pull wagons out of the pits, to ventilate and extract water.
Wooden coal wagons run on tracks.
Changes to steam engines produce mobility by c.1800
1820s-30s first lines service mining areas for coal exportEarly railroads: experimentalPassenger lines: the shock of the newSpace-time compression
Phase 1: experimentation and growth (1830-1860)
A North Atlantic Hub
Connecting urban networks
US development railroadsPhase 2: a spreading web of steel (1860-1914)
Technological diffusion
Railways and industrialization
Backward linkages Coal Iron, steel Machine industries
Railways and imperialismRe-structuring the environment for rail travelAn agent and artery of environmental change
Refrigeration: another aspect of space-time compression
Changing environmental perceptions
Eliminating Night and Seasons
Participant to Spectator
Landscape as panorama
Sun Time to Standard Time
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London time (1847-48)
North American standard time (1883)Steam at Sea
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Speaking in code: expanding communications linkages
Lecture objectives:
To consider the speed of communication before the electrical telegraph
To analyze how telegraph systems emerged and spread internationally.
To consider the effects of telegraphs on the distribution and channeling ofinformation.
Before the electric telegraph
Optical telegraph
Semaphore
Signal fires
Direct contact: The mails, turnpike roads, animals and ships
Overseas communication: take the Northwest Pacific Coast, for example
1830: over 6 months
London to York Factory (Hudson Bay), overland to Fort Vancouver(Oregon); not much shorter by sea.
1860: 1.5 months primarily by sea:
London to Panama (across the isthmus by rail) to San Francisco toVictoria.
Why would a more rapid transmission of information be useful? To whom?
What is an electric telegraph?
Definition:
An electrified system of long distance communication
Wires carried the current along a network of wooden poles.
Provided a signal of on or offSamuel Morse: Early experimentation: What hath God wrought? is the text of the firstsuccessful message between Washington DC and Baltimore , 1844
The expansion of the telegraph
Expansion on land:
Railroad articulation
Commercial uses: Prices, Commercial Information
Military considerations
The Northwest Coast
The San Francisco to Siberia Line
1861: the first US transcontinental telegraph
1865: New Westminster to Quesnel (400 miles in 3 months)
1866: Line went north to the Skeena River
Stopped because of transatlantic cable success
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Expansion at sea:
1858 First transatlantic cable attempt
1866 first working submarine cable across Atlantic
Submarine cables required insulation around the wire and reinforcing wire
to protect the cable from currents and other factors.Imperialism:
Military and strategic significance
Implications for command
Intercontinental lines
The British line to India
The political difficulties of land transmission
Under water cable, 1870: control
Technology and imperialism
Governor General Dalhousie writes in an 1854 letter after the completion of theCalcutta-Bombay telegraph: what a political reinforcement it is!
William P. Andrew,Memoir of the Euphrates Valley Route to India (1857): Therailway and the telegraph are the pioneers of enlightenment and advancement; itis theirs to span the gulf between barbarism and civilization
How did the telegraph change perceptions of space, time and information?
Innis, the Bias of Communication
McLuhan, the Medium is the Message: We shape tools and then our tools shape
us.
Modern news; the Hemingway style
The internet? Cell phones? Twitter?
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Demographic Change
Learning Objectives:
To analyze how demographic patterns changed in industrializing societies.
To consider the factors that drove changes.
Defining Demographic Transition:
A process characterized first by a decline in death rates (leading to a rapid growthin population) and later a fall in birth rates (at which point population growthslows).
Demographic transition modelCounting People: Some approximations
Variations at national, regional and local scales
How do we know what we know?
World Population
Year Asia Eup USSR Africa Americas Oceania World
1750 500 111 35 104 18 3 771
1850 790 209 79 102 59 2 1,241
European populations in millions
Country 1750 1850
England 5.7 16.5 (2.89)
Germany 15 27 (1.8)
France 25 35.8 (1.43)
Life expectancy in two countries
Country c.1750 c.1850
England 37 40
France 28 40
Life expectancy in two casesEngland, 1541-1871:
Survival time ranged from:41.7 years (in 1581-85) to a low of 27.8 years (in 1561-65).Average for entire period: 35.5 years
France, 1740-1790:Survival time ranged between24 and 28 years (for males), and 26 and 30 years (for females)By the mid-19th Century, survival rates for both men and women
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reached over 40 years for most western European countries.
Thomas Malthus
Population growth tends to outstrip growth of food production
Populations must suffer periodic mortality increases in the absence of virtuous
preventative checks because of declining living standards. Positive checks: Famine, Disease, and War
Preventative checks: Abstinence, and Delayed Marriage
Assumptions of Malthus model:
The dynamics of a primarily agrarian society, in terms of :
population characteristics
The prevailing food production system, including the crops grown
patterns of mobility and migration
Change agents:
Nuptial (ie marriage) patterns:
Some argue that a decrease in the age at marriage allowed for anexpansion in the number of births.
Mainly applicable to the English case. English womens age at marriagedecreased from about 26 (1750) to 23.5 (1850)
Earlier marriage= increased possibility of number of births over life cycle=fertility increase
Changing infant mortality patterns
In pre-industrial regime, families might expect 1/3 to of their children to die ininfancy.
After 1750, more infants survive.
In a cross-section sample of English parishes with records, the crude infantmortality rate decreased
1750: 124 per one thousand
1850: 113 per one thousand
Mortality decline
Why do people live longer?
Food and resources New crops (e.g., potatoes)
Decline in frequency and intensity of famines (despite high profile
counter-examples, ie Irish famine of 1845-1849) Health and prevention
Sanitation Sewerage construction, improvement of water supplies and
housing reform London receives water filtration, 1829; Sewerage, 1858.
The rise of germ theory
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Particular organisms cause particular diseases. (Pasteur/Koch1870s/1880s).
Focussed attention on germs themselves and carriers (rats,mosquitoes, etc.)
Changes in private behaviour: bathing becomes more frequent
Disease prevention Surveillance and control: quarantine
Public health authorities promote compulsory mass immunization.
Control of plague: vaccination for small pox available at end of 18th C
Towards the improvement of urban life?
Towards a new demographic regime
By end of 19th C: shifts in demographic patterns begin to occur in industrializedcountries.
Number of children families choose to bear decreases.
Cost of child-rearing in industrial societies was very important in this. Mortality rates decline as fertility begins to decrease
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Urban Growth
Lecture Objectives:
To consider the scope of urbanization in the nineteenth century world, and someof its driving forces.
To examine the expansion of Chicago and consider the importance of urban-hinterland connections.
The pre-industrial city:
Before the industrial period, cities were not often large.
Demographic black holes.
In 1750, only a handful of cities around the world had a population of half amillion or more: Edo (Tokyo), Paris and London.
Industrialization and urbanization:
Agricultural change
Labour mobility/ migration New energy sources/ mechanization
Changing modes of transportation/ communications
The sanitary imperative
Demographic change
Urban growth in the long nineteenth century
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Within emerging railroad system, Chicago is positioned advantageously: betweenwestern and northern hinterlands and eastern markets.
Urban functions:
Chicago emerges:
as a major warehousing, trans-shipment and trading center
as a center of finance as an industrial city, handling raw commodities and processing them for
export, building farm equipment
Settling the middle west
Prairie hinterland settled with Chicago as an organizing center
Agricultural landscape is partitioned : land bounded into property units andfenced into fields: prairie > agricultural production zone
Until 1850, wheat shipped in sacks. Each farmers wheat could be identified
Industrialization affects the wheat trade
1850s: steam-powered grain elevators transform grain marketing
1850s Chicago Board of Trade measures by weight, not volume; universalgrading standards developed
1853-1856 volume of wheat shipped through Chicago triples
Wheat trade and finance capital
Elevator receipts can be retained, or traded
By 1860s: Futures market develops to trade these grain receipts
Traders speculate on grain prices
distant traders could buy receipts because of trust in the system
price information comes quickly because of telegraph
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A new culture of imperialism?
Lecture objectives:
To describe the scope of late 19th C British imperialism at a global scale
To identify what industrial factors strengthened imperialism
To consider the new place of science in imperialism To analyze the culture of imperialism
Defining Imperialism
At some very basic level, imperialism means thinking about, settling on,controlling land that you do not possess, that is distant, that is lived on and ownedby others. For all kinds of reasons it attracts some people and often involvesuntold misery for others.-(Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism)
Imperialism and industrialism
Space-time compression
A growing weapons gap Artillery and gunboats
Some military consequences
Of new artillery
Beyond Europe: weapons gap Eg, Battle of Obdurman (1898)
Within Europe: weapons race
Of gunboats
Asserting British power abroad
Eg, The GunboatNemesis (1840-42) Exploring the African interior
Imperialism and ScienceGreen imperialism?Coping with the killing tropics
Green Inperialism
Kew GardensStarts 1772Sir Joseph Banks1841- A national institutionAn international network of collectors
A center of calculation (Latour)
Tropical disease: malaria
Chinchona bark
Extraction: Quinine
By mid-19th C seeds smuggled and dispersed in imperial plantations around theworld
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Contending discourses of imperialism
Scientific racism
Proponents conceive a sharp divide between races based on phenotypicalfeatures
Produces a sense of racial superiority
Salvation and civilizing mission Civilizing mission: impose a benevolent order on savagery
An expanding missionary impulse: In the last 25 yrs of the 19th C, the Bible is translated into 120
languages
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The British Raj
Lecture objectives:
To analyze the expansion of British imperialism in South Asia after 1850 and itscauses
To consider some of the ideologies and spatial practices deployed by the Britishto assert their rule
The end of company rule
Changing aspects of British involvement.
The loss of company monopoly
The increasing role of the British state
The search for unified sovereignty in the early 19th C
Territorial expansion
The fortunes of war Inheritance practices and lapsed states
The pre-text of mis-government
Technologies of empire
The railroad
The telegraph and the submarine cable (1865)
Steam powered ocean travel
A postal system (penny post, 1854)
1857: watershed
The Indian Mutiny/ The First War of Indian Independence
Triggers:
Animal grease and bullets
The military revolt
The revolt widens Uncoordinated, stronger in north, a mass movement in Oudh
The loyal and the disloyal
Broader causes:
Cultural policies
Land assessments
Degradation of landed elites
Imperial hierarchy/ lack of consultative structure in governance
Outcomes: the Raj
1858 Government of India Act: transfers authority from East India Company toBritish Crown
Establishes Viceroy as supreme authority in India, as well as advisorycouncils.
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Elaboration of bureaucracy and technical system of control.
Princely states bound to authority of Raj 1/3 of Indians under indirect rule until independence.
Outcomes: the military
Military policy
Scientific racism and military recruitment Re-organizing regional/ethnic armies
Increasing British presenceOutcomes: settlements
Colonial cities: metaphors of the Raj
Shaped by fear and racial ideologies
Making settler space
Civil lines bound Br settlements
Cantonments house Br soldiers
Grids and modern services typify Br sections of cities
In mountainous areas, hill stations establishedOutcomes: Ordering India
Imperial authority studies, orders, and produces Indian human geography
The Survey of India est 1878
The Census of India est 1872
Peoples of India (published in 1868)
Caste and photography
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Settlement Colonialism: New Zealand
Lecture objectives:
To consider the patterns and processes of settler colonialism
To consider the environmental transformations that accompanied Anglo-European
settlement in New Zealand
Aotearoa
A zone of Polynesian Colonization, circa 1200
Pre-contact population: 100- 500,000
Denser settlement on the North Island
A Terra Incognita of Europe
Early encounters
Whalers 1790s-1820s massive slaughter of seals and whales
Interlopers
Lumbering for kauri trees
Traders, guns, axes
Missionaries (after 1814)
Resettlement
Pressures on the British govt to extend authority over New Zealand in late 1830s.
Colonization, 1840: 2, 000 Pakeha settlers, numbers would increase rapidly over
the decades Treaty of Waitangi (1840)
Treaty terms
The difficulties of interpretation
Three broad elements:
Ceding Sovereignty
Crown holds exclusive right to purchase land; Maori maintain full rightsof ownership over lands forests, and fisheries in their possession
Maori granted rights and privileges of British subjectsDemographic change
Disease spreads amongst Maori and population drops. Diseases include: scrofula, tuberculosis, veneral diseases, and measles
Maori populations (estimates and census figures)1840:100-120,0001857: 56,0001896: 42,0001981: 280,000
Demographic change: Pakeha
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1860 European population surpasses Maori for the first time
1861-64 Gold rush, non-Maori population almost doubles
99,000-171,000
1881: 500,000 Pakeha
Environmental change Fauna: One mammal before human colonization: a bat
Polynesian islanders bring rats and dogs
Maori hunt large land birds; burn and cultivate the land
Flora: 89% of NZ native flora is exclusive to it.
Joseph Banks could identify only 14 of the first 400 plants he collected in NewZealand
Ecological Invasions
30 species of mammals introduced post-European encounter
Enter new ecological niches
No mammalian predators + food supply in grasslands and forests= animalpopulation explosions
Mammals become predators of native birds. At least 45 bird species becomeextinct
Mammals browse selectively and alter native plant communities.
Flora spread over the land as well
Commercialization
The land converted to commodity production
Extraction:
Gold rushes Lumbering
Cultivation and Pastoralism:
The wheat trade
Sheep
Normalization: Landscape
Deer: a gentle society of the south
Birds: the familiar sounds of home
But also fish for game
H Guthrie Smith:
A virgin countryside cannot be restocked; the vicissitudes of its pioneers cannot be re-enacted; its invasion by alien plants, animals and birds cannot be resuscitatedthe wordsterra incognita have been expunged from the map of little New Zealand
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Tutira, the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station, (1921)
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The Scramble for Africa
Lecture objectives
To consider the contest for imperial territory in Africa in the late nineteenthcentury
To analyze the factors shaping that contest To consider some of the outcomes of the scramble
What precipitated the Scramble?
Economic motivations?
Raw material supplies palm oil, groundnuts, gold, timber, ivory, cotton
Export markets
Lenin on Imperialism
The importance of surplus capital seeking an outletThe scramble as an outgrowth of European politics
Tensions arise in the European state system
defeat of France by Germany in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71),Unification of Germany (1871), Unification of Italy.
An amplified nationalism drives imperial adventures
Overseas colonies become a marker of national statusThe Scramble
In the early 1880s, a series of imperial claims placed in West and Central Africaby European powers.
British imperialists shocked by the entrance of new players (eg, Germany)Developing rules
The military risks of European competition in Africa The Berlin conference 1884-1885
Convened to determine rules for the assumption of imperial territories inAfrica
All major European states represented
No Africans presentThe Berlin rules
Claimants must inform other powers to allow for counter-claims
Claims must be followed by effective occupation
Treaties with African rulers should be judged to be legitimate documentsassigning territorial sovereignty
Coastal locations could be extended inland
Niger and Congo rivers should be free for navigationHow to acquire an African empire
Treaties signed (sometimes by coercive means) with indigenous authorities
Bi-lateral treaties signed in Europe, by which competing European powersrecognize one anothers claims
Occupation
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Responding to the scramble
Ambivalence
Christian-educated elites in West Africa
Rulers seeking military alliances against enemies
Rulers exposed to the full force of European military power
Military defense Most pronounced in Muslim North Africa
Most pronounced in Areas of French annexationConsequences: 3 regional patterns
West Africa: indigenous farmers grow cash crops for global market (groundnuts,cotton, palm oil, cocoa, etc.), shipped out from ports by European merchants
Congo Basin: European concession owning companies establish extractiveindustries with forced labor
East and South Africa: European settlers establish mines and farms, with Africanlabor procured through taxes
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East Asia, Imperial Encounters and Modernity
Lecture objectives:
To examine the course of western encroachment on Chinese trade and territory inthe nineteenth century
To consider the conflicts and consequences of semi-colonialism in China To place the Chinese experience in comparative perspective
Limits on European trade in China before the industrial age
Main European traders Portuguese and Spanish (16th C) Dutch (17th C) British (18th C)
Southern points of contact
Canton (Guangzhou)
Macao
Constraints on traders Place of residence (Guangzhou), duration of visits
The missionary presence (Jesuits)
British-Chinese trade
18th C: A meeting of monopolies
English East India Company and the Co-Hong (official merchant guild ofGuangzhou)
New patterns of British demand
Traditional Chinese exports remain popular (Porcelains, silks)
But a consumer revolution opens the way for new products
The tea tradeBritish demand for Chinese tea soars in the 18th CWhy? What is the significance for China and Britain?
1684 : 5 chests
1720 : 400,000 lbs
1800 : 23,000,000 lbs
By 1800 Britain accounted for 1/7th of the demand for tea in China
Taxes on tea amounted to 1/10th of Chinese state revenues, c. 1800
The Opium Problem Chinese authorities wished to restrict and control opium trade
Costly drain on silver from the economy
Costly drain on society from addiction
British hold different aims
Greater freedom from taxation
Greater capacity to move and trade within China
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Direct diplomatic missions
Opium war and consequences
The Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
Chinese cover Br war costs
Co-Hong dismantled Five treaty ports opened to British:
Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai
Tariff fixed at 5%
Extraterritorality clause British in China subject to British law
Most-favoured nation clause
British obtain lease on Hong KongSemi-colonialism?
Anglo-French expedition (1860) occupies Beijing
Leads to concessions of 14 new treaty ports
By end of century, more treaty ports added and areas within ports ceded to foreignpowers
Western powers enjoy much wider liberties within China
A shaken dynasty
Domestic dissent de-stabilized Qing dynasty
Peasant revolts
Religious movements
Taiping rebellion (1850-1864) Estimates of 20 million dead
Self-strengthening
1860s-1870s prominent officials argue for the adoption of western technologies inindustry and military
A limited technology transfer begins:
China Merchants Steam Navigation Company (1872)
Telegraph network (1879); Railroad line linking coal mines and port ofTianjin (1880)
Why did industry not develop faster?
Resistance within the state
Unequal treaties meant that cheap foreign manufactured goods undermineddomestic development
Widespread opposition to railroads cutting across settled areas
Challenges to Qing Power
Sino-Japanese war (1894)
Japan provokes war over influence in Korea
China cedes Liaodong and Taiwan
Pays fine
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Allows Japan to establish factories in China
Boxer rebellion : A Xenephobic critique of foreign influence
Attacks on missionaries and Christian converts
Qing empress dowager Cixi lends support
Foreign forces seize Beijing Massive financial penalties imposed
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A world in Fragments
Lecture objectives:
To consider the contours of the First World War and modernity
To evaluate the wars political geography
To examine the different landscapes of war
Background pointers
Alliances : a complex diplomatic system
Britain, France and Russia, (and later) Italy, Japan and the United States
Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire
Tensions : national rivalries
Br and German rivalry
Contest for authority in the Balkans
Fronts : West, East, South
How did warfare reflect and transform modern experience?
Space-time compression
Communications and war
The telegraph and the front
The telegraph and the homefront
Movement of goods and people
Railroads and ocean transport
Total war
Building state capacity
Secular authority versus the Old Order
Citizenship and national belonging Mobilization
Fighting forces
Materials and supplies
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The geopolitics of the peace
To analyze the reconstruction of political geography after the First World War
To consider the important elements of the Treaty of Versailles, 1919
Traditional geopolitics : The search for the geographical mainsprings of politics
Term coined in 1899 by Swedish geographer Rudolf Kjellen
Contemporary geopolitics :
the hierarchical character of states within a global order
links between the economy and geopolitics
the meanings of geopolitical ideas and assumptions
Wars end: Towards Versailles
The war unwinds:
Mutinies and social disorder
An Armistice, November 11, 1918
An Accounting
The role of the United States
Wilson and the Fourteen Points14 pointsPrinciples present undefined possibilities:
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, basedupon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of
sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with theequitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.
Paris 1919
Capital of the world
The staging of world politics
Representing power
Reorganizing political geography
What could and could not happen in Paris?
Working against the clock?
The military and financial settlement Weakening German industry and military capacity
German military limited to 100,000
Germany had to hand over merchant fleet to the allies, build ships for theallies for five years, provide coal for France, Belgium and Italy and payfor the military occupation of the Rhineland
Reparations:
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final settlement in 1921: 32 billion marks or about $500 million USdollars.
League of Nations
Promoted by Wilson in particular
Would oversee international disputes
Negotiations would be public US Congress failed to approve the League
Territorial Outcomes
Trimming borders
Carving up empires
Creating new states
Prohibiting states (Austrian-German union)
Diplomacy/national lobbies/plebiscites
The tangle of language/ethnicity and nationalism
The Long viewExcept for the territorial clauses, nothing was left of the Treaty of Versailles by the mid-1930s.- Eric Hobsbawm
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A Second Industrial Revolution
Learning objectives:
To analyze the diffusion of industry in the late nineteenth century
To consider the new forms of energy and materials applied in industry
To consider the social consequences of technological change
War and industryThe sheer massiveness of the destruction of the First World War was in large partattributable to the power of the new technology: steel, chemicals, high explosives, barbedwire, internal combustion engines, mass productionthe nightmare of 1914-1918reflects the achievements of the previous decades faithfully. Joel Mokyr
Industrialization: A second wave
Russia and Japan spurred to organize industry after 1850
A different industrial structure emerges
External sources of capital and expertise important
New energy converters, sources and networks
Electric turbines: coal and hydro
Large Technological Systems (Hughes)
Generation, Transmission, Distribution
Internal combustion engines: petroleum
Changes in the production process: factories
The American System of Manufacturing: interchangeable parts
The role of electricity: drive, lighting, space
Towards assembly lines: de-skilling labour?
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Land and Life under Communism
To what extent did the drive for rural collectivization in the USSR in the 1930sdemonstrate the assumptions and practices of authoritarian high modernism?
High modernism:
A strong version of the beliefs in scientific and technical progress that were associatedwith industrialization in Western Europe and North America from roughly 1830 untilWorld War I. (Scott, Seeing Like a State)
High modernists:Assumed the virtues of:
continued linear progress,
development of scientific and technical knowledge,
expansion of production,
rational design of the social order, growing satisfaction of human needs,
and, not least, an increasing control over nature (including human nature).
Authoritarian high modernism*Regimes adopting AHM principles applied the full powers of the state to order natureand society.
*In a range of destabilized states in the 20th C, a weakened civil society had difficultyresisting.
War communism: war, revolution and civil warThe assault on private property: theory and practiceFirst stage:
Nationalization under war communism
The New Economic Policy
Temporary restoration of market economy
Small businesses returned
Peasants can sell surplus
Electrification
Communism equals Soviet power plus electrification (Lenin)
The first state economic plan
Stalins Five-Year PlanA Program of industrialization
-Focus on heavy industry not consumer goods-Magnitogorsk
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Communism in the countrysideIdeology: the Peasant Question
Peasants: A sack of potatoes? Kulaks?
Alternative Visions: Chayonov on the Theory of Peasant Economy
Collectivization Mechanization for efficiency and scale Rid the countryside of anti-revolutionary Kulaks
Resistance and violence
Forms of resistance
Procurement: for the cities
The 1932 famine
Centralized Control and the legibility of collective farms
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Land and life under capitalism: The Great Depression and the dust bowl
The Dust Bowl:
What, Where, When?
A geographical imaginary
One dust bowl or many?
A periodic event?
A periodic event made worse by agricultural practices and the conditions ofsettlement?
Before the Dust
Land settlement policies
US Homestead Act (1862; 1909)
160 acres grants conditional on improvement, habitation (5 yrs) and filingfee.
1909: 320 acre grants available
An efficient land disposal system but what were the risks in terms of landstewardship?
The great plow up
Market demand drives expansion
Rising grain prices in 1910s
Wheat prices increase 2 times over course of WWI
In 1919 38% more wheat was grown than annual average form 1909-1913
Mechanization, cropping and tillage (dry-farming)
Towards the depression
1920s: A weakening international market in agricultural goods
A cost-price squeeze emerges
1929 changes in the economy generally signal problems for agriculture
Environmental and social change
The storms come
Drought conditions arrive with sharp effects starting in 1932.
Lower than usual precipitation, high winds, and grass hoppers
Coping strategies
Family strategies (single men move on), families move on, charity and localcommunity organizations
The new deal in agriculture
Supply management: pay farmers to take land out of production
Varied effects on small and large landholders, as well as tenants
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Land Management
Soil Conservation
Water development (irrigation)
Resettlement
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Water, dams and modernity
The RiverDocumentary Screening
About the Film
Written and directed by Pare Lorentz Commissioned by the US governments Farm Security Administration to
publicize New Deal
Offers a complex rationale for the importance of the Tennessee Valley Authority(1933).
Why a river?
Mississippi encompassed different regions, overlapping land and water uses
The problems of the Mississippi could serve as a metaphor for the nation
TVA suggested a hopeful response to the misery of the depression years
TVA represented a modern reconstruction of landscape against a wasteful past
Questions to consider while watching
How does the language of the film help to drive its narrative?
Are there villains in the piece?
How are people represented?
How does the film deal with racial politics? Gender divisions? Class andregional differences?
How is the river represented?
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The Second World War as a Global Event
Lecture objectives:
To examine the spatial reach of modern warfare
To consider the logistical challenges of world war
To analyze the reconstruction of civilian life on homefronts
The Peace rejected
The rise of Nazi Germany
Nazi expansion
The failures of collective security and appeasement
East Asia and a militant Japan
An expansionist militarism
Japanese incursions in Manchuria (1931), and China (1937)
Pan-Asianism
2 circuits of war
Circuit 1) Europe/North Africa
Nazi Germany and the Battle of Europe
Nazi Germany strikes east, June 1941
Circuit 2) East Asia and the Pacific
Japanese expansion in Asia
Japan attacks US, Dec 1941
Circuits unravel
Containing Nazi Germany
Containing Japan
The scope of global war
Spatial scope:
Eurocentric war to global war
Sites and fronts of conflict expand
Technologies of war reframe geopolitics
Wars effects felt on distant sources of supply
Logistical scope
Problems of distance, resources and technology
Expansionist battle strategies would be shaped partly by geopoliticalconsiderations
New technologies condition the geography of war: tanks, air forces,bombing campaigns, the nuclear bomb
The human scope
New strategies of war and technologies of warfare affect more civilians
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Whereas about 9 million died in WWI, between 50 and 70 million died in WWII.
Total war engages homefronts
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War and Peripheries
Lecture Objectives:
To consider the extent to which world war integrated distant peripheries intomodern, industrial societies
Peripheries: a descriptive term used to denote areas distant from and dependent oncenters of social, economic and political power (core regions)
Integrating peripheries: why?
To supply food and materials
To provide strategic positions
To solidify territorial claims and to defend themThe location of US troops in 1945: one indicator of strategic peripheries
Some immediate consequences:
The rapid integration of distant regions into networks of modern industrialtransportation and communications
The commodification of resources and the integration of markets The imposition of a new political geography
Resource peripheriesIntegrating supply regions: railroad, shipping, defenseThe transportation problems of war and peripheriesWar drives development and resource integration
Strategic Periphery:
Pacific war, Alaskan isolation and air routes
Close Canadian-American alliance
Permanent Joint Board of Defense (1940)
Integrating the periphery
Transportation (Alcan highway)
Supplies (Canol Pipeline)
Military Occupation
Integration and its effects
Local environmental and social change
Integration into the continental resource economy
Integration into the social and political geography of the nation state
Surveying the new northwest
The Arctic Survey and American interests
Towards the cold war: a militarized north
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Wars End
Lecture Objectives:
To consider the political geography of the world, c. 1945
To explore several dimensions of regional change
To analyze the growth of international institutions
Framing the post-war: Europe
Wartime power politics
Yalta and the big three (1945): Dismembering Germany Planning a for a Soviet role against Japan Calculating realms of influence
The limits of diplomacy
The importance of territorial control: Red Army was on the outskirts of Berlin during conference
VE day, May 8, 1945: A re-divided Europe
A continent on the move
People more than borders moved after WWII: displaced persons and refugees
An ethnicization of states
Ethnic minorities were repatriated
Jews fled west to Germany
New regimes displaced ethnic Germans
Allied armies sought to cope with the tide of humanity
Beyond Europe: Re-inventing states South Asia
The consequences of British weakness in India
Wartime politics and post-war uncertainties
Divisions within
East Asia
The road to civil war in China
US-led Japanese reconstruction
Framing the post-war
International institutions
The American role
Bretton Woods (1944) Rules for currency conversion at fixed but adjustable rates International Monetary Fund est. to cover short-term balance-of-
payment problems
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International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (WorldBank)
National controls on capital flows retained
The United Nations (1945)
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