Geography: Directions, Location and the Earth.

Geography Skills Handbook and Chapter 2.

Mr. MarstonDominion Christian High School

Marietta, Georgia9th Grade Geography

Location: Where? Relative: is where

something is in relation to something else.

Example #1: By the ice cream shop, two miles from here.

Example #2: Our U.S. office is on Galveston Island located in southeastern Texas in the Gulf of Mexico, about 48 miles southeast of Houston. That's our relative location.

Absolute: exact place where something is located, usually using latitude and longitude.

Example # 1 Lake Maracaibo of

Venezuela is at 10°36' N latitude and 71°33' W longitude.

Reading a map Key: list that explains

what the symbols stand for.

Compass Rose: indicates 4 cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west)

Intermediate directions: (NW, SW, NE, SE)

Scale: shows relationship between map measurements and actual distances

Map of UAE

Types of Maps

Physical Map Political Map

Additional Maps

Special Purpose Map: Showing aid from European Union.

Be Familiar with Terms on page 14 and 15: Geographic Dictionary

Globe vs. Map

Globe: A scale model of the Earth.

Map: symbolic representation of all or part of the planet on a flat piece of paper.

Common Map Projections

Goode’s Interrupted equal Area projection map.

Winkel Tripel Projection

Common Map Projections

Mercator Projection Robinson Projection

Equator: Located at zero degrees latitude (North or South,) is 24,901.55 miles long and divides the Planet Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn: Located at 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees South of the Equator, this area of Planet Earth (between those two lines) is known as the "Tropics," and is indicated with a lighter blue color on the above globe. This area experiences no dramatic change in season because the sun is consistently high in the sky throughout the year.

Prime Meridian: Located at zero degrees longitude (East or West), it divides the Planet Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and is the line from which all other lines of longitude are measured.

Imaginary lines on a globe!

Longitude: (shown as vertical lines) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.

Prime Meridian 0 degrees. Passes through Greenwich, England.

1884: International Meridian Conference in Washington, DC

2/3 of all ships and tonnage used the Greenwich Meridian by 1884.

Many countries had their own meridians. Difficult for international travel.

International Date Line The International Date Line sits on the 180º line of

longitude in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and is the imaginary line that separates two consecutive calendar days.

It is not a perfectly straight line and has been moved slightly over the years to accommodate needs of various countries in the Pacific Ocean. Note how it bends to include all of Kiribati in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Immediately to the left of the International Date Line (the date) is always one day ahead of the date (or day) immediately to the right of the International Date Line in the Western Hemisphere.

Tonga and Samoa have the same time but are (1) day apart, as Samoa is in the Western Hemisphere, on the opposite side of the International Dateline from Tonga.

As you travel further west, note that the time in Fiji is (1) hour earlier than Tonga. You will also notice that Hawaii, further to the east of Samoa, is (1) hour later in time.

So, travel east across the International Date Line results in a day, or 24 hours being subtracted. Travel west across the International Date Line results in a day being added.

Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels. Think rungs of a ladder. Other lines of latitude are the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

Hemisphere Map

Continents and Oceans of the World

Continents

BY SIZE

#1 Asia - (44,579,000 sq km) #2 Africa - (30,065,000 sq km) #3 North America - (24,256,000 sq km) #4 South America - (17,819,000 sq km) #5 Antarctica - (13,209,000 sq km) #6 Europe - (9,938,000 sq km) #7 Australia/Oceania - (7,687,000 sq km)

BY POPULATION 2005 est.

#1 Asia - (3,879,000,000) #2 Africa - (877,500,000) #3 Europe - (727,000,000) #4 North America - (501,500,000) #5 South America - (379,500,000) #6 Australia/Oceania - (32,000,000) #7 Antarctica - (0)

NUMBERS OF COUNTRIES

#1 Africa - (53) #2 Europe - (46) #3 Asia - (44) #4 North America - (23) #5 Oceania - (14) #6 South America - (12) #7 Antarctica - (0)

Continent Size: 30,065,000 sq km 11,608,000 sq miles

Coastline: 30,539 km 18,976 miles

Percent of Earth's Land: 20.2%

Population: 877,500,000 (2006)

Description

Africa, the planet's 2nd largest continent, includes (53) individual countries.

It contains the Nile River, the world's longest, and the massive Sahara Desert, the world's largest.

The continent's (highest point) is Mt. Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania, 19,341ft (5,895m), while the (lowest point) is Lac' Assal in the small country of Djibouti, 512 ft (156m) below sea level.

Africa

Antarctica Details

Size: 13,209,000 sq km, 5,100,021 sq miles (varies due to changing ice shelves)

Percent of Earth's Land: 8.9%

Status Antarctica, almost 98% solid ice, was finally considered a continent in 1840, and not just a group of isolated islands. Today it has active territorial claims submitted by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. (Many of these claims are not recognized by some countries and remain in a constant disputed status)

Capital City none

Climate Antarctica is the coldest and windiest spot on the planet. In fact, the lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth was recorded in Antarctica (-129.3ºF) and the mean winter temperatures range from -40º to -94ºF. Winds are commonly measured at up to 200 miles per hour.

Highest Point Vinson Massif at 16,066 ft. (4,897 m)

Lowest Point Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,555 m)

Latitude/Longitude 90° S, 0.00° E

Official Language none

Official Currency none

Population Officially none, but governmental research stations are populated with small groups of scientists at all times. In addition, in 2003, over 13,000 tourists visited the continent.

Antartica

http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/an.htm

Antartica Links

This region of the planet, north of the Arctic Circle, includes the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Baffin Island, other smaller northern islands, and the far northern parts of Europe, Russia (Siberia), Alaska and Canada.

The Arctic Circle, incidentally, is an imaginary line located at 66º, 30'N latitude, and as a guide defines the southernmost part of the Arctic. The climate within the Circle is very cold and much of the area is always covered with ice.

In the mid winter months, the sun never rises and temperatures can easily reach lows of - 50º F in the higher latitudes. In the summer months (further south), 24 hours of sunlight a day melts the seas and topsoil, and is the main cause of icebergs breaking off from the frozen north and floating south, causing havoc in the shipping lanes of the north Atlantic.

The primary residents of the Arctic include the Eskimos (Inuits), Saami and Russians, with an overall population (of all peoples) exceeding 2 million. The indigenous Eskimos have lived in the area for over 9,000 years, and many have now given up much of their traditional hunting and fishing to work in the oil fields and the varied support villages.

The first explorers of the Arctic were Vikings. Norwegians visited the northern regions in the 9th century, and Erik the Red (Icelander) established a settlement in Greenland in 982. In 1909, after numerous attempts by regional explorers, Robert E. Peary reached the North Pole.

The Artic

As the planet's largest continent, Asia covers about 30 percent of the world's landmass and includes (44) countries and assorted islands and/or dependencies.

Significant features of the continent of Asia include the world's tallest mountain, Mt Everest in Nepal (and China), rising to 29,035 ft (8,850m). It also includes the world's lowest point, found in the Dead Sea, Israel/Jordan, at 1,286 ft (392m) below sea level.

In addition, the continent includes the world's most populated countries, China and India; the world's longest coastline, the world's deepest lake; Lake Baykal, and some of the most important rivers on the planet.

Asia

Asia cont. Continent Size: 44,579,000 sq

km (17,212,000 sq miles) Percent of Earth's Land: 30% Population: 3,879,000,000 (2005 est) Asia has three important recognized political divisions: The Middle East, (or West Asia) countries are colored a lighter shade of gray; Southeast Asia (or South Asia) countries are colored a medium shade of gray, and North Asia countries are colored a darker shade of gray. Note that European Russia is also considered a part of the Asian Continent.

Asia continued Asia Geography Notes

Burma: Military authorities have promoted the name Myanmar since 1989 as the conventional name for their state. That decision was not (and is not) approved by any sitting legislature in Burma and is not accepted by the U.S. government. However, Myanmar is widely accepted by numerous countries, and by the United Nations.

European Russia: The Russian landmass west of the Ural Mountain is commonly referred to as European Russia in most educational atlases, and by the vast majority of geography experts.

It is not a separate country, but rather called that because of its political, cultural and geographical blendings with Europe.

Middle East: Countries considered part of the Middle East (or West Asia) are shown in a lighter shade of green, and their names are indicated in red. They are all still part of the continent of Asia. Taiwan is still considered by China to be its 23rd province, and not an independent country. Very few other country governments accept China's claims of sovereignty over Taiwan.

Opinions do vary as to what countries make up the modern definition of Asia and the Middle East. Historically, Armenia and Azerbaijan have been long associated with the Middle East, but in recent years, some sources now consider them to be more closely aligned with Europe based on their modern economic and political trends. The same can be said for the island country of Cyprus.

Turkey is officially, politically and geographically considered part of both Asia and Europe. The small northwestern portion of Turkey named (Thrace) is a recognized part of Europe, while the largest part (Anatolia) is located in the Middle East, a part of Asia.

Continent Size: 8,112,000 sq km 3,132,059 sq miles

Percent of Earth's Land: 5.3%

Population: 32,000,000

Highest Point: Mt Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea14,794 ft (4,509m).

Lowest Point: Lake Eyre, Australia, 52ft (16m) below sea level

Description

OCEANIA, the smallest continent, is one of the most diverse and fascinating areas on the planet.

A large percentage of geography experts now consider the long-established continent of Australia to be more accurately defined as Australia/Oceania.

Collectively it then combines all of Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, as well as the thousands of coral atolls and volcanic islands of the South Pacific Ocean, including the Melanesia and Polynesia groups.

Oceania also includes Micronesia, a widely scattered group of islands that run along the northern and southern edges of the Equator.

Oceania

Geography Notes

(Hawaii, Johnston Atoll and Midway Islands are located for reference only, and are not a part of Oceania.)

Melanesia includes the independent countries of Fiji and Vanuatu, as well as the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia.

Micronesia islands are all part of the same volcanic zone, and include the Marshall Islands, the nations of Micronesia (FSM), Palau, Kiribati and Nauru. In addition, it includes Guam, Saipan, the Northern Mariana Islands, as well as Wake Island.

Polynesia contains numerous island groups, including all of French Polynesia and the Austral, Gambier, Marquesas, Society and Tuamoto islands. In addition, the Cook Islands, Easter Island, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna.

Oceania continued

Indians were the first inhabitants here, and then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus began his exploration of these islands, becoming the first European to venture into the area.

After reportedly landing in the Bahamas, Columbus named these islands the Indies, because he thought he had finally reached Asia (and the East Indies).

Numerous explorers followed in his path, then settlers arrived from the Americas and Europe. Included in that mix were religious outcasts, slaves from Africa, and a small army of pirates.

Great military powers would fight for control of the islands, and finally, a blended mix of African and European cultures and languages transformed this large group of islands and its peoples into one of the premier tourist destinations on the planet.

Long called the West Indies the overall area is now commonly referred to as the Caribbean, a name that became popular after World War II.

Note: In reality the Bahamas are not considered a part of the Caribbean, however, we show them here because of their cultural, geographical and political associations with the Greater Antilles, and other

Caribbean Islands.

Caribbean

Central America Description Central America, a part

of North America, is a tropical isthmus that connects North America to South America. It includes (7) countries and many small offshore islands. Overall, the land is fertile and rugged, and dominated through its heart by a string of volcanic mountain ranges that are punctuated by a few active and dangerous volcanoes.

Population of Central America: 41,135,300

Highest Point: Volcan Tajumulco in Guatemala - 13,816 ft (4,211 m)

Lowest Point: Pacific Ocean 0 ft (0 m)

Europe

Continent Size: 9,938,000 sq km 3,837,081 sq miles

Percent of Earth's Land: 6.7%

Population: 729,000,000 (2006)

Description

Europe, the planet's 6th largest continent includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies and territories.

In exacting geographic definitions, Europe is really not a continent, but part of the peninsula of Euroasia which includes all of Europe and Asia. However, it's still widely referred to as a continent.

The European continent is separated from Asia by Russia's Ural Mountains, and the Caspian and Black Seas.

Europe's highest point, just north of the Georgia border in European Russia is Mt. Elbrus at 18,481 ft (5,633m). Its lowest point is on the edge of the Caspian Sea, at 92 ft (28m) below sea level.

Historically, Armenia and Azerbaijan have been long associated with Asia and the Middle East. In recent years some sources now consider them to be more closely aligned with Europe based on their modern economic and political trends.

In fact, both are similar to the former CIS country of Georgia, now included as part of Europe.

Europe continued

The Middle East (or West Asia) sits where Africa, Asia and Europe meet. The countries of the Middle East are all part of Asia, but for clarity reasons we geographically show them here as a separate landmass.

Opinions vary as to what countries make up the modern definition of the Middle East. Historically, Armenia and Azerbaijan have been long associated with the Middle East, but in recent years, some sources now consider them to be more closely aligned with Europe based on their modern economic and political trends.

The African country of Egypt is still thought (by some) to be in the Middle East, as well as the northern African countries that border the Mediterranean Sea.

Middle East

North America, the planet's 3rd largest continent, includes (23) countries and dozens of small island possessions and territories - mostly in the Caribbean. It contains all Caribbean and Central America countries, Canada, Mexico and the United States of America - three of the largest countries on the planet, as well as Greenland - the world's largest island.

Continent Size: 24,474,000 sq km 9,449,460 sq miles

Percent of Earth's Land: 16.5%

Population: 501,500,000

Highest Point: Mt McKinley in Alaska, 20,322ft (6,194m)

Lowest Point: Death Valley in California, -282 ft (-86m) below sea level.

North America

South America Description South America, the planet's 4th

largest continent, includes (12) countries and (3) major territories. It contains the massive Amazon River and surrounding basin - the largest tropical rain forest in the world; the toothy-edged Andes Mountains, that stretch the entire length of the continent, and some of the most diverse and spectacular landforms on the planet.

Continent Size: 17,819,000 sq km 6,879,000 sq miles

Percent of Earth's Land: 12%

Population: 379,500,000

Highest Point: Cerro AconcaguaAndes Mountains, Argentina - 22,833 ft (6,959m).

Lowest Point: Peninsula ValdesArgentina coastline -151 ft (-40m) below sea level

Continental Shelf: part of the continent that extends underwater. (area in aqua on map)

Highs and Lows of Earth: Mt. Everest 29,035 feet above sea level.

Dead Sea

1,349 feet below sea level

Separates Israel and Jordan.

Mariana Trench

35,827 feet deep

Solar System

Planets: spheres in space that have their own orbits and are large enough to be rounded by their own gravity and has become gravitationally dominant.

Inner Planets: Closest to the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Outer Planets: Farthest from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto)

a. Terrestrial: solid rocky Crusts (Inner)b. Gas Giant: more gaseous and less dense.

Each is like a miniature solar system: orbiting moons and thin encircling rings.

8 planets and a dwarf planet (Pluto)

Dwarf Planets

Ceres

Shares orbital neighborhood with another heavenly body.

Other dwarf planets are: Pluto, Ceres (large asteroid), Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.

http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html

Solar System website

Solar System Definitions Asteroid: Asteroids are

rocky or metallic objects, most of which orbit the Sun in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. A few asteroids approach the Sun more closely. None of the asteroids have atmospheres.

Asteroids are also known as planetoids or minor planets.

Asteroids range in size from tiny pebbles to about 578 miles (930 kilometers) in diameter (Ceres). Sixteen of the 3,000 known asteroids are over 150 miles (240 km) in diameter. Some asteroids even have orbiting moons.

HOW MANY ASTEROIDS ARE THERE?

There are about 40,000 known asteroids that are over 0.5 miles (1 km) in diameter in the asteroid belt. About 3,000 asteroids have been cataloged.

Comets: any particle in space that orbits the Sun that’s not a planet or dwarf planet. They are made up of ice, dust, and small rocky particles and frozen gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia.

Meteoroids: pieces of space debris made up of iron and rock. Those that collide with earth are called meteorites.

A Layered Planet

Definitions: Core: iron and nickel. About 4,000

miles below surface of the earth. Liquid outer core: 1,800 miles below

the surface of the earth. Mantle: Thick layer of hot dense rock.

Comprised of silicon, aluminum, magnesium, oxygen and other elements.

Crust: Rocky shell forming the earth’s surface broken into a dozen slabs of rock called plates.

Pangaea: large supercontinent

Plate Techtonics

Movement of Plates

The rules of Plate Tectonics 1. Continental crust is less dense, or lighter,

than Oceanic crust so it doesn't sink. It is never destroyed and is permanent.

2. Oceanic crust is heavier so it can sink below Continental crust. It is constantly being formed and destroyed at ocean ridges and trenches.

3. Continental crust can carry on beyond the edges of the land and finally end far below the sea. This explains why the edges of all the continents don't have deep trenches right up against their coastlines.

4. Plates can never overlap. This means that they must either collide and both be pushed up to form mountains, or one of the plates must be pushed down into the mantle and be destroyed.

5. There can never be gaps between plates, so if two plates move apart, as in the middle of the Atlantic, new rock will be formed to fill the space.

6. We know the Earth isn't getting bigger or smaller, so the amount of new crust being formed must be the same as the amount being destroyed.

7. Plate movement is very slow. Nobody could 'see' the continents moving. When the plates make a sudden movement we call it an Earthquake, and it's the only time we are directly aware of the plates moving.

Courtesy  http://www.geography-site.co.uk

4 types of plate movements: divergent, convergent, transform, and plate boundary zones.

Divergent: new crust is generated as

plates pull away from each other.

Mid-Atlantic Trench is spreading apart at 2.5 centimeters per year.

Iceland is separating.

Divergent

Iceland: see fissure at right (dark area)

East Africa Rift Valley: 3 plates pulling apart (Nubian. Somalian and Arabian).

Convergent: Crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another

Subduction: sinking of one plate under another.

“collision of plates”1. Ocean and

continental plate2. 2 large ocean plates3. 2 large continental

plates

Convergence

Andes Mountains: collision of Nazca and South American Plates.

Ring of Fire in East Asian: Eurasian and Pacific Plates collide

Convergence

Formation of MountainsTrenches, Volcanoes, and Islands Form

Transform boundaries: where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.

Transform boundaries slide past each other. Pacific plate is moving north while North American plate moves to the south.

San Andres Fault: one of the few transform boundaries on land. Most are found in the ocean.

Plate boundary zones In some areas, plate boundaries are

not well defined. Unclear boundaries exist over a broad

belt (called a plate-boundary zone). One of these zones marks the

Mediterranean-Alpine region between the Eurasian and African Plates, within which several smaller fragments of plates (microplates) have occurred.

Because plate-boundary zones involve at least two large plates and one or more microplates caught up between them, they tend to have complicated geological structures and earthquake

patterns.

Results of plate techtonics

Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park

Trenches form Volcanoes: mountains

formed by lava or magma that break’s through the earth’s crust.

Earthquakes Mountains Hot spots: can cause

geysers or hot springs.

External Forces (wind and water)can change the earth’s surface

Weathering: Process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces.

Erosion: wearing away of the earth’s surface by wind, glaciers and moving water.

Weathering Physical Weathering:

Disintegration of rocks into smaller stones, then pebbles, then sand. Rocks react differently when exposed to temperature swings, moisture in the air, or pressure changes.

Chemical Weathering: changes the chemical makeup of rocks, transforming their minerals or combining them with new elements. (Water dissolves minerals found in certain rocks. Living organisms (lichens) produce corrosive acids that eat away at rock’s surface. Plant roots enlarge cracks in rocks

Chemical Weathering

Water Erosion

Field in Northern Europe

Wind: Movement of dust, sand and soil from one place to another. May be beneficial in some cases by depositing mineral rich soil for farmland. Loess is a fertile yellow gray soil deposited by wind.

Glacial Erosion: large bodies of ice that pick up rocks and soil in their paths. They can change the landscape, destroy forests, carve

out valleys, alter the course of rivers, and wear down mountains.

Before Glaciation

During Glaciation After Glaciaition

Water Erosion: wears away soil and rock and carries it away. First forms a gulley, then a valley, then a canyon.

Use the website: http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/mass_movement_weathering/water_erosion.html

Rain Splash Severe Sheet erosion

Water Cycle: regular movement of water over the earth.

The Water Cycle

No beginning or end to water cycle

Water can change among liquid, vapor, and ice at various parts in the cycle1. Sun heats water in the oceans

2. Water evaporates as vapor in the air

3. Ice and snow can change from solid to gas directly into water vapor

4. Rising air currents take water up into atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds

5. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation

6. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers

7. Snowpacks can thaw and melt and the melted water flows over land as the snow melts

8. Most precipitation falls back into oceans or onto land, where precipitation flows over ground as surface runoff

9. Portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans.

10. Run off and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes

11. Some water seeps into ground and replenishes aquifers.

12. Over time, water returns to ocean, where water cycle started

The Water Cycle Terms Evaporation: changing

of liquid water into vapor or gas.

The sun’s heat causes evaporation.

Condensation: excess water vapor changes into liquid water.

Precipitation: moisture that falls to the ground as rain, snow or sleet.

Human activities that alter the water cycle include: Agriculture Industry Alteration of the chemical composition of

the atmosphere Construction of dams deforestation and afforestation (planting

trees in an area not naturally suitable for them)

removal of groundwater from wells water abstraction from rivers urbanization

Bodies of Salt Water 97% of earth’s water

found in oceans.Pacific: largestIndianArcticSouthern (Antarctic)Atlantic

Other bodies of Salt Water

Mediterranean Sea

Seas Gulfs Bays

Partially enclosed by land

Smaller than oceansEx:Gulf of MexicoMediterranean Sea

Examples

Gulf of MexicoMediterranean Sea

Desalination: removing salt from seawater.

Mostly in Middle EastDesalination plant in Middle East

Bodies of Freshwater

3% of earth’s total. Most frozen in glaciers and icecaps.

Lake Louise: British Columbia, Canada

Lakes, Streams, and Rivers

Lake is a body of water surrounded by land that may or may not be fed by a river.

Groundwater and Aquifers Groundwater:

Freshwater that lies beneath the earth’s surface comes from rain and melted snow.

Aquifer: underground layer of water-bearing rock from which groundwater can be extracted.