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Lornshill Academy
Geography Department
National 5 Revision
Physical Environments
Glaciated Uplands
Processes of Erosion
Physical Weathering (Freeze-Thaw Weathering)
Rainwater enters cracks in rocks and, in winter this water sometimes freezes. When it
freezes and expands, this forces the crack wider. This process is repeated thousands of
times, pieces of rocks break off.
Plucking
Between the glacier and the rock underneath is a thin film of melt water. This water
sometimes freezes so the glacier becomes attached to the rock. Then, when the glacier
moves forward, it pulls away and loose fragments of rock. This powerful process is called
plucking.
Abrasion
This is when a rock is frozen into glacier ice. The glacier moves and the rocks scrape along
the valley floor and erode therefore erode it.
Formation of Features
Corrie
Snow fills hollow and is compressed and turns to ice. The ice move downhill due to gravity.
Abrasion takes place on the corrie floor, plucking at back wall and freeze thaw at back
helps steepen back wall. When the ice melts it leaves behind arm chair shaped hollow called
a corrie. A lip, made from moraine, is left at the front as ice loses power. When water
remains in the corrie it is called a lochan or tarn.
Arête
Where two corries formed back to back or side to side, the rock between them was plucked
away to form a narrow ridge. This steep and narrow knife-like ridge is called an arête.
Pyramidal Peak
Where three or more corries are formed back to back, the rock between them was plucked
and weathered into a sharp point, usually the highest point in the area. This is called a
pyramidal peak.
U-shaped Valley
Before Glaciation a v-shaped valley exists. During the ice age a glacier moves downhill
eroding the sides and bottom of the valley, through plucking and abrasion. Through erosion
this makes the valley sides steeper and the valley deeper. After the ice melts a steep,
deep, flat floored U-Shaped valley remains. The original stream now seems too small for
the valley and is called a misfit stream.
Truncated Spurs
A spur is the bottom part of a ridge which juts out into the main valley. A river winds
around spurs in a v-shaped valley. During the ice-age a glacier moves down the valley. The
sides of the valley are eroded by abrasion and the spurs are worn away. After the ice age
the valley is wider and straighter and the spurs have been cut off leaving shortened or
truncated spurs.
Hanging Valley
A large glacier occupies a main river valley and a smaller glacier occupies the tributary
valley. As the glaciers move they erode the sides and bottom of the valleys, through
plucking and abrasion making the valleys wider, deeper and steeper. When the ice melts the
tributary valley is left suspended above the main u-shaped valley as it was not eroded as
much because the smaller glacier had less power so there was less erosion The tributary
river now has a waterfall
Ribbon Lakes
The material which was pushed in front of the glacier and left as the glacier melted, is
called terminal moraine. This material may be large enough to form a dam at the end of the
U-shaped valley. The stream cannot proceed further and gradually backs up. The valley
was then flooded and the shape of the resulting lake or rock resembled a piece of ribbon
stretching back through the length of the valley.
Land Uses
Hill Sheep Farming
Due to the steepness of the slopes, the cold temperatures and high rainfall, which limit the
growing season and affect soil fertility, the area is mostly unsuited to crop farming since it
would be almost impossible to use machinery such as combine harvesters. The only type of
farming possible is hill sheep farming, with cattle occasionally being raised on lower, less
steep land.
Forestry
Large plantations of coniferous forests are found in this area. This is suited to the steep
slopes, poor soils and inhospitable climate. The trees also protect the slopes from soil
erosion.
Quarrying
The main type of industry is quarrying for granite and slate for roads and roofs. Limestone
is also quarried for use in the steel making elsewhere. The number of quarries operating
has gradually been reduced in recent years
Water Supply
The Lakes are natural reservoirs in an area of high rainfall. It is much more economical to
use these natural reservoirs than to build man-made reservoirs. The Lakes supply up to
30% of the water needs of this part of Great Britain.
Recreation, Leisure and Tourism
The area is very attractive to tourists offering a variety of physical attractions such as the
mountains and lakes for activities such as hill walking, mountain climbing, adventure holidays,
water sports, fishing and general sightseeing.
Land Use Issue and Management
Tourist and Residents
Traffic Congestion
– The tourists cause a lot of traffic congestion on the roads due to a lot of slow moving
cars, buses and caravans.
– Traffic congestion is at its worst in ‘honey pots’ such as Bowness and Keswick. This
frustrates the local people who are trying to get to places quickly.
– The traffic can delay emergency vehicles such as ambulances and fire engines.
– Tourists take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and increase local
air pollution.
Raising houses prices and ‘Ghost Towns’
– Some locals cannot afford to move home. Wealthy tourists are paying over the odds
to buy a holiday home, out pricing the locals.
– Some villages are becoming ‘ghost villages’ as most of the houses are owned by
tourists who do not live there all of the time. Due to this village shops and schools
are closing.
Tourists and Farmers
Damage to farms
– Not all tourists obey the country code leaving field gates open allowing animals to
stray onto roads and be killed or cause accidents
– They drop litter which not only looks unsightly but may be eaten by farm animals,
harming them
– They let their dogs off their leads allowing them to chase animals.
Footpath Erosion
– This happens when a lot of people walk up a hill in the same direction. Overtime the
vegetation gets trampled on and killed leaving a path of bare soil.
– During heavy rain the path will become very muddy and some of it will be washed
away. To avoid the mud people walk on the grass next to it eventually killing it,
making the path bigger and more of an eyesore.
Tourists and Tourists
Recreational Activities
– Honey pots in the Lake District also include Lakes such as Windermere. They offer
many opportunities for recreation and leisure.
– This creates conflicts. The noisy activities, e.g. Motor boats upset the people
wanting peace and quiet e.g. the fishermen and birdwatchers.
Tourists and Conservationists
Damage to the landscape
– Conservationists are concerned about the look if tourist developments such as visitor
centres are built, as they do not blend in with the landscape and spoil the view.
Solutions
National Park Authority
They have tried to ease traffic congestion by;
– Bringing in one-way systems (Ambleside).
– Pedestrianising some streets (Keswick).
– Painting double yellow lines to prevent street parking (Grasmere).
– Providing large car parks on edge of villages (Grasmere).
– Separating local and tourist traffic.
– Taking pressure off ‘honeypots’ by advertising and signposting other attractions in
different areas.
– Encouraging the use of minibuses and bicycles.
They have tried to ease soaring property prices by;
– To reduce soaring property prices and locals being forced out by tourists, the
Authority can insist that new houses are sold/rented cheaply to locals (Rosthwaite
and Bowness).
They have tried to ease conflicts between tourists by;
– They are attempting to educate tourists at information centres about enjoying
themselves without causing conflict.
– Park Rangers are employed to prevent, spot and sort out problems.
– There is zoning of tourist activities (swimming areas ect).
– Speed limits
They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by;
– They vet plans for new tourist developments. Plans that may cause conflict are
rejected.
– They insist that new buildings, visitor centres, car parks are screened by deciduous
trees and that local stone is used in construction.
Solutions by National Trust
To ease conflicts the tourists cause to conservationists and farmers;
– They buy land and buildings and manage them. In this way they can ensure that at
least this land is protected.
– They reduce footpath erosion caused by hill walkers by laying blocks of hard wearing
stone ‘stone pitching’ to provide a good walking surface, fence off worse affected
areas to allow them to recover and dig drainage channels to stop water running down
footpaths.
Coastal Landscapes
Processes of Erosion
Hydraulic Action
This is when the power of the waves comes crashing against the cliffs, squeezing the air in
its cracks, which make the cracks wider and longer until pieces of rock break off.
Corrasion
This is when the sand and pebbles are thrown against the cliff, causing pieces of rocks to
fall off.
Solution
This happens as the salt and other chemicals in the sea slowly dissolve the minerals in the
rocks causing them to break up.
Process of Deposition
Longshore drift is the process through which material is moved along a beach. Waves
approach the beach at an angle, waves break and the swash carries material up the beach at
the same angle as the wave. The backwash, and any material carried by it, returns by the
shortest route at right angles to the beach. This creates a zigzag pattern of
transportation.
Formation of Features
Erosional
Wave cut Notch/Platform
A Wave-cut platform forms when a notch is cut into the base of a cliff by waves. Overtime
the notch gets larger and deeper mainly due to hydraulic action. Eventually the
unsupported rock above will collapse into the sea. The sea will remove this debris, and the
process repeats itself. Eventually a wave-cut platform will be left in front of the cliff.
Headlands & Bays
Headlands and bays form along coasts that are made of alternative bands of hard
(resistant) and soft (less resistant) rocks. The waves erode the softer rocks (clay) more
quickly to form bays and the harder rocks (chalk) are eroded more slowly and left jutting
into the sea to form headlands. Overtime the bays will become more sheltered and sandy
beaches will form.
Caves, Arch, Stack and Stump
Waves crash into headlands eroding weaker parts such as cracks (joints or faults). The
cracks are eroded by 3 different processes corrasion, hydraulic action and solution. The
cracks get larger, deeper and wider, developing into a cave. Overtime, the horizontal
erosion of a cave may cut through the headland to the other side to form an arch. Very
occasionally a blow hole will be created within a cave where vertical erosion has taken place.
Further erosion widens the walls of the arch leaving less support for the roof, leading to its
collapse and to the formation of a stack isolated from the cliff. The stack will be eroded
to form a needle. The needle will be eroded, collapse and become a stump.
Depositional
Beaches
Beaches are made up of soil or rock fragments that have been eroded from cliffs by the
waves. These fragments are then broken into smaller pieces and rounded off. The eroded
material is then deposited where waves have little energy forming a beach. A typical beach
has sorted deposits, the largest deposits are found at the back of the beach and the
smallest next to the sea. The largest beaches are usually found in bays, where the waves
are generally weak.
Sandspit, Sand bar and Tombolo
A spit forms when beach material is transported along the coast by longshore drift* A
ridge of sand builds up and outwards forming a spit. If the spit extends across the mouth
of a bay it can join up with a beach on the other side forming a sand bar. This straightens
the coastline and encloses a lagoon on the landward side of the bar. Along some coastlines a
sand spit may grow outwards into open water and reach an island forming a Tombolo.
Land Uses
Industry
Offshore, sand and gravel is taken from the seabed providing employment. Wytch Farm
Oilfield is located at the South bank of Poole Harbour. It is the biggest offshore oilfield in
West Europe. There are three large ports with substantial international trade and five
smaller harbours for local fishing and recreational craft. Fishing provides employment for the
local people. It also supports a wide range of service industries which maintain vessels and
equipment, providing further jobs. The fishing grounds sustain 600 boats.
Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (ALL AREAS)
The sightseers are attracted by the scenery. There are lots of opportunities for different
activities. Important wildlife refuges are found just behind the coast in the sand dunes
(Studland), lagoons and marshes (The Fleet) which encourages visitors. Rare heathland
plants and rare British Wildlife such as lizards and snakes can be found. The above
encourages large numbers of visitors who spend their money in the local area which creates
jobs, opportunities for hotels, restaurants and shops.
Land Use Issue and Management
Tourist and Residents
Traffic Congestion
– The tourists cause a lot of congestion on the roads. The larger settlements of
Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage all suffer from congestion. The congestion is
caused as 82% of tourists travel by car; they tend to visit at the same time (Bank
Holidays and weekends) and often drive slowly to admire views.
– In addition, they take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and
increase local air pollution.
– The congestion is also caused by narrow streets
Tourists and Tourists
Recreational Activities
– Many tourists are attracted to Poole Harbour. This is a recipe for conflict. The
noisy pursuits, e.g. power boats upset the people wanting peace and quiet, eg. The
fishermen and birdwatchers. Increasingly powerboats are being used in winter, which
is when thousands of birds migrate here.
Tourists and Conservationist
Pollution and damage to the landscape
– Tourist activities in Poole Harbour are polluting the water (oil and litter). Powerboats
are scaring migrating birds in winter.
– At Studland tourists are causing erosion of the sand dunes. People walk through the
dunes, trampling on fragile plants (which bind the sand together) until they die. With
less vegetation the sand dunes themselves become eroded and wildlife disappears as
the habitat changes. Horses also add to the trampling due to a riding centre nearby.
Solutions
County Council
To ease traffic congestion in Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage the following solutions have
been tried:
– One way systems.
– Encouraging other types of transport (by providing bus and cycle lanes).
– Phasing traffic lights.
– Restricting the hours of road works.
To ease traffic congestion in the Village of Corfe Castle;
– A railway line has been opened with steam trains running from Swanage to Norden,
just north of Corfe Castle. People can now visit these places without driving into or
through the Village.
– An extra car park has been developed in the village. This should reduce the street
parking, which should allow traffic to go faster.
– More cycle ways and summer bus routes have been developed, but a proposed by-pass
has been rejected.
To try and solve tourist conflicts in Poole Harbour, Poole Council have introduced:
– Zoning of Poole Harbour (different activities are zoned in different areas so they do
not upset one another).
– Maximum speed limits have been imposed in some parts, which prevents power
boating and waterskiing taking place.
National Trust
They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by;
– Lobbying to get certain areas a protected status. RSPB sites have been set up to
protect wildlife and SSSI sites to protect vegetation.
– Educating visitors by taking them on guided tours and providing information on
boards and leaflets.
– Restricting access to sensitive areas.
– Providing wardens to look after the area.
Weather
Synoptic Symbols
Synoptic symbols break the weather down more than the symbols you are familiar with on
TV. One symbol shows the weather, temperature, wind speed, wind direction and cloud
cover.
Isobars
Isobars are lines that join places of equal air pressure. The closer together the isobars
are, the winds are stronger.
Air Masses
Air masses are large bodies of air that can be the size of a continent. Thousands of them
move around our planet every day. Air masses give us our weather.
Where one air mass meets another this is called a front.
The type of weather that an air mass brings is dependant in the air pressure – High
(Anticyclone) or Low pressure (Depression).
Anticyclones
Anticyclones are high pressure an area meaning the air descends towards the earth’s
surface. Winds blow in a clockwise spiral away from a high area with isobars widely spaced,
so wind tends to be very light or calm. They cover large areas, sometime affecting the
whole country and give long periods of fine and settled weather (In certain conditions,
lasting for several weeks.) Fog, mist and poor visibility are often associated with
anticyclonic weather.
‘Freezing fog’ can form in winter creating dangerous driving conditions.
In Winter anticyclones bring:
– Clear skies
– Sunny days
– Cold days
– Very cold nights
– Frost
– Light winds
– No rain or snow
In summer anticyclones bring:
– Clear skies
– Sunny days
– Hot days
– Cool nights
– Light winds
– No rain
Depressions
When THREE air masses meet over Britain we get a depression. They are made up of warm
and cold air masses. A depression is a low pressure area. They bring unsettled, changeable
weather and take between one and three days to cross the country. Wind blows
anticlockwise around a depression. It is usually strong and may even be gale force. The air
masses do not mix immediately. Where they meet is called a front. There are two types of
front a warm front and a cold front.
Stage 5 Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1
Tail end of
cold front
Temperature
falls
Showers
Air pressure
rises
FINE WITH
SOME
SHOWERS.
Cold front
Temperature
falls
Clouds thicken
Air pressure
rises
Winds increase
RAIN
In warm sector
Temperature rises
Drizzle and some sunny
intervals
Air pressures falls
Light winds
Feels ‘muggy’
HUMID
At Warm
front
Temperature
rises
Clouds thicken
Steady rain
Pressure falls
Wind get
stronger
RAIN
Before warm
front
Dry and fine
Settled
Clouds coming
from west
FINE
5
4 3 2
1
Human Environments
Population
Population density is the number of people in each square km. It is affected by a combination of
environmental factors, political factors and economic factors
World population distribution
One question you could be asked is to describe the population distribution of the world or of a
specific country. The first one is simple as you use the key and describe the different areas of
the world and use the figures to back up your answer. The second is more complex and you should
follow a check list to answer it.
Use compass points to help you ‘In the north.’
Mention where places are in relation to other places on the map ‘to the west of…’
Describe the overall pattern. ‘Most of the villages are in the north.’
Use specific numbers and details including names on the map in your description. ‘The
population density in the north around Inverness is 20 people per km2’
Describe where the information shows similarities and where it shows differences
Another question is to explain the distribution of the population. In order to do this you must
state WHY the area is distributed like this. Use the factors that you previously took notes on to
answer this.
Reasons for differing population distribution
The distribution of people around the world is not evenly. There are crowded parts of the world
and also empty areas. There are many factors, which contribute to an explanation of why this
happens.
Climate
People like to live in areas where there are no extreme temperatures and there is rain all
year round. Climate can limit the number of people that live in an area for example Russia.
The conditions are unpleasant and expensive to live in; the growing season is too short to
grow crops therefore food has to be bought in. It is also very hard to build on soil that is
frozen for over half the year.
People do not want to live where there is no rain either for example the middle of Australia.
Again the living conditions are unpleasant and it’s hard to grow crops because the soil is too
thin and eroded easily by the wind.
Soil
Some river valleys are very crowded like the Nile Valley. The reason being is the soil here
is very fertile so lots of crops can be grown in a small area. Also the valley is very flat so
provides water all year round to people.
Relief
People would rather live in areas that are flat and in the lowlands. Mountain ranges tend to
be sparsely populated like the Himalayas. This is because of the cold temperatures and the
poor soils. The slops also cause a problem because they are difficult to build on.
Resources
Where there are natural resources the population density tends to be higher. Areas like
North-East America have attracted people because of the employment opportunities in the
mining fields. Also scenery attracts tourist, which attract people to the area to work or
even retire like California.
Communications
Areas that are not well connected by roads, railways, airports and ports are less populated
as industry is rarely attracted to the area meaning fewer jobs for the locals. An example
of this area would be Northern Canada.
Technological Development
Countries with advanced technologies and well-educated people can support higher
population densities like Japan.
Economic Activities
Areas where industry is the main activity have higher population densities like Southeast
Australia. Large amounts of people can be employed in a very small area. On the other hand
it takes a large area of land to support people who have large farms like the Great Plains in
USA.
Census
Population data is gathered through a census and developing countries have more difficulties in
carrying out a census than developed countries meaning the data is less reliable. The last UK
census was in 2011.
Why is it important to collect data?
Population numbers – to calculate grants for local authorities to plan e.g. schools and
teacher numbers.
Health – to know the age and socio-economic make-up of the population to allocate health
and social services resources.
Housing – to ascertain the need for new housing.
Employment – to help government and businesses plan jobs and training policies.
Transport – to identify where there is pressure on transport systems and for planning of
roads and public transport.
Ethnic Group – to identify the extent and nature of disadvantage in Britain.
Problems facing developing countries
Difficulties affecting accurate population data collection in Developing Countries might include;
Countries suffering from a continuing war situation such as Afghanistan.
The cost involved in carrying out a census is prohibitive to many Developing Countries – training enumerators, printing and distributing forms etc.
The sheer size of some developing countries e.g. Indonesia with many islands spread over a large area.
Countries with large numbers of migrants e.g. rural-urban migration into massive shanty towns e.g. Dharavi in Mumbai, refugees from Rwanda in Burundi etc.
Poor communication links e.g. mountain regions of Bolivia.
Low levels of literacy and variety of languages spoken within a country e.g. India has 15 official languages.
Population change
As we know the world’s population is changing. The number of people in the worlds is increasing
because there are more people being born (birth rate) than there are dying (death rate).
Population Pyramids
Population pyramids can show the age/sex ratio of a country. You must be able to describe and
explain a population pyramid.
Developing Pyramid
The pyramid for a developing country has a wide base and steep sides leading to a narrow
top.
The base is very wide because it has a very high birth rate due to lack of contraception.
The steep sides show there is a high death rate, as well as the numbers at the top of the
pyramid are low.
Low life expectancy also means that the pyramid has a wide base and mid-section.
Developed Pyramid
The narrow base and bullet shape shows there is a low birth and death rate.
The maximum age is higher because there is better healthcare available, meaning it doesn’t
taper as steeply.
Contraception is also widely available unlike in Sierra Leone, meaning that the birth rate is
controlled keeping the general population at constant level.
People live longer and life expectancy is much greater because of the available healthcare
and better living conditions
Rapid Population Growth (Developing Country)
In developing countries birth rates are much higher than death rates and the population is rising
rapidly. In these countries the population structure is similar to the one shown below.
There are many children because the birth rate is high. Often, one half of the population is under
15 years of age. There are less people in the working age group (15-60) because the death rate
was high and many children did not survive to adulthood. For the same reason, there are very few
old people in the population.
People in developed countries have large families so that:
Children can help on the farm
No pensions or old folks homes so children needed to look after parents in old age
With high numbers of children dying people have more so that some survive to adult-hood
Contraceptives are difficult to get
Traditions and religions do not agree with contraceptives
Solutions
Increase education on Family planning
Laws like Chinas’ One Child Policy
More Education for females
Incentives for smaller families like free healthcare
More opportunities for sterilisation and abortions
Slowly Growing Population
In most Developed Countries, the birth rates and death rates are low and their populations are
rising only slowly, if at all. Their population structures are similar to the one below.
There are few children in the population because the birth rate is low. There are many adults
because in the past the birth rate was higher and many babies were born at that time have
survived into adulthood. There are also many older people because the death rate is so low and
most people live to an old age.
Women having children later due to:
More women working
Women want to buy luxury goods instead
Put off having babies until they can afford equipment
Want big houses
The use of contraceptives not seen as wrong
Contraceptives are available to everyone
Solutions
More Paternity leave
More maternity benefits
Raising retirement age (increasing tax payer and reducing pensions)
Encourage women to work
Providing more childcare
Allowing more immigrants
Encourage people to take out private pensions.
Demographic Transition Model
A demographic transition model shows how changes in birth and death rates can affect population
growth. It also identifies four distinct stages of growth. These stages are linked with economic
growth (a country becoming richer).
Describe and explain DMT
Stage 1
There is a high birth and death rate. The total population growth is low due to the fact
that many children are needed for farming so there is a high birth rate. Many children die
at an early age due to the lack of food and medical treatment. There is no family planning,
so population cannot be controlled. Religious beliefs encourage large families.
Stage 2
The birth rate is greater than the death rate so the total population increases. This is
because the food and medical supplies have increased so more people live longer. Family
planning is not fully introduced therefore only helping a few families control their families.
Stage 3
There is a high increase in the total population because the birth rate is greater than the
death rate so there is a greater increase than in stage 2. This is because more family
planning centres are being constructed. People are surviving longer due to greater medical
knowledge, food and water supplies.
Stage 4
The total population reaches its peak as the birth rate equals the death rate. This is
because there is good reliable health care, food supplies and better resources for
pensioners and old people. Family planning has helped people to reduce the number of
children they have and people are having children at later age once they have a career and
marriage.
Problems governments may face when a country is in stage 5
The problems which a government may face when a country reaches Stage 5 are caused by low
birth rate/declining (and ageing) population. This mean the country will need to maintain an active
population large enough to allow levels of taxation to remain constant or raise retirement age.
The country also needs to ensure there are no future shortages in workforce – need to recruit
immigrant labour/ease access for asylum seekers. This can lead to civil unrest/ethnic tension.
The government need to sustain demand for particular products or services e.g. toys, schools,
maternity hospitals, which if affected could lead to higher levels of unemployment (for example
not as many schools needed so many teachers become unemployed.) An ageing population gives
increased cost of pension provision and unpopular decisions for government about how pensions
should be funded.
Rural
Commercial Arable Farming in UK
It has low lying fertile soils, a warm climate, enough rainfall, good drainage and plenty of sunshine
making it perfect farming conditions for growing crops like wheat, barley, peas and sugar beet.
Arable Farming System
Inputs Processes Outputs
Climate Ploughing Crops
Flat land Sowing Profit
Fertile soils Irrigating
Workforce Spraying
Machinery Harvesting
Capital(money)
Chemicals
Seeds
Transport
Farm buildings
Farming Changes
Changes to farm inputs:
More money spent on chemicals and farm machinery
Less people employed in farming
As the population declines the local services begin to close down for example schools, shops
and health centres. This makes the area even less an attractive place to live.
Pollution is increasing which is a major problem. There is an increase in the air and noise
pollution from machinery and more water pollution from chemical use.
More machinery means farms have become bigger and have larger fields
Hedgerows have been removed meaning animal habitats have gone reducing wildlife
Grants available for farms to restore hedgerows and not use chemicals (become organic
farms)
Some market gardens have changed to Pick Your Own PYO farming which is popular with
customers. This is because the produce is cheaper than the shops and also fresher. For
the farmer this means fewer employees.
Changes to farming outputs.
For many years the EU gave higher prices for some crops which have led to more being
grown but not all being sold. This creates Food Mountains which are surplus.
In the 1960s a common agricultural policy (CAP) was devised. The policy aimed to improve
the living standards of farmers and make EU countries more self sufficient. The first
policy was a system of guaranteed prices.
The EUs policy of guaranteed prices was very successful, in a lot of ways too successful.
Farmers grew too much meaning they could not sell it all. For this reason in 1992 the EU
brought in a new policy of set aside schemes and quotas.
Solutions
The government is trying to stop this by improving living standards in the countryside.
Grants for people taking over a farm from a retired farmer.
Farmers are now paid not to grow crops but to leave the land unfarmed. This is called set
aside land
Farmers are encouraged to use their unfarmed land for other purposes like camp sites. This
is called diversification.
Use farm worker cottages as holiday homes giving extra money to the farmer.
More industries setting up in the countryside which brings more jobs to the area.
Intensive Subsistence Farming in India.
The floodplains and deltas of India have been settled and farmed for a long period of time, where
there is a high population growth meaning severe shortage of land as there is no available land
left. The farms are very small but the richness and fertility of the soil mean they are capable of
more than one crop per year. Farming is intensive with a high input of labour and very little
machinery.
Changes of Rice Farming
The Green Revolution
There have been various attempts by governments of countries with peasant farming to
introduce modern methods and changes to areas which practise this system of farming, for
example the Punjab.
These measures have been described as the GREEN REVOLUTION. (YOU CAN GET 1 MARK
FOR THIS!)
Before
Poor quality seeds
Poor quality plants
Low output from poor harvest
Just enough food for family
Little surplus crops: no money for new seeds
Some seed kept for next year
After
Miracle seeds
Heavy fertilising
Healthy plant growth
Plenty of food for family
Surplus crops sold: money for new seed and fertiliser
Migration to cities due to fewer jobs on the land
Lower prices due to higher output
Higher farmer debt.
Solutions
The Indian government introduced various schemes to improve farming during programmes of 5
and 7 years plus.
This involved a range of measures including:
Land reform schemes whereby small farms resulting from the land inheritance system have
been amalgamated into larger farms.
Schemes encourage farmers to borrow money to improve their farms.
Introduction of miracle (hybrid) seeds in order to increase yields.
Using chemical fertilisers to improve soil fertility.
Increasing mechanisation by using tractors and other farm machinery.
Employing agricultural advisers and setting up various training schemes for farmers.
Spraying insecticides onto crops to prevent crops being eaten and destroyed by insects.
Introducing modern irrigation methods to replace inefficient methods such as inundation
canals.
Raising the level of technology used on farms such as introducing motorised ploughs.
Introducing legislation designed to increase the size of fields and allow the system to use
large machinery and become more efficient.
Benefits of Green Revolution
All of the measures were designed to increase yield and output from the farms. The
changes brought about by the Green Revolution have had some success. For example in
India during the 1970s and 1980s. As a result of the uptake of Green Revolution
techniques, production doubled during these decades.
Greater amount of food has reduced malnutrition and starvation.
Surplus crop may be sold, improving quality of life.
Land reform, helped to speed up the process of mechanisation and modernisation.
Improved infrastructure including increased electrification and better roads improving
access to markets.
Larger, more effective irrigation schemes and drainage systems.
The Green revolution has been successful in some areas where land reform was successful.
Problems of Green Revolution
The changes also brought problems. Use of fertilisers, pesticides and other new techniques
cost farmers a great deal of money. Farmers were encouraged to borrow money from banks
to supplement government loans and grant.
As yields increased prices fell due to increased supply. Many farmers did not earn enough
money to both achieve a reasonable income and able to repay the money the have borrowed.
Increased mechanisation may lead to reduction in farm labour.
Migration of farm workers to urban areas and impact on demography of rural areas.
Consolidation of farms may also lead to larger fields, increased mechanisation and drift to
cities due to lack of work also less chance of providing food for their family.
In areas the success rate has been much lower and in some cases many farmers have
become poorer as a direct result of the Green Revolution.
Urban
Urban Land Use
A city is usually divided into recognisable areas or zones. Each area serves a function or purpose.
The main types of function are shops and offices, industry, housing, and open space. Although
different in some ways, towns and cities all tend to be set out in a similar way.
Central Business District
The Central Business District (CBD) is found in the centre of town. This is where shops, offices,
banks, public buildings, and entertainment may be found. Government buildings are usually found
in the centre of town as well. The CBD is the route centre meaning major roads meet there, this
can cause traffic congestion. It is very crowded and busy. This means there is very little spare
land so this means land here is expensive as it is in demand.
Identifying CBD on an Ordnance Survey Map
– Bus station,
– train station,
– tourist information, museums,
– art galleries
– Many churches
– Narrow unplanned roads
– Many main roads meet here
Inner City/19th Century
The inner city is close to the town centre. It is where most of the old industrial buildings &
factories are found. There was not a lot of transport available when the factories were opened.
This meant that housing was built beside the factories for the workers and their families. Many
of the factories have now closed – many being left abandoned.
Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map
– Large buildings
– Canals and railways
– Works, factories, warehouses, breweries
– Near CBD
– Little open space
– Football stadiums
– Churches
– Straight streets
– Grid-iron pattern
– Main roads
Suburbs/20th Century
The suburbs are nearly all housing. Mostly homes that were built in 1920s and 1930s. There is
more open space with many houses having gardens and parks nearby. The newest part of town is
on the edge of the city. This is where the modern housings schemes are found. Most of these
houses have gardens and garages. There are also new shopping centres, small industrial estates
appearing. This is because the land is cheaper than nearer the city. Open space is also a main
feature of the outer suburbs.
Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map
– Cul-de-sacs & crescents
– Spaced out housing
– Gardens
– Main roads on edge of area
Identifying Suburbs Industrial Area (industrial estates)
– One or two storey units with few or no chimneys.
– It is located beside main roads.
– It has a planned layout.
– There are plenty of parking spaces and wide roads.
– It is landscaped with grass and trees.
– It is built on cheap land with room to expand.
Identifying the Suburbs Business District
– High order shops such as furniture stores.
– Restaurants and entertainment.
– It is located beside main roads.
– It has plenty of parking spaces and wide roads.
– It is landscaped with grass and trees.
– It is built on cheap land with room to expand.
Case Study Developed City
Edinburgh
Problems in the CBD
CBD Shopping (St James Centre) Vs Out of Town Shopping (The Gyle)
The doughnut effect occurs when the commercial activity of a city becomes contracted around
outskirts out of town shopping centres e.g. The Gyle in Edinburgh have become more common and
shops in CBD have problems competing. Chain stores like Marks and Spencer's have increasingly
located in new shopping centres on the outskirts leading to the closure of high street stores or
their reduction in size. This leaves a hollow or empty area in the middle of the city.
Advantage of St James Centre
– Easy Access
– Near railway station (Waverly)
– Close to St Andrew Bus Station
– Trams and Taxis
– Indoor shopping so stay warm and dry.
– Helps local shops in the CBD.
Disadvantage of St James Centre
– Overcrowding at peak times
– No room to expand
– Limited number of parking spaces
– Heavy traffic
– Goods lorries cause congestion
– High land rental
Advantages of The Gyle
– No travel to city
– Less traffic congestion
– Need park and ride
– Close to M9
– Reduces traffic congestion in city.
– New station at Edinburgh Park
– Cheap Land Rental
– Easy to expand
– Pleasant Environment
– Provides jobs away from CBD
Disadvantages of The Gyle
– Uses up the Greenbelt land
– Takes customers away from the CBD so shops there may close down.
Solutions
Providing different environments for shopping (Princes’ Mall and St James Centre).
German Market at Christmas every year which attracts many people to the city centre.
Improved the gardens with more seat to sit in (Princes’ Street Gardens) and Rose Street
(behind Princes’ Street) has been pedestrianised so people can go to shops without fear of
traffic.
Harvey Nichols and John Lewis have located to CBD which attracts more people as these a
high end shops.
Traffic Congestion
Causes of Traffic Congestion
There has been a growing number of cars that are owned which is linked with a high
disposable income.
The increase in the use of lorries as rail freight has declined. Also the sizes of the Lorries
are issues for the tight streets.
The old road pattern, width and surface cause huge problems for traffic.
The number of commuters driving from dormitory settlements and the borders into the
city has increased.
Great increase in the number of service buses in the 1990’s. Also Edinburgh has many
tourist buses which cause problem particularly in the Royal Mile.
Traffic Lights, Pedestrian Crossings and Road Works
Cyclists when a cycle lane is not available.
Solutions
The Edinburgh city by-pass was built along the foot of the Pentlands linking up with the M8,
M9 and the Forth Road Bridge to take the heaviest traffic out of the city centre.
Unfortunately, the volume of traffic has increased so much that there are frequent delays
on the bypass itself.
The use of gap sites, disused railway land and old bus garages as car parks and construction
of multi-storey car parks like St James Centre Car Park.
Introduction of traffic meters and traffic wardens to control kerbside parking
Greenways have been designed within the city. They are bus only lanes which operate all
day.
Improved bus services meaning they carry more passengers and have much faster times
into the CBD.
On Princes Street only buses and taxis are allowed to travel westward, but not eastwards.
Cars travelling east are diverted around Charlotte Square and along Queen Street
Possibility of charging tolls on cars travelling into the city centre has been considered.
Improving rail services in to Edinburgh from Lothian's and Fife.
Introducing a tram service running from the airport to York Place in the city.
‘Park and Ride’ schemes on the edge of the city from Ingliston, Straiton or Hermiston Gate
to the city centre.
One-way streets like McEwan Square and Brandfield Street
Regeneration of the Inner City
Leith
In the past the main function of Leith was a port with many industries particularly associated with
the port. The houses had been built quickly along the industries to provide homes for the
workers.
In the past 10 years large areas of the port and the town itself became derelict. Buildings were
left to fall in disrepair and many houses were substandard. There were limited shopping facilities
and the population was declining and it was the elderly that were left behind.
Regeneration
High rising of flats were built
Some of the old tenement blocks were renovated
Gentrification – people were given grants by the government to move back there and to
smarten up the properties.
The opening up of expensive restaurants across the harbour.
Old stone built whiskey bonds were converted into open plan offices, luxury flats, boutiques
and restaurants.
Three new large hotels were built for example a travel lodge and upper class Malmaison
Hotel
Businesses have relocated from the CBD to new premises on Victoria Quay, for example the
Scottish Executive.
Leith was chosen to be the final anchorage for the Royal Yacht Britannia
A decision was made to build an Ocean Terminal for visiting liners.
Try to improve the road from Leith to centre of Edinburgh landscape for example Leith
Walk has planted trees, flowers and seats
Rural-Urban Fringe
This is the area on the outskirts of the city.
An increasing number of land users see the rural-urban fringe as the ideal location for future
developments. This location is less congested, has easier access, provides cheaper land for
building and it is more attractive than places nearer to the city centre. This is sometimes known
as Urban Sprawl. Development first begins in narrow strips along the main routes in to the city.
This is called Ribbon Development. Over time, the area between the strips fills in.
As a result, farmland is being dug up, woodland has been felled and there are fewer recreational
areas and there has been a loss of wildlife habitats. Traffic levels have increased in these areas
and noise and air pollution has increased. House prices have also increased.
As a result, many people are not happy with these developments. They do not want to see urban
areas spreading out any further. They want to protect the rural environment and retain the
pleasant and attractive countryside that surrounds most towns and cities.
It is hoped that the regeneration of the CBD will halt some of these new developments.
Some other solutions include
Very difficult to obtain planning permission to build.
development of Brownfield sites
inner city renewal
Country Park status
landfill tax increased
Case Study Developing City
Mumbai, India
Changes in the CBD
Transport Facilities
Building transport facilities has become more and more difficult because of the cities site and
situation;
It was originally on several islands so bridges have had to be built.
Bombay Island itself is narrow, so there is little space for roads and railways.
The CBD is at the southern tip of the island so can only be accessed from the North
As a result, very few roads and railways reach the centre although 8 million commuters manage to
head there everyday. This means the roads are congested and buses and trains are over crowded
with people hanging to their sides and roofs. This problem is only getting worse.
Solutions
Mumbai has two main ways for dealing with this problem;
The Urban Transport Project in 2002 that used four ways to solve traffic congestion;
– Improved railways
– Improved roads
– More buses
– Speed up road traffic
In 1979 the building of a new town called New Bombay on the mainland opposite Mumbai.
Housing in Mumbai
Away form the CBD, housing takes up a far greater area than any other land use in Mumbai.
Housing has to cater to everyone’s different tastes and also the incomes of all the people in the
city. So there are million pound apartments for the rich and famous, tenement blocks for the
factory workers, shanty towns for the impoverish and squatter camps for the destitute
immigrants.
Squatter Camps
Squatter areas are places where people settle on land which they do not own or rent. This
is the poorest accommodation in Mumbai. No one owns or rents them. They are makeshift
shelter with no amenities and no services; this means there is a high level of disease. There
are lots of immigrants and it is very unsafe.
Shanty Towns
Shanty towns are large squatter camps with slightly better living conditions. The house
structure and material is better (sometimes brick walls and tin roofs), they also have water
supplies and sometime the local authority provides basic community toilets. The houses are
still very small and very overcrowded. There is also no organised rubbish collection so
refuse is dumped anywhere.
Low Cost Housing
Half the people in Mumbai live in shanty towns and a lot of the others live in low cost
housing. These are single room tenement blacks with electricity but only for a few hours a
day. They also have running water but also for only a few hours a day. The problem with
these housing areas is parts have become ghettoes lived in by single religion groups for
security reasons.
High Cost Housing
Luxury accommodation is in high rise apartment blocks found in CBD and suburbs. Land is
really expensive and gated to prevent crime. Many of the complexes have there own
swimming pools, tennis courts, gyms, even shopping centres, schools and health centres.
Executives of companies, owners of factories and Bollywood stars all live in these areas. In
a way this area because another kind of ghetto.
The solutions to the housing problems
There are several solutions to the problems of Mumbai’s housing. These include;
The people have been evicted and houses bulldozed. This failed because the people just
build elsewhere in the city
People have been relocated to safer areas with basic amenities supplied. But, the people
often resist this move because they will be too far from their work
The authorities can improve the housing, by providing toilets, standpipes, schools,
reinforcing the walls and giving the people legal rights to the land. Some areas, however,
are so overcrowded that it is difficult to improve them.
The residents form co-operative groups and organise improvements themselves.
New Bombay
As Mumbai could not provide for its entire people so the city authority started to build a new
town called New Bombay, as an extension to Mumbai. The hope was it would reduce overcrowding
in Mumbai and have jobs and services for everyone. At present it does not and people still have to
travel into Mumbai everyday, making congestion worse.
Development
Any improvement that is made in the standard of living of people is called development. Some
countries have developed more than others so have a higher standard of living. These are
Developed countries. Those that have not developed as much as called Developing countries.
Measuring Development
It is very difficult to work out one person’s standard of living. To try and measure precisely the
standard of living of all the people in a country is impossible. The best that can be done is to
select a few indicators of development and measure them. Three types of development indicators
are studied here.
Economic Indicators of Development
These have been the most commonly used indicators. They measure the wealth and
industrialisation of a country. They include:
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person
– The GDP is the value of all the goods produced and services provided in a country in
one year. This is divided by the number of people living in the country to indicate the
wealth of the average person.
Gross National Product (GNP) per person
– The gross national product is similar to the GDP, but it also included services earned
abroad.
Energy used per person
– The amount of energy that is used in a country can also indicate economic
development. Countries with a lot of industries producing much wealth will also use a
lot of energy.
People employed in Agriculture
– A country with a high proportion of its people in agriculture will have little industry
to produce wealth. In addition, farms are likely to be small and unprofitable. So, a
high percentage of people in agriculture are a good indicator of a less developed
country and vice versa.
Problems with Economic Indicators
Although a country may produce a lot of wealth, it may not be spread out amongst its entire
people. A small number may be extremely wealthy while the vast majority remain poor. The
amount of wealth does not give enough information on people’s quality of life. For example how
wealthy they are and how well educated.
The amount of income and wealth does not even show how well off people are. This needs to be
compared with prices to find out what people can buy with that amount of money.
Social Indicators of Development
Social indicators show how a country uses its wealth to improve the quality of life of its people.
Those measure health include:
– Population per doctor per 1000
– Infant mortality (the no. of children who die before they are 1 year old) per 1000
– Life expectancy at birth in years
Those that measure diet include:
– Calories per person per day
– Protein per person per day
Those that measure education include:
– Percentage of children attending secondary school
– Percentage of Adult literacy
Problems with Social Indicators
They also use averages, so they do not tell us the differences within a country. For example, the
average number of calories per person might be 2500 per day but half of the people might only
receive 2000 calories and be severely undernourished, while the other half has 3000 calories and
be well-fed.
One indicator on its own does not give enough information on quality of life. Although people may
be well-fed, we do not know how healthy or well educated they are.
Reasons for difference in development levels
Global variations in Development
There are many reasons for the huge variations in standards of living around the world. The
factors involved can be divided into physical and human.
Physical factors.
Climate:
– Very Cold
difficult to build roads and railways
remote and unlikely to attract much industry
Also too cold to farm
Expensive to live because high heating bills, food is expensive
Houses difficult to build because of permafrost
– Very Dry
Not enough rain to grow crops (a risk of crop failure & famine)
Remote and unlikely to attract industry
Soil made poorer by wind erosion
Relief:
– Very Steep
Also difficult to build roads and railways, so remote and unlikely to attract
much industry
Poor farming because of steep land, inability to use machinery and thin soils.
Resources
– Lack of minerals
No valuable minerals (e.g. diamonds, gold) to sell to other countries
No fuels (e.g. coal, oil) to encourage industry to set up.
Environment
– Unattractive Scenery
Not attractive to summer tourists (e.g. no sandy beaches, hot, sunny climate)
or winter tourists (e.g. no cold, snowy, steep slopes.
– Much disease
A country is unable to develop if many of its people suffer from disease and
are unable to work properly.
Natural Disasters
– Floods, drought, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes
Areas prone to natural disasters have harvests ruined, factories and homes
destroyed, roads and railways unusable.
Cost millions of pounds and may cause famine and unemployment and may take
years for the area to recover.
Human Factors
Some countries find it difficult to develop because of their physical environment, but there are
many states that have overcome the problems of a harsh environment and enjoy a high standard
of living. Such countries include Japan, Finland, Switzerland, Canada and Australia. There must
therefore, be other factors – human factors – that help to explain differences in development
levels around the world. Some of the important human factors follow.
Population Growth
– Population is rising 16 times faster in Developing countries compared to Developed.
This gives poorer countries two sets of problems. In the countryside, farms become
smaller, as there are more people needing land. So the farmers produce less food for
their families to eat and have an increased risk of going hungry.
– In the cities, the city authorities cannot provide enough houses, schools, hospital
beds and jobs for the increasing population. So many people live in makeshift houses
(shanty towns), are unemployed and have little chance of getting to a hospital if they
are ill.
– Because the birth rate is still high, there are many young children in developing
countries. This large number of children places an additional strain on the country.
The children do not produce wealth, but they need to be kept healthy, well-fed,
educated and properly clothed.
Industrialisation
– Factories and offices produce profits that increase a country’s wealth. They also
employ many people, providing them with a regular wage. Without industry, a country
finds it very difficult to develop.
– In addition, although there is little industry, the population in developing world cities
is rising rapidly. Factories and offices are less likely to set up in developing countries
because there are few people there who are rich enough to buy their products. The
roads & railways are also poorer and there are fewer banks to borrow money from.
With fewer universities, there are not many people with the necessary skills (e.g. IT)
to work in a modern office. Although some industries are found in poorer countries,
they’re often foreign owned so the profits don’t stay in that country to increase its
wealth.
Global Issues
Health
Developing Case Study – Malaria
Distribution of Malaria
Malaria is distributed between the tropics of cancer and Capricorn, running along the equator,
mainly in Developing countries. Including Central America, Brazil, Colombia, Central Africa – south
of the Sahara and north of South Africa, - India, Pakistan and South East Asia.
Causes of Malaria
Physical Factors
Malaria occurs where the anopheles mosquito lives.
They live in warm and hot areas, where temperatures are above 16oC.
They need still water surfaces as breeding areas, but these areas do not need to be large.
As a result, all warm, rainy areas with still or slowly-moving water are suitable environments
for the anopheles mosquitoes.
Vegetation nearby to provide shade for the mosquito to hide during the day and digest the
blood meal from the night before.
Human Factors
Where people have built dams and made irrigation channels
People migrate much more now and this makes it easier for the disease to spread.
Poor Sanitation and poor housing.
Symptoms of Malaria
After a few days, the infected person suffers headaches and stomach pains, followed by fevers
of high temperature and shivering fits. The fevers can occur many times, frequently resulting in
the death of the victim. These symptoms can result in kidney failure.
Malaria is a particularly big killer of children, who have not had time to build up any immunity from
the disease. If Malaria does not kill the victim, it can cause kidney failure. It leaves the person
weak, anaemic (lacking iron) and prone to other diseases.
Effects of Malaria on the population and country
The wealth of a person and country suffering from Malaria can be severely affected.
If a person is unable to work they will not be paid and will find it difficult to look after
themselves and family leading to famine.
If farms and factories have fewer workers the amount they produce will fall and they will have
less to sell. The less money a country has the less it has to invest in schools, hospitals etc. A poor
country will find it even harder to develop.
Tourists will not be attracted to the area due to the risk of catching malaria. Industry will also
not be attracted to the area as there will be low productivity and profits.
Strategies to control Malaria
Malaria can be controlled by using many different strategies including;
– Drain all breading areas.
– The use of insecticides such as DDT
– Releasing water from dams to drown larvae
– Using mustard seeds onto stagnant surfaces to drag the larvae down and suffocate
larvae.
– Introduce small fish like muddy loach into padi fields to eat larvae
– Plant eucalyptus trees to soak up excess water.
– Use nets to prevent people from bites during the night.
– Drugs to control the disease like Quinine, cholorquin or the new drug funded by the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Effectiveness of strategies
Drugs are too expensive and the parasite has become resistant to them.
Insecticides are also expensive and pollute the environment.
Draining all breeding areas is impractical.
Bed nets are cheap and quite effective.
The new treatments have been developed which seem to be more effective such as
artemesinin/ACT.
Developed Case Study – Heart Disease
Distribution of Heart Disease
Heart disease is more commonly found in the northern hemisphere, in Developed countries. These
would include countries like the United Kingdom, USA, Russia and Germany.
Causes of Heart Disease
The causes of Heart Disease include
lack of exercise which leads to an increase pressure on your heart
stress which causes you blood pressure to rise
hereditary – can be passed from parents
eating foods high in fat which can cause high cholesterol.
smoking increases your heart rate and blood pressure, so more oxygen is needed for the
heart to work properly. But smokers lose oxygen while smoking, putting the heart under
strain.
Strategies to Control Heart Disease
Opening up new gyms, exercise classes and leisure centres
Try to relax and possibly take up a relaxing hobby to reduce stress
Medical check ups to check for high blood pressure and cholesterol
New advancements like by-pass surgery and pacemakers
Trying to increase consumption of fruit and vegetables and reduce fatty foods like take
aways
Stop smoking using nicotine patches, electric cigarettes and smoking bans
Effectiveness of Strategies
Death-rate from heart disease in the UK, amongst 16-64 year olds, has dropped by 42% in
the last 10 years. Some countries, such as Australia, Canada and Sweden, have done even
better than this.
It has dropped because of better prevention and better treatment.
Charities such as the British Heart Foundation help to fund research into the causes and
treatment of heart disease.
Evidence that better diet is working as there has been a decrease in consumption of butter
and full fat milk and people are eating more fruit
Evidence that people are still not taking enough exercise
Numbers of people smoking has now decreased
No evidence that stress levels are decreasing
People appear to be getting more regular check-ups.
Worldwide Case Study – AIDs
Distribution of AIDs
AIDs is mainly found in Developing countries but there are lower amounts in Developed countries.
Biggest problem in southern Africa, Central Africa also a significant problem; Eastern Europe,
Russia and also in south-east Asia
Causes of Malaria
The main ways in which people contract HIV/AIDS are:
sharing dirty needles
unprotected sex with infected person
babies drinking breast milk of infected mother
infected blood transfusions.
Strategies to Control AIDs
There is no cure for AIDS but there are solutions to help reduce the impact of the disease.
introduction of health education programmes
compulsory testing of people
increase the availability of ARV drugs to treat the disease
distribution of free condoms
use of radio and TV to get the message over due to lack of literacy skills.
Environmental Hazards
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Plate Boundaries
Constructive Plate
– This is where there are two plates moving away from each other causing new oceanic
crust to be formed.
Destructive Plate
– This is where the plates move towards each other.
– The top layer of the mantle and the crust get dragged down beneath the continental
plate. The plate moves downwards very slowly at a rate of a few centimetres per year
Collision Plate
– This is where two plates are moving together. The land is therefore buckled and
pushed upwards forming high fold mountains.
Sliding Plate
– This is where two plates slide past each other. The plates rub against each other
and, when the tension builds up, the pressure is released by an earthquake. Some of
these result in volcanic activity, but is less common.
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Nearly all earthquakes/volcanic eruptions take place at or near plate boundaries. Here the earth
is unstable. This is where crustal movement takes place. Volcanoes are found at constructive
(where plates move apart) and destructive (where one plate is forced down below another) plate
boundaries. This includes around The Pacific Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean. Magma is
released to the surface at both of these boundaries. Earthquakes happen when pressure builds up
between the plates. When the pressure becomes too high the plates suddenly slip causing an
earthquake. This releases the pressure. This movement sends shockwaves through the rocks.
Volcano Case Study- Mount St Helens
Cause of Eruption
It lies near a destructive plate boundary. Here the Juan De Fuca Plate is being forced beneath
the North American Plate into the mantle. As the Juan De Fuca plate descends it melts. As it
melts, molten rock rises into the crust. On the 18th May 1980 the magma found its way into the
magma chamber of Mt St Helens. The pressure became too much causing the volcano to erupt.
Impacts on landscape and people
400 million tonnes of ash rose 20km into the air. Some rose so high, it never came down
There was a tremendous blast from the eruption, which could be heard 300km away.
A mudflow of rock, melted ice and ash hurtled down the mountain side at 250km/h. The
heat from the eruption had melted ice and snow on the mountain, releasing millions of litres
of water.
The eruption of ash blew away the top of the mountain. In seconds it changed from a
mountain of 2950 m high to 2560 m high. At the top, a crater 500 m deep was formed.
The blast killed every form of plant and animal life for a distance of 25 km north of the
volcano. Even fully grown fir trees were flattened, up to 30 km away. About 7000 animals
died including elks and bears.
The mudflow choked rivers with sediment, killing all fish and water life and completely
filling in Spirit Lake. About 12 million salmon died. The mud emptied itself into the sea at
Portland, clogging up the harbour
May 18, 1980 was a Sunday, so no-one was working in the forests that cover the slopes of
Mt St Helens.
Local people had been evacuated from their homes and tourists were prevented from
getting close. In spite of all this, the eruption still killed 57 people and 198 had to be
rescued.
Damage ran into billions of pounds.
People were swept away by the mudflows. The mudflows destroyed bridges, houses and
logging camps.
Most people were killed by poisonous gases that accompanied the blast.
The blast flattened buildings and trees, crushing people to death. It knocked out
telephones and electricity supplies.
Up to 15cm of ash fell like rain and caused traffic chaos and flights to be cancelled.
The ash turned day into night
The ash caused serious damage to car engines and farm machinery. It covered crops
preventing them from growing. The cost to farmers was more than £100 million.
Aid
Before the eruption
The state authorities evacuated people from the exclusion zone, which saved many lives.
A few residents, scientists, reporters and cameramen refused to leave.
Unfortunately the authorities were given inaccurate advice from the scientists, so there
were still people living and holidaying in the area which was devastated by the eruption.
Short Term Aid
Short term aid was essential as:
– 198 stranded people were rescued and the fallen ash was removed. The authorities
were able to mobilise many people and equipment quickly to help in these operations.
– The above gave employment to many of the 200,000 people temporary put out of
work by the eruption.
– Over 1 million tons of ash was removed from roads, buildings and airports. In one
town, Yakima, the removal of ash alone took ten weeks and cost over £1 million.
Long Term Aid
Long term aid was essential as:
– It was concerned with returning the area to what it was like before the eruption and
this took several years.
– Millions of trees replanted
– Compensation given to farmers
– Channel dredged to allow ships to pass
– New tourist facilities built Major
– repairs undertaken and new highway built Money given to rebuild
– Money given to redevelop the salmon hatcheries
Predicting Eruptions
Scientists help to predict volcanic eruptions by using the following equipment:
Seismographs can detect small earthquakes which can indicate the movement of magma towards
the surface.
Tilt meters can measure the subtle swelling of a volcano.
Correlation spectrometers can measure amounts of sulphur dioxide - a telltale gas that is
released in increasing quantities before an eruption.
Radar satellites that continually orbit the earth can detect as little as a one-millimetre
increase in swelling on the flanks (side) of a volcano.
Mt St Helens had given clear warnings that it might erupt explosively. From March onwards
there were minor earthquakes and small eruptions of ash and steam. These gradually
became more severe.
As a result, the authorities worked out an exclusion zone based on a previous eruption and
evacuated residents, tourists and forestry workers. Emergency services, including
helicopters and aeroplanes were placed on high alert. Many lives were saved due to these
actions.
However scientists could not give a precise date for the eruption. Even the day before the
eruption, scientists were stating that the eruption might still be a few weeks away. Nor did
the experts predict that the blast from the eruption would be from the north side. Due to
this they miscalculated the exclusion zone and as a result out of the 61 people killed, 90%
lost their lives outside this zone.
Earthquake Case Studies – Haiti and Kobe
Causes of Earthquake
Nearly all earthquakes take place at or near plate boundaries. Here the earth is unstable. From
time to time pressure builds up between the plates. When the pressure becomes too high the
plates suddenly slip causing an earthquake. This releases the pressure. This movement sends
shockwaves through the rocks. The most damage occurs at the epicentre.
Predicting Earthquakes
Earthquakes are one of the most difficult natural disasters to predict but progress has been
made in recent years. Seismologists use the following to help them predict an earthquake:
Concentrating their attention on known active (moving) fault lines that have moved several
times in recent years. The scientists look at the intervals in which the earthquakes have
occurred and roughly work out when one may happen.
Laser equipment to detect if the land has moved.
Sound equipment to detect tremors.
Why are some earthquakes of similar strength more deadly than others?
The death toll of an earthquake is affected by:
How developed a country is: developed (rich) or developing (poor)
Developed countries have the money to design buildings that can withstand earthquakes.
The people are often more prepared for earthquakes. Emergency services are quicker to
respond.
The time of day the earthquake hits. More people are killed during the day.
The population density of an area. More people are killed in an area that has a high
population density.
The ground that a town or city is built upon. Rock absorbs shockwaves better than soil.
The remoteness of a town or city that is hit. This effects how quickly the emergency
services respond.
Developed Case Study Kobe, Japan (1995)
Cause of earthquake
Three crustal plates meet near to the coast of Japan. Close to Kobe, the denser oceanic
Philippines Plate is being subducted beneath the lighter continental Eurasian Plate at a rate of
about 10 centimetres per year. The Japanese island arc has been formed from the molten magma
released by the melting Philippines Plate. Earthquakes are very common here and happen because
of the friction resulting from the two plates colliding along this destructive margin.
Impact on Landscape and people
Over 5000 people died and the earthquake created an estimate £100 billion of damage.
Many of the older, wooden houses completely collapsed.
Fire, triggered by broken gas pipes and sparks from severed electrical cables, caused a
huge amount of damage, destroying at least 7,500 wooden homes.
Office blocks built in the 1960's of steel and concrete frequently collapsed in the middle
so that a whole floor was crushed but the rooms above and below remained intact.
Modern buildings, designed to be earthquake proof, did quite well on the whole and suffered
little damage, although some were left standing at an angle when the ground beneath them
liquefied.
Most people were not covered by insurance due to the difficulties of insuring such an
earthquake prone area.
Almost 300,000 people were made homeless by the earthquake and had to be given
emergency shelter.
Several sections of motorway, many of which were built above the ground on tall concrete
stilts, collapsed or toppled sideways. This resulted in the Hanshin Expressway being
completely closed.
Railway lines were buckled and many stations damaged. A 130 kilometre section of the
'bullet train' rail network had to be closed.
At the port, cranes tilted or fell and 120 (out of 150) quays where ships were moored were
destroyed.
Port buildings and their contents were badly damaged in many places.
Short Term Aid
.People were put into schools, town halls, open parks, etc. and were forced to live, in some
cases for long periods, in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions.
Food, blankets, medical supplies and clean water were, for the first few days, in short
supply.
The scale of the problem made it difficult for the authorities to cope but they refused to
accept help from other countries.
Rescuing people from the damaged buildings
Long Term Aid
water, electricity, gas, telephone services were fully working by July 1995
The railways were back in service by August 1995
A year after the earthquake, 80% of the port was working but the Hanshin Expressway
was still closed.
By January 1999, 134,000 housing units had been constructed but some people still had
to live in temporary accommodation.
New laws were passed to make buildings and transport structures even more earthquake
proof.
More instruments were installed in the area to monitor earthquake movements.
Developing Case Study Haiti (2010)
Cause of earthquake
The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate
shifts eastwards by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate.
Impact on Landscape and People
Approximately 230,000 people died as a result of the eruption
250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged.
Landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed, including the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building, the Port-au-Prince Cathedral, and the main jail.
Infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed. This included air, sea, and land transport facilities; and communication systems
More than 1,300 schools and 50 health care facilities were destroyed
Water was contaminated with sewage
Cholera was a major disease that spread throughout the homeless and injured
Short Term Aid
Rescuing people from the rubble
Treating injuries on surviving people.
Setting up camps for the homeless
Trying to provide clean water to control the diseases
Provisions including food and blankets were sent from other countries.
Long Term Aid
Clearing the roads of debris and rubble to get them rebuilt so areas were not cut off.
However 6 months after the quake, 98% of the rubble remained un cleared, some still
blocking vital access roads.
Rebuilding the area so people can move out of the camps but this is still on going. The
number of people in relief camps of tents and tarps since the quake was 1.6million, and
almost no transitional housing had been built
Reconnecting communication lines
The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank waived the countries debt repayments for 5
years.
The Senegalese offered land in Senegal to any Haitians who wanted it!
Most of the camps had no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal, and the tents were
beginning to fall apart.
Between 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but
only two percent of the money had been released
One year after the earthquake 1 million people remained displaced
The Dominican Republic which neighbours Haiti offered support and accepted some
refugees.
Medicines San frontiers, a charity, tried to help casualties whilst the USA took charge of
trying to coordinate Aid distribution.
Tropical Storms
Case Study Hurricane Katrina
Location of a Tropical Storm
Tropical storms are severe depressions (low pressure system) in which wind speeds reach between
60km/hr and 200 km/hr. When tropical storms reach 120 km/hr they are called hurricanes.
There are local names for hurricanes in different parts of the world:
America = hurricanes
Indian Ocean & Australia = cyclones
South East Asia = typhoons
Tropical storms are found over oceans within 30 degrees of the equator where sea temperature is
over 27 degrees. They start on the eastern side of oceans and move westwards, before drying
out over land.
Cause of Tropical Storms
For a tropical storm to form the following conditions are required:
Warm seas which have a surface temperature of 27°C or more,
Warm water to a depth of at least 60 metres.
Damp moist air with a relative humidity of 60% or more.
Low air pressure, with the air beginning to rise.
Hurricane Katrina
Hurricane Katrina was one of the strongest storms to hit the coast of the United States in the
last 100 years. With strong winds of 125 mph (a strong category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-
Simpson scale), Katrina caused widespread devastation along the central Gulf Coast states of the
US. Cities such as New Orleans, Louisiana, Mobile, Alabama, and Gulfport, Mississippi felt the
brunt of Katrina's force. Katrina attaining 'major hurricane' status on the afternoon of the 26th.
Katrina hit the Gulf Coast on the morning of the 29th of August.
Impact on Landscape and People
Death toll was approximately 1835
New Orleans was flooded this caused water to become contaminated.
Many people left stranded on top of houses waiting to be rescued
Levees broke due to damage
Many people were made homeless
Power lines, bridges and roads were damaged
Huge numbers of people were stuck in traffic jams due to evacuation orders
Short Term Aid
Shelter for homeless (1), food and water (1), medical aid for injured (1), voluntary workers
Shelter for the homeless as many were staying in the Superdome
Food as the area was running out very quickly
Fresh water due to the water becoming contaminated
Medical aid for the people who were injured
Evacuation for people in New Orleans
Draining the city of the water
Long Term Aid
Rebuilding the levees to avoid similar floods happening again
Improved flood prevention measures put in place
Rebuilding homes but some people have never returned to their homes.
Building up New Orleans tourist industry again therefore creating jobs and money.
Predicating Hurricanes
Hurricane speed and direction are difficult to predict. Forecasters often issue hurricane
warnings for a large area. Forecasters use the following to help them predict and issue warnings:
Weather stations on land and at sea.
Radiosonde balloons which are sent into the hurricane.
Radar is used to find out where rain is falling and its intensity.
Satellites which take photographs of the hurricane to track it.
Specially designed aircraft which fly into the hurricanes and take measurements.
Computers in the National Hurricane Centre in Miami, USA process all this data and predict
the hurricanes speed and strength over 24/48 hours.