Geography

Geography

• India is a subcontinent, with many diverse climates and geographical features.

• The northern plain is fertile due to the Indus and Ganges Rivers.

• The Deccan Plateau is dry and sparsely populated.• Winds called monsoons bring summer rains. India

depends on monsoons to grow their crops. There is often too much or too little rain when the rains come.

Harappan Civilization

3300 BCE - 2400 BCE

Foundations of Harappan Society

• The Indus River– Silt-enriched water from the Hindu Kush &

Himalayan ranges

• Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE– Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early

cultivation of poultry– Decline after 1900 BCE

• Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-daro (Southern Indus River)– 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

Indus Valley Cities (2500 – 1500 BCE)

• There were two prominent cities on the Indus River: Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro.

• These cities were incredibly well planned:

– Grid pattern streets– Water Systems (plumbing) with heated public

baths and brick sewers. – The wealthy even had two story buildings with

indoor bathrooms and garbage chutes.– Each city was dominated by a structure built

upon a hill that served as a stronghold, such as a citadel.

Mohenjo-daro Ruins

• Population c. 40,000• Standardized weights & measurements evident

throughout the region• Specialized labor• Widespread trade

CitadelOf

Mohenjo-Daro

Aerial View of Mohenjo-Daro

Citadel, Mohenjo-Daro

The Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro

Bath Area, Mohenjo-Daro

Well, Mohenjo-Daro

A Main Street, Mohenjo-Daro

Granery, Mohenjo-Daro

Pottery, Mohenjo-Daro

Bison Seal, Mohenjo-Daro

A Horned-God Seal, Mohenjo-Daro

A Male Head, Mohenjo-Daro

Dravidian

A Priest-King, Mohenjo-Daro

Necklace, Mohenjo-Daro

Public Well, Harappa

Drain, Harappa

Unicorn Seal?, Harappa

Harappan Society and Culture

• Evidence of social stratification

– Dwelling size, decoration• Great influence on later Indian culture

• Statues, figurines and illustrations reflect a tradition of art and metallurgy

• Venerated goddesses of fertility

Female Figures, Harappa

Female Figures, Harappa

Bull Figurine, Harappa

Elephant Figurine, Harappa

Burial Pottery, Harappa

Male Skeleton, Harappa

Female Skeleton with Child, Harappa

Harappan Writing

Undecipherable to date.

Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization

• Reasons for disappearance unclear

– Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil– Earthquakes? – Flooding?

• Evidence of unburied dead

• Disappearance by 1500 BCE

• Harappan traditions survived – agricultural practices, religious beliefs, and urban traditions

Aryan Migration

pastoral depended on their cattle.

warriors horse-drawn chariots.

Aryan Migrations

• Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north• Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of

Harappa• Color Bias• Socio-Economic Implications• Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military

conquest

The Early Aryans• Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle

– Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later

• Religious and Literary works: The Vedas

– Sanskrit: sacred tongue

– Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali

– Four Vedas (wisdom), most important Rig Veda• 1,028 hymns to gods

The Vedas 1200 BCE-600 BCE.

written in SANSKRIT.

Hindu core of beliefs:

hymns and poems.

religious prayers.

magical spells.

lists of the gods and goddesses.

Rig Veda oldest work.

The Vedic Age

• Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”)– Aryans fighting Dravidians– Also Aryans fighting each other

• Chiefdoms: Rajas• Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further

south– Development of iron metallurgy– Increasing reliance on agriculture

• Tribal connections evolve into political structures

Varna: The Caste System

• Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians

– Brahmin, Priest– Kshatriya, Warrior– Vaishya, Merchant– Sudra, Commoner

– Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”• Jati system of subcastes

– Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

Varna (Social Hierarchy)

ShudrasShudras

VaishyasVaishyas

Kshatriyas Kshatriyas

Pariahs [Harijan] Untouchables

BrahminsBrahmins

The Caste

System

The mouth?

The arms?

The legs?

The feet?

WHO IS…

What is a JATI?

Brahmins

Kshatriyas

Vaishyas

Shudras

Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society

• “rule of the father”

• A social order that stood alongside the caste system, and varna hierarchy

• Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu

– Dealt with proper moral behavior and social relationships

– Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line

Aryan Religion

• Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god

• Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods

– Role of Brahmins important– Soma

• C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial cults

– Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

Sadhus: an Indian mystic or ascetic

Teachings of the Upanishads

• Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions

• Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE

• Brahman: the Universal Soul• Samsara: reincarnation• Karma: accounting for incarnations• Moksha: mystical ecstasy• Relationship to system of Varna

Sanskrit writing

The Vedic Age

The foundations for Hinduism were

established!