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Geogeaphy: Indian Soil

SOILS: On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of Indiahave been classified into:(i) Alluvial soils(ii) Black soils(iii) Red and Yellow soils(iv) Laterite soils(v) Arid soils(vi) Saline soils(vii) Peaty soils(viii) Forest soils.

Alluvial Soils:Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. These soils cover about 40 per cent of thetotal area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams. The alluvialsoils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous. In theUpper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains. Both the Khadar andBhangar soils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars). These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower andmiddle Ganga plain and the Brahamaputra valley.The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ashgrey. Crops: rice, sugarcane, tobacco, banana, cotton, wheat, jute, maize, oilseeds and vegetables.

Black Soil:Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and thenorth western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep. These soils are also known as the ‘RegurSoil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable.Chemically, the blacksoils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous,nitrogen and organic matter. The colour of the soil ranges from deep black to grey. The soil is clayey and finetexture with dark colour Crops: cotton, wheat, chilies, linseed, jawar, Virginia tobacco, castor, millets.

Red and Yellow Soil:Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of theDeccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil.Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middleGanga plain. The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphicrocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile,whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility. They are generally poor in nitrogen,phosphorous and humus.

Laterite Soil:Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite soils develop in areas withhigh temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, limeand silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind. Humus contentof the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature. These soils are poor in organic matter,nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not suitable forcultivation; however, application of manures and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.

Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like cashewnut. Thelaterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Orissaand Assam.

Arid Soils:Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature. In someareas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water. Due to the dryclimate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient andthe phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of theincreasing calcium content downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltrationof water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a sustainableplant growth. Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic aridtopography. These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter. It is found in W.Bengal (Midnapur,Burdwan, Birbhum and Bankura), Orissa (Cuttack and Ganjam), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Satara, Kolaba, Kanaradist.), Karnataka (Shimoga, Hasan, Kadur, Mysore), Kerala (Malabar). Crops: rice, ragi, sugarcane, cashewnuts.

Saline Soils:They are also known as Usara soils. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium andmagnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth. They have more salts, largelybecause of dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged andswampy areas. Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium. Saline soils aremore widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In theRann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust. Seawater intrusionsin the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use ofirrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline. Excessive irrigationwith dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of thesoil. In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem ofsalinity in the soil. These soils are utilized in the cultivation of a wide variety of crops like rice, wheat, cotton,sugarcane and tobacco etc.

Peaty Soils:They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation. Thus,large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organiccontent to the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normallyheavy and black in colour. At many places, they are alkaline also. It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar,southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.

Forest Soils:As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available. The soilsvary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are formed. They are loamy andsilty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, theyexperience denudation, and are acidic with low humus content. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile. It isevident from the foregoing discussions that soils, their texture, quality and nature are vital for the germination andgrowth of plant and vegetation including crops. Soils are living systems. Like any other organism, they too developand decay, get degraded, respond to proper treatment if administered in time. These have serious repercussionson other components of the system of which they themselves are important parts.

SOIL EROSIONThe destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.Factors influencing soil erosion:

1. Rainfall

2. Slope of topography

3. Vegetation

4. Tillage

5. Nature of the soil

6. Soil moisture

7. Wind velocity

Soil Conservation:Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve thedegraded condition of the soil.The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India, hasprepared a number of plans for soil conservation in different parts of the country.

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Geography: Forest & Wild Life

FOREST AND WILDLIFE:Flora and Fauna in India: The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period. Similarly, thespecies of animals are referred to as fauna.Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000 species of flora are found inthis country so far? Of the estimated 47,000 plant species, about 15,000 flowering species are endemic(indigenous) to India.

Forests: The forest cover in the country is estimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39 per cent of the totalgeographical area. (dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76 per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent).

Let us now understand the different categories of existing plants and animal species. Based on the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows –Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as cattle,sal, pine, rodents, etc.Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species isdifficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The examples ofsuch species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deerin Manipur), etc.Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely to moveinto the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate. The examples of suchspecies are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.Rare Species: Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negativefactors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such species are the Himalayan brown bear, wildAsiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural orgeographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithunin Arunchal Pradesh.Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they mayoccur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples of suchspecies are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India: The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972,with various provisions for protecting habitats. “Project Tiger”, one of the wellpublicised wildlife campaigns in theworld, was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed success as the tiger population went up to 4,002 in 1985 and4,334 in 1989. But in 1993, the population of the tiger had dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tiger reserves in Indiacovering an area of37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered species, but withequal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal,Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska WildlifeSanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tigerreserves of India.

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forestsare regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned.(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the ForestDepartment. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and privateindividuals and communities.

Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the purpose ofproducing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest areaunder permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,Uttaranchal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of itstotal forest area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of itunder protected forests. All North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forestsas un-classed forests managed by local communities.

TYPES OF VEGETATIONThe following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country(i) Tropical Rain Forests(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs(iv) Montane Forests(v) Mangrove Forests

Tropical Rain Forests: These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the islandgroups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at theirbest in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60metres or even above. Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant vegetation of allkinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There is no definite time for trees to shedtheir leaves. As such, these forests appear green all the year round. Some of the commercially important trees ofthis forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona. The common animals found in these forests areelephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and WestBengal. Besides these animals plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in these jungles.

Tropical Deciduous Forests: These are the most widespread forests of India. They are also called the monsoonforests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest-type shedtheir leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer. On the basis of the availability of water, these forests arefurther divided into moist and dry deciduous. The former is found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100cm. These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern states, along thefoothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the WesternGhats. Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun,mulberry are other commercially important species. The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfallbetween 100 cm and 70 cm. These forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains ofBihar and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem grow. A large part of thisregion has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for grazing. In these forests, the common animalsfound are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also foundhere.

The Thorn Forests and Scrubs: In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists ofthorny trees and bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms,euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species. Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep intothe soil in order to get moisture. The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small tominimize evaporation. These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.In these forests, thecommon animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

Montane Forests: In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to thecorresponding change in natural vegetation. As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the sameorder as we see from the tropical to the tundra region The wet temperate type of forests are found between aheight of 1000 and 2000 metres. Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate. Between

1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce andcedar, are found. These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude insouthern and north-east India. At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common. At high altitudes,generally more than 3,600 metres above sea-level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpinevegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests. However, they getprogressively stunted as they approach the snow-line. Ultimately through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into theAlpine grasslands. These are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation. The common animals found in theseforests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels,Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

Mangrove Forests: The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and siltget accumutated on such coasts. Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submergedunder water. The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered bysuch vegetation. In the Ganga-Brahamaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber.Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal inthese forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.

WILD LIFE:India is also rich in its fauna. It has more than 89,000 of animal species. The country has more than 1200 speciesof birds. They constitute 13% of the world’s total. There are 2500 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% ofthe world’s stock. It also shares between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals. Theelephants are the most majestic animals among the mammals. They are found in the hot wet forests of Assam,Karnataka and Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses are the other animals, which live in swampy and marshy lands ofAssam and West Bengal. Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert are the habitat for wild ass andcamels respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), chousingha (four horned antelope), gazel and different speciesof deer are some other animals found in India. It also has several species of monkeys.

India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The natural habitat of the Indian lion is the Girforest in Gujarat. Tigers are found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh, the Sundarbans of West Bengal and theHimalayan region. Ladhak’s freezing high altitudes are a home to yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing aroundone tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang (Tibetan wild ass).Furhtermore, the ibex, bear, snow-leopard and very rare red panda are found in certain pockets.

To protect the flora and fauna of the county, the government has taken many steps.

a. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. Four out of these,the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and theNilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of Biosphesereserves.

b. 89 National Parks, 49 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take care of Naturalheritage.

IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS:

Forest Cover (areawise Km2):

1. Madhya Pradesh- 1,31,195

2. Arunachal Pradesh- 68,602

3. 0rissa- 46,941

Forest Cover (% of the total area):

1. Mizoram- 89.06

2. Nagaland- 85.78

3. Arunachal Pradesh- 81.92

Kaziranga in Assam is famous for one horn Rhinocerous

Periyar in Kerala is famous for Elephants

Sunderbans are well known for Bengal Tigers

Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat is the habitat for Wild Ass Asiatic Lions are found in Gir forests

Siberian Cranes migrate to some of the wetlands in Northern India including those like Keoladeo Ghana inRajasthan and other in U.P and Bihar

Hemis High Altitude is the largest national park in India

Madhya Pradesh is also known as Tiger state

Corbett was the first national park in India

Some important conventions and conferences for the conservation and protection of organisms have beenheld since 1970. Some are:

a. Man and Biosphere convention (UNESCO) 1970

b. Ramsar (Iran) convention for wet lands and waterfowl habitat 1971

c. FAO for genetic resource material 1983

d. Rio convention by UNCED 1992

e. In India the Wild Life Protection Act came into force in 1972.

f. Some other projects to protect different species are Project tiger (1.4.1973) Girjion project (1972)Crocodile breeding project (1.4.1975)

g. Rhinoceros project (1987) Snow leopard project (1988) Project elephant (1988) The CentralDirectorate of WildLife Preservation and the WildLife Institute of India, Dehradun are the nodalagencies initiating and monitoring the programs and projects concerning wildlife.

Famous wildlife sanctuaries and National Parks of India:

Sanctuary Location Animals/Birds

Vedanthangal Tamil Nadu Bird sancuary

Sunderbans Sunderbans, West Bengal Royal Bengal Tiger, crocodile , deer, wild boar

Shivpuri NationalPark

Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh Tiger,leopards, jackals, wild boar, sloth bears,four-hornedantelopes

Ranganthitoo River cauvery, Karnataka Birds

Periyar Idduki, Kerala Elephants, sambhars, gaurs and wild boar

Parakal Warangal, Andhra Pradesh Tigers, Panthers, nilgais and chitals

Palamau Daltenganj, Bihar Tiger reserve

Namdapha NationalPark

Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh Elephants and tigers

Mudumalai W.S Nilgiris,Tamil Nadu Elephants, deer and pig

Manas Barpeta, Assam one-horned Rhinoceros, wild buffalo,tiger, elephant

Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Panther, tiger, sambhars, nilgai, antelope

Kaziranga NationalPark

Jorhat, Assam Indian one-horned Rhinoceros, wild buffalo,tiger,sambhars

Jaldapara West Bengal Indian Rhinoceros

Hazaribagh N.P Hazaribagh, Bihar Leopards, tigers,sambhars, chitals

Ghana birdsanctuary

Bharatpur, Rajasthan Water birds, Siberian cranes, storks, herons

Gir National Park Junagarh, Gujrat Asiatic Lion, Panthers, nilgais, sambhars, crocodile

Dudhwa NationalPark

Lakshmipur Kheri, UttarPradesh

Tiger, nilgai, sambhars, panther

Corbet National Park Nainital, Uttar Pradesh Tigers, elephants, chitals, sabhars,nilgais, sloth bear

Bandipur NationalPark

Karnataka-Tamil Naduborder

Tigers, elephants , sambhars,bears, panthers ,deers

Balpakram Garo hills, Meghalaya Tigers, Elephants, Bisons

Chandraprabha Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh Asiatic Lion, Tigers, Panthers, Indian gazelle, sloth bear

Wild Ass Sancutary Little Rann of Kutch, Gujrat Wild Ass, wolf, nilgai, chinkara

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Geography: India & Physiography

INDIA & PHYSIOGRAPHY:

India with an area of 32,87,263 sq. kms, is the 7th largest countries in the world. Lying entirely in the northernhemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) passes almost halfway through the country (Figure 7.2). From southto north, India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and97°25'E longitudes.The longest distance from north to south, is 3214 kms and 2933 kms from east to west. India, a subcontinent, hasa land frontier of 15,200 kms and a coastline of 7516.6 kms (including island coastline). Southern most pointIndira point or Pygmalion Point (Andaman and Nicobar Island) 64°5'NThe land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square km. India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent ofthe total geographical area of the world.From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time along the Standard Meridian ofIndia (82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country.India shares its land boundaries with Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest, China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutanin the north and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east. Our southern neighbours across the sea consist of the twoisland countries, namely Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of seaformed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar while Maldives Islands are situated to the south of theLakshadweep Islands.Boundary Lines:

1. Durand Line: Pakistan and Afghanistan

2. Mac Mohan Line: India and China

3. Radcliff Line: India and Pakistan

India is a vast country. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 28 States and 7 Union Territories.Delhi is the national capital. The states have been formed mainly on the basis of languages. Rajasthan is thelargest state and Goa is the smallest state in terms of area.

MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS:The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions(i) The Himalayan Mountains(ii) The Northern Plains(iii) The Peninsular Plateau(iv) The Indian Desert(v) The Coastal Plains(vi) The Islands

The Himalayan Mountains:These mountain systems are one of the youngest of Fold Mountains in the world, characterised by itsyouthfulness, tectonic origin, great erosive capacity. Northern mountain consists of Himalayan ranges and transhimalaya which lies north of the great Himalayas. Karakoram , ladak and zaskar ranges are the part of transHimalayas. Mt. K2 (Godwin Austin) the highest mountain in India is situated on the karakoram range. Theseranges converge on the Palmir plateau.

The Northern Plains:It is formed by the sediments brought by rivers from the Northern and southern side covers an area of 7.5 lakhssq. km and extends from Punjab to Assam.

Bhabar: These are porous and gravel ridden plain at the foothills of Himalaya. Streams disappear in this areaexcept in the monsoon season.Terai: The streams reappear in this area and are poorly drainded and forested Bhangar: The term used to referolder alluvium in the river beds Khader: It refers to the new alluvium in river beds in low lying zones.North Indian plains have highly fertile soils, perennial water source and a good clime suited for agriculture.Although the North Indian plains cover 30% of the geographical area of India, it supports 40% of its population.

Peninsular Plateau:It is the oldest part of India known as the Indian Plate. This division covers whole of the peninsula in the form of anirregular triangle. The peninsular plateau can be sub divided into the following:

1. Aravallis are relict mountains lie to the north west of the peninsula. These are highly eroded and deeplyworn down. Mt. Abu is an important peak of Aravallis.

2. Bundelkhand lies in the east of Aravallis, formed by the erosion of gneisses and quartizites which offers thenatural sites for water storage.

3. Malwa is drained by chambal and betwa

4. Vindhyan Kaimur range is a escarpment between Narmada and son valleys.

5. Chhotanagpur plateau is the mineral rich area in India in the east of the son river

6. Shillong Plateau is the continuation of the Deccan Plateau

7. Deccan plateau is an elevated tableland consisting of horizontal lava beds and has a homogeneoussloping towards east and south east.

8. Karnataka Plateau composed of gneisses and schists and the two main sub divisions are Malnad andMaidan.

9. Western Ghats: It is also known as sahyadris stretch continuously to the southern tip have a generalaltitude 900-1100 kms. Dodabetta (2637m) is the highest peak inthe Nillagiri range. Anaimudi (2695 m) inannamalai is the highest peak in South India.

10. Eastern Ghats are broken hills with no well defined structure. The eatern ghat are called northern hills inthe northern sector , cudappah ranges in the middle sector and Tamil nadu hills in the southern sector.

The Indian Desert:

The Indian desest lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating sandy plain coveredwith sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm per year. It has arid climate with lowvegetatin cover. Streams appear during the rainy season. Soon after they disappear into the sand as they do nothave enough water to reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in this region. Barchans (crescent shaped dunes)cover larger areas but longitudinal dunes become more promiment near the Indo-Pakistan boundary. If you visitJaisalmer, you may go to see a group of barchans.

Coastal Plains:

This is the region between the coast and mountain ranges of the peninsular plateau. This can be divided intowestern and eastern coast. With the exception of Gujarat, the western coast is narrower than the eastern coast. Ithas characteristic lagoons or backwaters called kayals such as Asthamudi and vemband in the southern moststretch. The eastern coast has developed deltas of major rivers following through it.

The Islands:

India has 247 islands of which 204 lie in the Bay of Bengal and the remaining in the Arabian sea and gulf ofmannar. The Andamans and the Nicobars form two major groups in Bay of Bengal Group. These 2 major groupsare separated by Ten degree channel which 121 km wide. This chain of islands are formed by the submergence of

Arakan Yoma ranges . The Barren and Narcondam islands , situated north of Port Blair , are volcanic islands.Lakshadweep islands are a group 27 of coral origin and are surrounded by fringing reefs with a total area of only32 square kilometers. The pamban island , situated between India and Sri Lanka , has a rocky surface, is anextension of the peninisular surface in Ramnad district of Tamil Nadu.

INDIAN VULCANICITY: At present no active volcanoes except on the Barren Island (A/N Islands).

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Geography: Indian Agriculture

Agriculture:India is an agriculturally important country. Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities.Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume. Besides food grains, it alsoproduces raw material for various industries.

CROPPING PATTERN:India has three cropping seasons —rabi, kharif and zaid.Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Some ofthe important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. Though, these crops are grown in large partsof India, states from the north and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu andKashmir, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops.Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested inSeptember-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong,urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Some of the most important rice-growing regions are Assam, WestBengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkancoast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab andHaryana. In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are Aus,Aman and Boro.In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaidseason. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and foddercrops. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.Major Crops: Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cottonand jute, etc.Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. Our country is the second largest producer ofrice in the world after China. It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humiditywith annual rainfall above 100 cm.Wheat: This is the second most important cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part ofthe country. This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It requires50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenlydistributed over the growing season. There are two important wheat-growingzones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan. The majorwheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.Jowar is the third most important food cropwith respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needsirrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and MadhyaPradesh. Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajrafollowed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well onred, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu.Maize: It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. Major pulses that are grownin India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.Major pulse producing states in India are MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperatureof 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm.and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions of lowrainfall.India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur(jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different oil seeds are grown coveringapproximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds produced in India aregroundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Mostof these are edible and used as cooking mediums. Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of themajor oilseeds produced in the country. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by TamilNadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra – linseed and mustard are rabi crops.Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture.The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropicalclimates endowed with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes requirewarm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensurecontinuous growth of tender leaves. Major teaproducing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguridistricts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya,Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing states in the country. India is the leading producer as well asexporter of tea in the world.Coffee: India produces about four per cent of the world’s coffee production. Intially its cultivation was introducedon the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and TamilNadu.Horticulture Crops: India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. India is a producer oftropical as well as temperate fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu,lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh andMaharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in greatdemand the world over. India produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables. It is an important producer ofpea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

Non-Food Crops:Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Itrequires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C. Rubber is animportant industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabarislands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers.Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. The first three arederived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leavesspecially mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.Cotton: India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main raw materials forcotton textile industry. India is the third-largest producer of cotton in the world. Cotton grows well in drier parts ofthe black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-freedays and bright sunshine for its growth. It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soilsare renewed every year. High temperature is required during the time of growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states. It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn,carpets and other artefacts.

Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemesintroduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.

Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy though its share in the Gross Domestic Product(GDP) has registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards; yet its share in providing employment andlivelihood to the population continues to be as high as 63 per cent in 2001.

In order to ensure availability of food to all sections of society our government carefully designed a nationalfood security system. It consists of two components (a) buffer stock and (b) public distribution system(PDS). Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking foodgrains, whereasdistribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS). The FCI procures foodgrains from the farmersat the government announced minimum support price (MSP). The government used to provide subsidieson agriculture inputs such as fertilizers, power and water.

The new seed policy came in 1988. Total seed production is presently hovering around 100 lakhquintals.National seeds corporation (NSC), State Farm Corporation of India (SFCI), State seedCorporations and State seed certification agencies are the primary agencies working in the seed sector.

HIGHLIGHTS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE:

Major kharif crops are rice, jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, sugarcane, soyabean and groundnut.

Major rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, rapeseed and mustard. Rice, maize and groundnut aregrown in summer season also.

Largest producer of Sugarcane(295.73 mt), fruits(41.5mt), coconut (13 billion nuts),arecanut, cashew nut,ginger, turmeric, black pepper

second largest producer of vegetables ( After China)

occupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world.

Largest area in the world under pulse crops

First to evolve a cotton hybrid (H-4,By Gujarat Agricultural University in 1970)

Second in production of rice(88.5 mt)

Maximum percentage of the geographical area is arable land.

Among various spices grown in the country, chilly is the most widely grown spice with a share in the totalproduction of 33.7 per cent. Turmeric has a share of 21.6 per cent in the total production of spices.

India is the third largest producer and consumer of fertilizers in the world after China and USA.

India is 100 per cent self sufficient in respect of urea and about 95 per cent in case of DAP.

All-India average fertilizer consumption is 89.9 kg./ha though there is wide variation from State to State.from 184 kg/ha in Punjab, 167 kg/ha in Haryana to less than 10 kg/ha in States like Arunachal Pradesh,Nagaland, Sikkim.

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Geography: Indian Drainage System

DRAINAGE SYSTEMA river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’. An area drained by ariver and its tributaries is called a drainage basin. The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the otheris known as the watershed. The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets andrills are often referred to as watersheds. There is, however, a slight difference between a river basin and awatershed. Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger areas.On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be classified into theHimalayan drainage and the Peninsular drainage.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE:

It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. kmand a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. It originates from aglacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 min the Kailash Mountain range.The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.According to the regulations of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can use only 20 per cent of the total watercarried by Indus river system. This water is used for irrigation in the Punjab, Haryana and the southern andwestern parts of Rajasthan.

The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjalin the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before enteringPakistan through a deep narrow gorge.

The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, whichjoin at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for1,180 km before entering into Pakistan.

The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of HimachalPradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.

The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at anelevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Katiand Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.

The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known asLangchen Khambab. It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It isan antecedent river. It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

The Ganga System:

The Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here, itis known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as theGanga. The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The Alaknanda consists of theDhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda suchas the Pindar join it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga entersthe plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into twodistributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttaranchal(110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km). The Ganga basin coversabout 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone. The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the SagarIsland.

The Sundarban Delta derived its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland. • It is the world’slargest and fastest growing delta. It is also the home of Royal Bengal tiger.

The Yamuna, the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the Yamunotri glacier onthe western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by theChambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while theHindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank. Much of its water feeds the western andeastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for irrigation purposes.

The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorgeup wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. From Kota, it traverses downto Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is famous for its badlandtopography called the Chambal ravines.

The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the Nepal Himalayasbetween the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain inChamparan district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.

The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift valley andfinally joins the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’.

The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling hills. It joins the Ganga as itslast left bank tributary in West Bengal.

The Brahmaputra System:The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of theKailash range near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly1,200 km in a dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as a turbulent and dynamicriver after carving out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river emergesfrom the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.Flowing southwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is knownas the Brahmaputra. The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh,the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with the riverPadma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM:The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its waterinto the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km. Fifty three per centof the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Orissa.

The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system. It is also called the Dakshin Ganga. It rises in the Nasikdistrict of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the states ofMaharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It is 1,465 km long with a catchmentarea spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km. 49 per cent of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh andChhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are itsprincipal tributaries.

The Krishna is the second largest eastflowing Peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Itstotal length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its major tributaries.Of the total catchmentarea of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh.The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its length is 800 km and it drains anarea of 81,155 sq. km. About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and 56 percent in Tamil Nadu. Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India. It is known as Sivasamudram. The fall supplieshydroelectric power to Mysore, Bangalore and the Kolar Gold Field.

The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m. Flowing in arift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a picturesque gorge inmarble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets theArabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km.The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.

The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai in the Betul district of MadhyaPradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra,15 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.

Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e. theSaraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of Aravaliand is known as Luni. It flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the Rannof Kuchchh. The entire river system is ephemeral.

LAKES:A meandering river across a flood plain forms cut-offs that later develop into ox-bow lakes. Spits and bars formlagoons in the coastal areas, eg the Chilika lake, the Pulicat lake, the Kolleru lake.

The Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir, is the largest freshwater lake in India.

Apart from natural lakes, the damming of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has also led to the formationof Lakes such as Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).

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Geography: Indian Industries

Industries:Classification of IndustriesIndustries may be classified as follows:

a. On the basis of source of raw materials used:

Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.

Mineral based: iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals.

b. According to their main role:

Basic or key industries which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goodse.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminum smelting.

Consumer industries that produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper,sewing machines, fans etc.

c. On the basis of capital investment:

A small scale industry is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets ofa unit. This limit has changed over a period of time. At present the maximum investment allowed isrupees one crore. If investment is more than one crore on any industry then it is known as a largescale industry.

d. On the basis of ownership:

Public sector, owned and operated by government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.

Private sector industries owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals –TISCO, BajajAuto Ltd., Dabur Industries.

Joint sector industries which are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. OilIndia Ltd. (OIL) is jointly owned by public and private sector.

Cooperative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of rawmaterials, workers or both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or lossesproportionately such as the sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.

e. Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods:

Heavy industries such as iron and steel

Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical industries.

Agro Based Industries:Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industry are based on agricultural raw materials.

Textile Industry: The textile industry occupies unique position in the Indian economy, because itcontributes significantly to industrial production (14 per cent), employment generation (35 million personsdirectly – the second largest after agriculture) and foreign exchange earnings (about 24.6 per cent). Itcontributes 4 per cent towards GDP. It is the only industry in the country, which is self-reliant and completein the value chain i.e., from raw material to the highest value added products.First modern cotton Textile mill was set up in 1818 at Fort Gloster near Calcutta. Second important wasfounded in 1854 in Bombay by C.N. Devar.Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and human made fibre textile mills in the country. About 80 per cent ofthese are in the private sector and the rest in the public and cooperative sectors. Apart from these, thereare several thousand small factories with four to ten looms.

Highest is Maharashtra in Cotton textile Production 42.49%, but in Cotton Yarn Maharashtra produces only16.65%. In Maharashtra there are total 122 mills out of which 63 mills are in Mumbai, so Mumbai is calledCottonopolis. Other centres in Maharashtra are Sholapur, Pune, Kojjiapur, Satara, Nagpur, Aurangabad,Amravati and Jalgaon.Second highest Gujarat, which produces 23.5% of cloth and 8% of yarn of India It has 118 mills, out ofwhich 73 are in Ahmadabad, other mills are in Surat, Vadodra, Rajkot, Porbandar, Maurvi and Bhavnagar.Fifth is West Bengal 3.87% of total cloth and 2.94% of cotton yarn.Most important centre is Murshidabad,others are in Howrah, Hugli, Syampur, Shrirampur and Panihar.India exports yarn to Japan. Other importers of cotton goods from India are U.S.A., U.K., Russia, France,East European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and African countries.

India exports cotton textile highest to U.S, then to Russia and then to U.K.

Jute Textiles:India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as anexporter after Bangladesh. There are about 70 jute mills in India. Most of these are located in WestBengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt (98 km long and 3 km wide). First JuteMill in 1855 in Rishra.In W. Bengal, centres are Balli, Rishra, Serampore, Budge Budge, Shamnagar,Saikia, Bansberia, Uluberia, Titagarh, Agrapora, Birlapure.Causes of Mills in Bengal:

1. The Ganga Bhrahmaputra delta grows about 90% of India's jute and therefore provides rawmaterial to jute mills.

2. Coal is easily obtained from Raniganj.

3. Abundant water is available for processing, washing and dyeing of jute.

4. Humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.

5. Kolkata is a big city of import and export.

Population is high so labour is cheap.

The jute industry supports 2.61 lakh workers directly and another 40 lakhs small and marginal farmers whoare engaged in cultivation of jute and mesta. Many more people are associated indirectly.

Challenges faced by the industry include stiff competition in the international market from syntheticsubstitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand.

In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated with the objective of increasing productivity, improving quality,ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare.

The main markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United Arab Republic, U.K. and Australia.

Woolen Textile:First woolen modern industry is Lal imli, near Kanpur in 1876. Dhariwal in Punjab in 1881,Mumbai in 1882 and Bangalore in 1886. Today there are 621 big and small mills in India. Punjab has 297mills, maximum in Dhariwal, other centres are Amritsar, Ludhiana and Kharar. Causes: hydroelectricityBhakara Nangal dam; water from Kashmir and Kumoun region.Woolen Carpets: India has 240 units; 90% ofthe production is exported to USA, Britain, Canada andAustralia.Hosiery: Ludhiana is the largest.

Silk Textile:Here are 4 variations of silk: mulberry, tassar, muga and irie.

Distribution

1. Karnataka: 70% of mulberry silk of the country; impotant centres are Mysore, Banglore,Kolar, Mandya, Tumkur, Belgaun and Kodagu.

2. West Bengal: 13% of total silk mainly mulberry; important centres are Murshidabad,Bankura, 24 Parganas and Birbhum.

Exports to USA, Russia and Saudi Arabia.

Synthetic Fibre:

Travancore Rayons ltd. is at Raipuram, Kerala in 1950.

National Rayon company is at Mumbai.

Sirsilk Ltd. Hyderabad.

There are 6 types of Synthetic fibres:

1. Rayon: centres at Kagajnagar,Junagarh (Gujarat), Raipuram (Kerala), Udhana (Gujarat),Birlagram (H.P.), Nagada (M.P), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalyan, Pimpri, Pune, Goregaun(Maharashtra), Mettupalayam (T.N.), Kanpur (U.P), Triveni (W.B)

2. Nylon Filament Yarn Unit : at Kota, Pimpri, Pune, Bhosari, Mumbai, Nagpur, Modinagar,Vadodara, Chennai, Banglore, Barauni, Triuvananthpuram, Kanpur, Ujjain and Calcutta.

3. Nylon Stable Fibre: at Kota and Mumbai.

4. Nylon Tyre Cord Unit: at Kota, Mumbai, Chennai, Kalyan, Kanpur, Goregaon, New Delhi

5. Polyster Staple Fibre : Thane, Ahmedabad, Vadodra,, Gaziabad, Mandi, Kota.

6. Polyster filament YarnUnit: Mumbai, Kota, Pimpri, Pune, Modinagar, Ujjain, Udhna andVadodara.

Sugar Industry: India stands second as a world producer of sugar after Cuba but occupies the first placein the production of gur and khandsari. There are over 460 sugar mills in the country spread over UttarPradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with Punjab,Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. First factory set up in1840 in North Bihar with Dutch help.

Mineral based Industries:Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral basedindustries.

Iron and Steel Industry:

Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Somequantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel. Today with 32.8 million tons of steelproduction, India ranks ninth among the world crude steel producers. It is the largest producer ofsponge iron. Inspite of large quantity of production of steel, per capita consumption per annum isonly 32 kg.

First modern unit was established in 1830 at Porto Novo in T.N. but the real beginning of modernfactory was in 1907 named TISCO in Jamshedpur (formerly Sakchi); IISCO in 1919 atBurnpur(W.B);

Mysore Steel Works Bhadrawati 1923, now called Visvesaraya Iron and Steel Works.Second FiveYear Plan came up with 3 plants 1. Bhilai; 2. Rourkela; 3. Durgapur.

India is the tenth largest producer in the world.

In 1973, SAIL was established, it started to manage following industries: Bhilai; Durgapur; Rourkela;Bokaro; Burnpur; Alloy Steel Plant at Durgapur and Salem Steel Plant; Visvesraya Iron and SteelLtd. in 1989.

Top 10 Steel plants are:

1. TISCO (1907) by Jamshedji Tata. Causes for its establishment:

High grade haematite ore was available from Nauwa Mundi mines of Singbhum andGurumahisani mines in Mayurhanj.

Coal was available in Jharia and Raniganj.

Manganese from Joda mines of Keonjhar dist. of Orissa. Dolomite, Limestone andfireclay was available at Sundargarh (Orissa).

Sufficient water from Suwarnarekha river. Better transport and high population densityin Bihar. TISCO's storage is at Gopalpur (Orissa).

2. IISCO: it has three plants, Kulti in 1864; Hirapur 1908; Burnpur 1937, all in W.B.; all thesemerged to become IISCO in 1937.Why IISCO was formed:

Iron ore is available from Guna mines in Singhbhum and from Gurumahisani, fromMayurbhanj.

Gets power from DVC and coal from Raniganj.

Connected to Calcutta.

Cheap labour.

3. Visvesraya Iron and Steel Ltd:Earlier name was Mysore ISCO, established in 1923. Located at Bhadravati, Shimoga dist.in Karnataka. It was put under state control in 1962 and named Visvesarya Iron and SteelLtd. Why at Bhadrawati:

Bhadrawati valley is 13 km. wide, as a result of which enough land is available.

High grade haematite iron is brought from Kemang Gundi mines, Chikmaglur.

Availability of power from Saraswati power project.

Limestone is available at Bhundi Guda.

Shilong and Chitradung supply Manganese.

4. Bhilai Steel Plant: 1957, in Durgadist. of M.P; in collaboration with USSR. Why at Bhilai:

Rich hematite iron are from Dhalli Rajhara mine.

Coal is obtained from Korba and Kargali fields.

Limestone was from Nandini mines.

Bhandhara (Maharashtra) and Balaghat (M.P.) supply Manganese.

Korba Thermal Power supplies electricity. Dolomite from Bilaspur.

5. Rourkela Steel Plant: Hindustan Steel Ltd. is the plant in Sundergarh dist. of Orissa, set up incollaboration with W. Germany in 1959. Why in Rourkela:

Iron ore from Sundergarh and Keonjhar.

Coal from Jharia and Thalcher.

Hydro electricity from Hirakud.

Manganese from Barajmada. Dolomite from Baradwar.

Limestone from Purnabani.

6. Durgapur Steel Plant: in Burdwan dist. (W.B), established in 1959 with the help of U.K.;project was started in 1962.Why at Durgapur:

Iron ore from Bolani mines in Mayurbhanj.

Coal from Jharia and Raniganj.

Limestone from Birmitrapur in Sundergarh distt. Manganese from Keonjhar. Dolomitefrom Birmitrapur.

Kolkata Asansol rail network.

Manganese from Keonjhar.

7. Bokaro: collaboration with USSR, started production in 1972.Why Bokaro:

Iron ore from Kiriburu (Orissa).

Coal from Jharia.

Limestone from Palamu.

Electricity from DVC.

8. Salem Steel plant 1982, became commercial.

9. Vishakhapatnam Steel project (Rashtriya Ispat Nigam) 1982, Coastal location.

10. Vijaynagar Steel Plant. Paradeep Steel Plant.

Aluminum Industry:Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. It islight, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, mallable and becomes strong when it is mixed withother metals. It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has gained popularity as a substituteof steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.

About 50% of total aluminum in India is consumed in the generation and distribution of electricity.

In 1937, Aluminium Corporation of India was formed at Jay Kay Nagar in W.Bengal.

In 1943, Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDAL) started and the plant was set up in Allupuram(Kerala).

During 2nd FYP, two more plants were established: (1) Indian Aluminium Company, estd. in Hirakud(Orissa); (2) Hindustan Aluminium Corp. (HINDALCO), Renukut (U.P.)

In 1965, BALCO established at Korba in M.P.

Another plant was established at Ratnagiri in 1975.

In 1965, MALCO (Madras Al Company Limited) was established in Mettur.

In 1981, NALCO (National Al Comp. Ltd.) was established at Daman Jodi, near Jaypore at KoraputDist. of Orissa.

NALCO is the largest

In 198889, another unit was set up at Ankul in district Dhenkanal (Orissa).

Copper Industry:

In 1924, Indian Copper Company (ICC) was set up

In 1924, a plant was set up in Singhbhum (Ghatshila), Bihar.

In 1967, Hindustan Copper Limited came into being, took over the work of ICC in 1972, since then,the HCL is sole major producer of copper in India.

Copper is produced at two units: 1. Maubandhar, near Ghatshila; 2.Khetri in Jhunjhunu district,Rajasthan.

Maubandhar receives copper ore from Mausabani, Rakha, Dhobani, Rajdah, Tampohar, Turamdih.

Khetri copper complex at Khetri has been erected by HCL, production started from 1974 onwards.Itreceives copper ore from Khetri, Kolihan, Chandmari, Dariba (Alwar),etc.Malanjkhand mines atBalaghat, M.P. also supplies copperore to Khetri.

A new project is comingup in Agnigundala in Guntur, AP.

Per capita copper consumption in India is 250 gm.

Presently, India produces only l/12th part of its requirement rest is imported from Zambia, Zaire,Chile and USA

Chemical Industries:The Chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying. It contributes approximately 3 per cent of theGDP. It is the third largest in Asia and occupies the twelfth place in the world in term of its size. It comprises bothlarge and small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth has been recorded in both inorganic and organicsectors. Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics,adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper)and caustic soda. These industries are widely spread over the country.Fertiliser Industry:The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic

fertilisers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilisers which have a combination of nitrogen (N),phosphate (P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash is entirely imported as the country does not have anyreserves of commercially usable potash or potassium compounds in any form. India is the third largest producerof nitrogenous fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units manufacturing nitrogenous and complex nitrogenousfertilisers, 29 for urea and 9 for producing ammonium sulphate as a byproduct and 68 other small units producesingle superphosphate. At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector atHazira in Gujarat under the Fertiliser Corporation of India.

1906, first superphosphate factory was set up at Ranipet in T.N.

In 1951, Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI), set up a plant at Sindri.

Public Sector Fertilizer Co.FCI incorporated in 1961; it has 4 units:

1. Sindri;

2. Gorakhpur;

3. Talcher;

4. Ramagundum (A.P).

NFL established in 23 Aug. 1974, has 5 units:

1. Nangal: Calcium almunium nitrate and Urea;

2. Bhatinda;

3. Panipat;

4. Vijaypur.It is largest producer of Nitrogenous fertilizer.

Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd.(FACT) has three units:

1. Udyog Mandal;

2. Two units at Kochi.

Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd. it is a gas based fertilizer plant at Thai.

Hindustan Fertilizers Corp. Ltd.(HFCL): it has

1. 5 units at Namrup (Assam)

2. one at Durgapur (W.B)

3. one at Barauni.

Madras Fertilizers Ltd.: it is a joint venture of India and Iran; established at Manali near Chennai.

Pyrites Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd. (PPCL): set up in March 1960, units at:

1. Amjher (Bihar, manufactures super phosphate)

2. Salodipura (Rajasthan for exploration and production of Pyrites)

3. Mussorie (Uttaranchal where mining of rock phosphate ore is done).

Project and Development India Ltd. (PDIL): formerly Fertilizer Planning and Development India Ltd.,famous for engineering.

Cement Industry: This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina andgypsum.

The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.

At present, India ranks 4th after China, Japan, and USA.

Paper Industries:

In India paper is made from: 62% bamboo (a cellulosic raw material); 79% sabai grass; bagasse; rice andwheat straw; eucalyptus; pine; mulberry.

Chemical used: caustic soda, soda ash, sodium sulphate, chlorine, calcium bisulphate, sulphuric acid,raisin and clay, lime, ferric alumina, ammonium.

One tonne of paper production requires 3.54 tonnes of coal.

First factory (1816), in Chennai; second (1832), in Serampore, both failed. Third factory (1870), RoyalBengal Paper Mills, Ballyganj, near Kolkata. (1879) Lucknow, (1882), Titagarh (1887, Pune (1892),Raniganj (1892), Kakinara(1918),Naihati (1951). There are as many as 17 mills News Print:

First factory (1955), Nepanagar in Hoshangabad (M.P).

Second factory (1981), Mysore Paper Mills, Shimoga, Karnataka.

Third is 1982, Hindustan Paper Mills, Vellore, Kottaiyam, Kerala.

Fourth, 1985, Tamil Nadu News Print and Paper Ltd., Pugalur in Tiruchirapalli.

Till 1996, there were 26 news print mills were there in India.

Per capita paper consumption in India is 3 kg.

Pulp and waste paper is imported from Norway, Sweden, Canada, Holland.

.

Paper board, Newsprint is imposed from Poland, Sweden, Czech Republic, Slovakia Republic andCanada.

Problems of Paper Industry:

1. Scarcity of raw materials because of degradation of forest;

2. Costly unconventional raw material.

3. Growing consciousness for the preservation of forests and maintenance of ecology balance andbiodiversity.

4. Very low rate of consumption, population 16% of world, paper production 1% of world.

5. Small size of uneconomic manufacturing units.

Drugs and Pharmaceuticals:

Public Sector Units: India Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd (IDPL): Established in 1961 (5th April); has 5plants:

1. Rishikesh synthetic drugs.

2. Chennai surgical instruments.

3. Gurgaon formulations.

4. Muzaffarpur drugs and chemicals (intermediate)

IDPL has 3 subsidiaries:

i. Rajasthan Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (RPDL)

ii. U.P Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (UPDL), Lucknow

iii. Orissa D&P Ltd., Bhubaneshwar

Hindustan Antibiotics Limited in 1954:

1. Maharashtra Antibiotics and Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Nagpur;

2. Karnataka A&P Ltd., Bangalore;

3. Manipur A&P Ltd, Imphal Bengal Immunity Limited (BIL), Kolkata.

Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (BCPL), Kolkata.

Smith Stanistret Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (SSPL), Kolkata.

Glass:

First factory was established in 1941 in UP.

Rawmaterial used: sodaash, feldspar, limestone, dolomite, manganese dioxide, barium oxide, sulphur andcopper.

Distribution:

Uttar Pradesh:Abour 100 factories; important centres are: Ferozabad(Agra), Bahzoi, Naini,Hirangau, Shokohabad, Hathras, Sasni, Jaunpur.

West Bengal: 34 factories; important places: Kolkata, Howrah, Raniganj, Belgachia, Belgharia,Bellur, Sitarampur, Rishra, Durgapur, Asansol (gets sandstone from Mangalghat and Palaghat).

Maharashtra: 22 factories; Important centres: Mumbai, Talegaon, Satara, Nagpur, Kolhapur(bottles).

Ceramics:

China clay is found in Rajmahal Hills (Bihar).

First factory established in Patharghat (Bihar).

Second, Barn & Co. Raniganj (W. Bengal).

Centre: Wankaner, Thanagarh, Ranipet, Roopnarayanpur, Jabalpur, Nazarbagh, Gwalior, Jaipur.

India exports to: Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait; imports from: China & Japan.

Match:

First factory was established in Ahmedabad in 1921.

Western India Match Co. (WIPCO) 1923; has 5 units: produces 65% of India's production:

i. Baraeli

ii. Kolkata

iii. Chennai

iv. Ambarnath, Mumbai

v. Dubri, Assam.

Distribution

State Major Concentration

W.Bengal Jharia, Raniganj

Tamil Nadu: Ramnathpuram, Tirunavelli, Chennai, Chingalput.

Gujarat: Ahmedabad, Petlad, Ambarnath

Maharashtra: Pune, Thane, Chanda, Mumbai.

UP: Barelli, Meerut, Allahabad, Varanasi

Karnataka: Shimoga

Kerala: Thiruvanathpuram

A.P.: Hyderabad, Warrangal

Assam: Dhubri

Rajasthan: Kota

Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh: Bilaspur, Jabalpur.

LAC:

The insect, Cerria Laca produces Laca; it lives in trees.

Climatic requirements: temp. 12°C and rainfall-150cm.

Stick lac is its crude form (like resin).

Main producer: FCL's Trombay Unit.

Automobile Industry:

First started by General Motors India Ltd. Mumbai, 1928.

Ford Motors in 1930, Chennai.

Daewoo, 1995 (Korea), Noida.

Premier Automobiles, Kurla Mumbai, 1947.

Hindustan Motors Ltd., Kolkata, 1948.

Maruti Udyog Ltd., Gurgaon, 1983.

TELCO, Jamshedpur.

Surajpur Light Motor Vehicle (Ghaziabad).

Motor-cycles Dharuhara (Haryana); Akundi, (Pune); Hosur (Tamil Nadu); Faridabad.

Scooters Lucknow; Satara; (Akundi) Pune; Panki; Odhav

India ranks second in two wheelers after China.

Tractors are manufactured at Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai

Cycles:

First manufacturing factory was set up in 1940, Mumbai.

The chief centres of bicycle production are Mumbai, Asansol, Sonipat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar andLudhiana

India exports bicycles to Pakistan, Afghanistan and Srilanka.

Aircrafts:

1940; Hindustan Aircraft Ltd., Bangalore.

1964, it merged with Aeronautics India Ltd. to form Hindustan Aeronautic Ltd. (HAL) in Bangalore.

HAL has three divisions:

i. MIG Complex, Nasik;

ii. Koraput;

iii. Hyderabad.

Railway Equipment:

Chittaranjan Locomotives Works (CLW), Chittaranjan, Burdwan dist., W. Bengal, 1950. It produced firstengine in 1952.

Diesel Locomotives Works at Varanasi, 1964.

The Tata Engineering and Locomotive Works (TELCO), Jamshedpur in 1952.

The Integral Coach Factory at Perambur near Chennai with Swiss collaboration in 1955.

Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala, 1958.

Shipbuilding:

India ranks second in Asia next to Japan in Shipbuilding

Hindustan Shipyards, Vishakhapatnam, setup by M/ S Scindia Steam Navigation Company, 1941. Itproduced first ship in 1948.(Largest Ship building unit)

Cochin Shipyard Ltd., Kochi, 1976.

Garden Reach Workshops, Kolkata.

Mazgaon Dock, Mumbai, builds esp. for Indian Navy.

Goa Shipyards, builds fibreglass boats.

ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES:

Machine Tools:

In 1930s, Kirloskar Bros. Ltd. but, the first large scale modern factory was Hindustan Machine ToolsLtd (HMT) in 1953 at Bangalore with Swiss collaboration.It has multiunit: Pinjore, Haryana(1963),Kalamessary in Kerala (1964), Hyderabad (1965),Ajmer (grinding unit).

Another is Heavy Machine Tools Plant at Ranchi, in 1966.

Third is, Parag Tools Limited at Secunderabad.

National Instrument Factory,Jadavpur, Calcutta.

The Instrumentation Limited at Kota and Palaghat.

Heavy Mechanical Equipments:

Heavy Engineering Corporation, Ranchi, 1958.

Mining and Allied Machinery Corp. Ltd. at Durgapur.

Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd., setup in 1947.

Triveni Structural Ltd. at Naini, Allahabad with the assistance of Austria.

Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels Ltd. established in 1956 at Vishakhapatnam.

Messers Jessop & Co. Ltd., Calcutta.

Richardson & Cruddas Ltd. Mumbai.

Larsen & Toubro Ltd., Powai, Mumbai.

Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry:

1956, Heavy Electricals Ltd.

1964,Bharat Heavy Electricals; later both merged to form BHEL.

BHEL exports boilers to Malaysia, Libya and Egypt.

It has six units:

1. Bhopal,

2. Tiruchirapalli,

3. Ramchandrapuram (near Hyderabad),

4. Bangalore,

5. Jammu and Haridwar.

Electric fans:

1. Mumbai,

2. Kolkata,

3. Chennai,

4. Delhi,

5. Secunderabad.

Pesticides:

Pesticides are produced by a number of units. The important ones are the Hindustan Insectcides Ltd unitsat Delhi and Alwaye.

Leather Goods:

Hides and skins are available in abundance. The chief centres of production of leather goods are Agra,Kanpur, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi

Information Technology and Electronics Industry:

The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television, telephones,cellular telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers and manyother equipments required bythe telecommunication industry. Bangalore has emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other importantcentres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow andCoimbatore. 18 software technology parks provide single window service and high data communicationfacility to software experts.

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Geography: Indian People

Indian People:Indian people do not belong to a single racial or linguistic people. The population includes a harmonious blendingvarious racial, linguistic and religious groups. The anthropologists divide Indian people into the following racialgroups.

1. The Negritos: They are the oldest racial group of India. Tribal groups such as Kadars, Poligars, Irulas andsome tribals from Rajmahall Hills and Andaman Nicobar Islands.

2. The Proto-Australoids: They are the 2nd oldest racial group in India. This racial group is represented byOraons, Mundas, Santhals , Chenchus , Kurumbas , Bhils and Kols.

3. Mongloids: The mongloid racial stock in India is concentrated in the Himalayan borderlands , Particularlyin Ladak, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh.

4. The Mediterraneans: These are long headed people, who brought high level of civilization and the bearerof earliest form of Hinduism. We can find three distinct groups of these racial stocks

Palaeo Mediterraneans are represented by Tamil and Telugu Brahmins.

Mediterraneans were the builders of Indus valley civilization and are now they constitute the bulk ofthe population of lower castes in North India and are also represented by the Namboodiri ,Allahabad and Bengal Brahmins.

Oriental types are represented by Punjabi Kharties and Rajasthani Banias.

5. The Western Brachycephals: These groups consists of the three main types.

Alphinoids represented by Gujarati Banias, Kathis of Kathiawar and Kayasthas of Bengal.

Dinaric represented by populations of Bengal, Orissa and Coorg.

Armenoids represented by Parsis,Bengali Vaidyas.

6. Nordics: They were the last to migrate into India. These people were called the Aryans. They were apredominant type in the North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan, Punjab , Haryana and Rajasthan.

POPULATION:

A. According to the Census conducted in 2001, India had total population of 1,028,610,328 out of whichpopulation of males was 532,156,772 as against 496,453,556 number of females with overall sex ratio of933 i.e. 933 females per 1000 males, which account for 16.7 per cent of the world’s population. These 1.02billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km, whichaccounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s area.

B. The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 166 million people is the mostpopulous state of India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent of the country’s population. On theother hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim has a population of just about 0.5 million and Lakshadweep hasonly 60 thousand people.

C. The population density of India in the year 2001was 324 persons per sq km.

D. Densities vary from 904 persons per sq km in West Bengal to only 13 persons per sq km in ArunachalPradesh.

E. Most Populated Districts: Midnapore (West Bengal), 24 Parganas (West Bengal), Mumbai,Thane, Pune

F. Least populated Districts: Mahe (Pondicherry), Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh), LahulSpiti (HP), Upper Siang(Arunachal Pradesh), Yanam (Pondicherry)

G. Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during aspecific period of time, say during the last ten years. Such a change can be expressed in two ways: interms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage change per year.

India's 'Decadal Growth' of population (1991-2001) = 21.34% (Inter census period 1961-1971marked the maximum decadal growth of population at 24.8%).

Statewise lowest decadal growth rate of population is shown by Kerala (9.42%) and highest hasbeen registered that of Nagaland (64.41%).

The percent decadal growth rate has declined during the census decade 1991-2001 as comparedto the previous census decade i.e. 1981-1991.

Among the states/UT's which have not shown any decline in their percentage decadal growth rateduring intercensal period of 1991-2001 as compared to previous census decade are: Harayana,U.P. Bihar, Sikkim, Nagaland, Manipur, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, Dadar and Nagar Haweli. -Decadal Growth (1991-2001).

H. According to the Census of 2001, a person aged 7 years. and above who can read and write withunderstanding in any language, is treated as literate. The literacy rate in the country as per the Census of2001 is 64.84 per cent; 75.26 per cent for males and 53.67 per cent for females.

Highest rural literacy is in Kerala.

Lowest rural literacy is in Rajasthan.

Highest urban literacy is in Mizoram and lowest in UP

I. India has 638,588 villages according to the Census 2001 out of which 593,731 (93 per cent) are inhabitedvillages. Due to unemployment and lack of facilities in rural set up people are immigrating into the cities insearch of work and better living conditions. This migration has put a lot of strain on basic infrastructure ofcities. The increasing population pressure on cities has resulted in coming up of slums. According to 2001Census Delhi alone has slum population of 1,851,231, which is 18.7% of total population of Delhi.

J. Religion:India is a secular democracy almost all the religions of world find representation in this country. Ifon one hand majority of its population(appx 80%) is Hindu on the other it also boasts of having the thirdlargest Muslim population in the world. As per the last census conducted, out of the total population of1028,610,328; 8275879 are Hindus, 138188 (13%) Muslims, 24080 (2.34%) Christians, 19216 (1.8%)Sikhs,7955 (.7%) Buddhist, 4225(.4%) Jains and 6640 (.6%) Others.

K. Language:

India is home to approximately 1652 languages among them 350 are major ones. There are 22officially recognized languages, it include Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad,Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Santhali, Sanskrit, Sindhi,Telugu, Tamil, Nepali and Urdu. Hindi is the most widely spoken language closely followed byEnglish, which is the second official language of the nation.

Among the scheduled languages, the speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage (40.42). Thesmallest language groups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers (0.01 per cent each).

QUICK FACTS ON INDIA DEMOGRAPHICS:

i. POPULATION :1028610328

ii. POPULATION DENSITY :324 prsn/sq km

iii. BIRTH RATE :2.2%

iv. DEATH RATE :0.65%

v. TOTAL FERTILITY RATE :2.81/woman

vi. LITERACY RATE :65.38

vii. LIFE EXPECTANCY :68.59

viii. SEX RATIO :933

ix. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE :7.8%

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Geography: Minerals & Energy

Mineral Resources:India is fairly rich in minerals and has sufficiently large reserves of ferrous metals, coals and mica, manganese,bazuxite and thorium. India has very little reserves of mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, cobalt, nickel, tin andZinc. The production of petroleum, phosphate and sulphur falls short of its requirements. The minerals of India isunevently distributed and are localised in few areas. More than 90% of our mineral wealth is concentrated in thechottanagpur plateau region.

Iron Ore: Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development. India is endowed with fairlyabundant resources of iron ore. India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a veryhigh content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electricalindustry. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but has a slightlylower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).The major iron ore belts in India are:• Orissa-Jharkhand belt: In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanjand Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined in Gua andNoamundi.• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high grade hematites are found inthe famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chattisgarh. The range of hills comprise of 14 depositsof super high grade hematite iron ore. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore fromthese mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port.• Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudermukhmines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 percent export unit. Kudremukh deposits are knownto be one of the largest in the world. The ore is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though, the ores are notof very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore is exported through Marmagao port.India possess about 20% of the world total reserves . second largest after the reserves of CIS. The total reservesof India consists of haematite or the red ores (9.6 billion tonnes) and the magnetite or the black ores (3.1 billiontonnes).

Distribution

Orissa Gurumahisani and the badampahar group of mines in Mayurbhanj district, in Sundergarhdistricts.

Jharkhand Barajamda mines, Singhbhum district

Chhattisgarh Dallirajhara in Durg district and bailadila in Baster district

Maharashtra Lohara,Pipalgaon,Surajgarh region & Ratnagiri district

Karnataka Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur belt and magnetite in kudremukh

Tamil Nadu Salem-Trichirapalli-North Arcot belt

Manganese: Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg ofmanganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder,

insecticides and paints. Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.India is the world’s third largest producer, next only to the CIS and South Africa.

Distribution

Orissa The Gondite is found in Keonjhar and Sundergarh dt; Kodurite and Khondolite in Koraput andKalahandi districts; Lateritic deposits In Bolangir and sambalpur districts

Jharkhand Singhbhum

Karnataka Bellary, Chitradurga, Shimoga, Tumkur and North Kanara

M.P Balaghat and Chindwara

Maharastra Bhandara and Nagpur

A.P Srikakulam and Vishakapatanam

Copper: The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent of India’s copper. The Singbhum district ofJharkhand is also a leading producer of copper. The Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also famous.Bauxite: India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau regionof Bilaspur- Katni. Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India with 45 per cent of the country’s totalproduction . Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the state.Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt ofJharkhand is the leading producer. In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica beltof Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer in the country.India is the largest producer of Mica in the world.

Distribution

Bihar Gaya – Hazaribagh

Rajasthan Beawar,Ajmir,Banswara – Dungarpur belt,Bhilwara,Tonk and Kaunthal

Lead and Zinc: The reserves of lead and zinc is not adequate for domestic use.

Distribution

Rajasthan Zarwar mines in Udaipur and Anguncha in Bhilwara districts

Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah district

Gujarat Banaskantha, Vadodara, Panchmahal and Surat

Meghalaya and Sikkim also have Lead and Zinc reserves.

Gold Distribution: 1. The entire production of Kolar gold fields in karnataka is sold to Reserve Bank of India 2.Hutti gold fields in Raichur (Karnataka) is used for industrial purpose through State Bank of India 3. Ramagiri gold

fields in Anantpur (Andhra Pradesh) .

Energy Resources:Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s energyneeds. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs. India is highlydependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements.Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which issoft with high moisture content. The principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used forgeneration of electricity. Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminouscoal. It is the most popular coal in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has aspecial value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal. In India coal occurs inrock series of two main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a little over 200 million years in age and in tertiarydeposits which are only about 55 million years old. The major resources of Gondwana coal, which aremetallurgical coal, are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro areimportant coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits. Tertiary coalsoccur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.India is the 4th largest coal producer in the world.

Distribution

State Major Concentration

West Bengal Raniganj

Bihar Jharia

Jharkhand Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura

Madhya Pradesh Singrauli, Pench valley

Chhattisgarh Korba

Orissa Talcher, Himgiri

Andhra Pradesh Kantapalli, Singareni

Tamil Nadu Neyveli (Lignite)

Assam Namchik Namphuk, Makum , Najira, Janji

Meghalaya Umralong, Darrangiri

Petroleum: Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal. It provides fuel for heatand lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of manufacturing industries. Petroleumrefineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries. Ankeleshwar isthe most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Naharkatiya andMoran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the state.

Major oil fields in India:

Distribution

State Major Concentration

Assam Upper Assam or Naharkatia – Moran region : Major oil wells in this region are Digboi, Naharkatia,Moran, Lakwa , Sibsagar and Rudrasagar.

Maharastra Bombay High : An offshore source lying 167 km to the North West of Mumbai.

Gujarat Cambay Basin : This basin lies in the state of Gujarat and Major oil wells are Ankhaleshwar,Kosamba ,Kalol, Dhalka , Mahasena, Nawagam and Sobhasan

Oil Rfineries:

Distribution

State Major Concentration

Assam Digboi, Nunmati (smallest) and Bongaigaon

Bihar Barauni

Gujarat Koyali(largest in India)

West Bengal Haldia

Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatanam

Tamil Nadu Madras and Panangudi

Kerala Cochin

Maharastra Trombay

Utter Pradesh Mathura

Natural Gas: Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin. Along the westcoast the reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay.Andaman and Nicobar islands are also important areas having large reserves of natural gas. The 1700 km longHazira-Bijaipur - Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer, powerand industrial complexes in western and northern India.Electricity: Elecctricity is generated mainly in two ways: by running water which drives hydro turbines to generatehydro electricity; and by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to producethermal power.

Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water, which is a renewable resource. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc. producinghydroelectric power. Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal powerstations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity. There are over 310 thermal power plants in India.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an alteration is made, muchenergy is released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power. Uranium and thorium, which areavailable in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or nuclear power. TheMonazite sands of Kerala is also rich in thorium.

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Geography: Multipurpose Projects

Multipurpose Projects:

1. Bhakra Nangal Project:

it is the largest in India on Sutlej River. It's a joint venture of Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan.

it has five purposes:(i)Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal(ii)Nangal hydel channel(iii>Powerhouse of1,204 MW (iv)Electric transmission and(v)Bhakra canal system for irrigation.

Bhakra Dam is near Roopnagar, Ropar dist. The dam is 226m in height, 518m in length, 312m inwidth; behind it is Govind Sagar Lake.

Bhakra Dam is near Roopnagar, Ropar dist. The dam is 226m in height, 518m in length, 312m inwidth; behind it is Govind Sagar Lake.

Nangal Hydel Channel 64.4km long, 42.65m wide and 6.28m deep

Powerhouse of 1204 MW first near Gangunal. Second Kotla, third near Roopnagar and fourth andfifth near Bhakradam.

Bhakra canal 171 km long, maximum water at Haryana (46.7%), then Punjab (37.7% and thenRajasthan (15.6%)

2. Damodar Valley Project:

Damodar is a tributary of Hughly river in Bengal and has four dams. It was setup on 19th Feb 1948on the recommendation of W.L. Vordouin, the person who setup TVA in America.

The four dams are:

i. Tilaiya dam on Barakar River; started in 1950 and completed in 1953. Its length is 366m, andmaximum width is 30m. It is the only concrete dam in the area. It has two power stations of2,000 KW each.

ii. Konar dam on Konar River is in Hazarihagh. 3549 m long, maximum height 49m, completedin 1955. It supplies electricity to Bokaro Steel Project. Maithan dam on the confluence ofBarakar and Damodar Rivers, 994m long and maximum height is 49m, completed in 1958,capacity is 60 MW.

iii. Panchet hill dam on Damodar river, completed in 1959, dam is 2545m long and maximumheight is 49m, generates 40MW.

iv. Durgapur Barrage23km from Raniganj, stores irrigation water of 4 DVC dams, it is 83 lm longand 12m high.

3. Hirakud Dam:

61m high, 4801m long, on Mahandi rivers(orissa)

It is the largest dam in India and one of the largest dams of the world with the gross storagecapacity of 8100 Million cubic meters.

Two more dams have been built on Mahanadi Tibrapar and Naraj

4. Kosi Project:

It was started in 1955 with five objectives:(i)Irrigation (ii)Flood control(iii)Power generation(iv)Landreclamation and(v)Fishing and Navigation.

There are three units at this Kosi Project:

i. A barrage near Hanumannagar (Nepal), 1149m long 72m high, Constructed in 1965.

ii. Flood embankments, built 1959, 270km Eastern Kosi canal, 43.5km long

iii. A powerhouse of 20 MW, has been installed, which is shared by both India and Nepal.

5. Rihand Valley Project:

934m long. 92m high dam on river Rihand a tributary of Sone, near Pipri in Mirzapur

Govind Ballabh PantSagar, is the largest map made reservoir in India.

One more project has been built at Ovea on Rihand River.

6. Chambal Valley Project:

It is a joint venture of M.P and Rajasthan started in 1954 on Chambal River (tributary of Yamuna)

In the first stage the dam was 64m high and 514m long, was called Gandhi Sagar Dam, it is inchaurasigarh near Bhanpura, built in 1960.

In the second stage, one more dam was built which was 54m high and 1143m long was namedRanapratap Masonry Dam. It is 56km from Rawatbhata

In the third stage, the dam was 548m long and 45m high called Jawahar Sagar dam at Kota Dam,constructed in 1971.

7. Tungbhadra Project:

It is a joint venture of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

The dam is 50m high and 2,441m long on Tungbhadra River (a tributary of Krishna)

It is built in Bellary dist. of Karnataka

There are canals on both sides of the dam.

There are three power stations.

8. Gandak Project:

Joint venture of Bihar and U.P

This project has 7.47m long and 9.81m high barrage at Bhansolotan in Valmikinagar in Bihar

The project was completed in 1967

Head Regulator is at Triveni

The barrage has four canal two each for India and Nepal

9. Narmada Valley Project:

Narmada originates near Amarkantak Plateau (M.P)

It is the fifth largest river in India.

The project aims to have 29 major and 3,000 small dams -The project was concieved in 1945-46.

The largest project is Sardar Sarovar Project has the capacity of 77 lakh hectare and will provide isirrigation to 17.92 lakh hectares in Gujarat.

Two power stations will produce 1,450 MW of hydroelectricity

Second major project is Narmada Sagar project started in 1984.

10. Nagaraiuna Sagar Project:

Started in 1955-56, the dam is on Krishna River in Nalgonda district.

Its height is 124.7m and length is 1450m.

It has two canals Jawahar on the right and Lai Bahadur canal on the left

The powerhouse has two units, 50 MW each.

11. Vyas Project (BEAS):

It is a joint venture of Punjabi, Haryana and Rajasthan,

It has two parts, Beas Sutlej link and Pong dam,

Beas Sutlej is 61 m high,

12. Ramganga Project:

Ramganga is a tributary of Ganga.

Aim of the project is to provide irrigation facilities to about 6 lakh hectares of land in western U.P, tosupply 20 cusecs of drinking water to Delhi and to control the floods in western and central U.P

This project includes:A 625.8m long and 125.6m high earth and rock filled dam across the Ramganga river and a Saddledam of height 75.6m across the Ghuisot steam near Kalagarh in dist of Garhwal Across the river a546m long weir at Hereoli

A feeder canal, 82km in length originating from Hereoli River Remodelling of 3388km of existingdam and 3880km long new branch canals A powerhouse on the river at its right bank with aninstalled capacity of 198 MW.

13. Mayurakshi Project:

Mayurakshi is a tributary of the Hughli River

Purpose behind this project is four fold:(i)Create irrigation potential,(ii) Generate power, (iii) Controlfloods and (iv)Control erosion.

A barrage is constructed across the Mayurakshi River at Tilpara.

Two irrigational canals are attached with the Tilpara barrage with total length of 1367 km andproviding irrigation in West Bangal and Bihar 4,000 KW of electricity is supplied to Birbhum,Murshidabad and Santhal Pargana, which is generated by this project.

14. Indira Gandhi Canal Project:

It is the world's largest irrigation project to provide irrigation to semi arid and arid regions ofRajasthan.

Water from Pong barrage built over Beas River is being utilized.

Indira Gandhi canal once completed will provide irrigation to about 12.51akh hectares of land inBikaner, Jaisalmer and Ganganagar dist of Rajasthan.

It has two stages, in the first stage construction of the Rajasthan feeder, 189 km long Rajasthanmain and about 3,183km long distribution have been taken. The second stage comprises theconstruction of the remaining part of the Rajasthan main canal and 5,409km long distributaries.

15. Pochampad Project:

This irrigation project is the second largest project in Andhra Pradesh.

It involve 812m in length and 43m of height masonry dam on the Godavari River in Adilabad district.

The storage capacity of the dam is 230.36 cross m3 -A canal of length 112.63km will provideirrigation facilities in Karimnagar and Adilabad districts .

16. Tehri Dam Project:

Alaknanda is the river on which this dam is being constructed in Tehri district of Uttranchal.

Motives behind this project is to collect the flood water of the Bhagirathi and the Bhilangana rivers ina large reservoir behind the dam Hydroelectricity generation, To provide irrigation facilities toagricultural land in the westem U.P.

Tehri dam has a distinction of highest rock fill dam in the country,

2,70,000 hectares of agricultural land in western U.P and Delhi with the supply of 300 cusecs isgoing to be facilitated by this project.

2,400 MW is the installed capacity of power generation A concrete dam at Kateshwar, 22km awayfrom the Tehri dam will impound water released by the Tehri dam, from where another 400 MW ofelectricity will be generated.

17. Farraka Barrage Project:

River Navigation and to augment the water flow river is the main objective of this project. A barrageacross the Ganga River, 2,240 in length to maintain 271akh cu sec of flood discharge 60,000 cusecof floodwater flow to be maintained by a barrage across the Bhagirathi river length will be 213 m. Afeeder canal 38.38km in length to divert 40,000 cusecs of water to Hughli River.

Providing infrastructure to develop river navigation and To build a rail cum road bridge to connectWest Bengal with North East India.

18. Machkund Project:

It is a joint venture of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

A dam of height 54m and 410 m in length, has been constructed on Machkund river.

Project includes a powerhouse with 115 MW as the installed capacity.

19. Parambikulam Project:

This Project is a joint venture of Kerala and Tamil nadu.

Under this project 185 MW of electricity will be generated and 1.01 lakh hectare of land will beirrigated.

Water of 8 small rivers would be utilised.

20. Mahi Project:

It is on Mahi River, which has its origin in Vindhyas in Dhardis of M.P.

Is stage 796 m in length and 21m of height dam is being constructed at Banakbori village. Thisstage also has 74km long canals to irrigate 1.86 hectares of land.

2nd stage construction of a dam of 1,430m in length and 58 m high to irrigation 80,000 of area nearkodana.

A generation of 40 MW of electricity with irrigation of 2.75 lakh hectares of land is going to be doneby this project.

21. Kakrapara Project:

Project is in Gujarat on Tapti River.

Project involves a dam 14 m high and 621m long.

2.27 lakh hectares of land will be irrigated with the help of two canals of 505 km and 837 km inlength.

22. Koyna Project:

In Maharashtra, on Koyna river.

Project involves construction of a dam 250 m in height.

23. Hansdev Bango Project:

Project involves construction of a 85m high stone dam on Hansdev river in M.P.

It will irrigate 3.28 lakh hectares of land and also be used for industrial purposes.

24. Bargi Project:

It is on river Bargi near Jabalpur in M.P.

It is a multipurpose project once completed will irrigate 2.45 lakh hectares of land. 25, BhimaProject.

This project includes construction of two dams -One dam on river Pabna near Pune in Maharashtra,which will be 1,319 m long and 42m high.

Other dam with a length of 2467m and a height of 56.4m will be constructed on river Krishna inSholapur district of Maharastra.

25. Some other Projects are:

i. Jayakwadi Project: on Godavri in Maharashtra.

ii. Ukai Project: on River Tapti in Gujarat.

iii. Puma Project: on River Puma in Maharashtra.

iv. Periyar Project: on River Periyar in Kerala.

v. Saharawasi Hydel Project: near Jog water falls in Karnataka.

vi. Tawa Project: on Tawa River. M.P.

vii. Mata Teela Dam: on River Betwa, Jhansi; U.P,

viii. Kunda Project: Tamil Nadu.

ix. Sabrigiri Project: Kerala.

x. Balimela: Orissa.

xi. Salal: on River Chenab

xii. Kalindi: Karnataka

xiii. Idduki: Kerala

xiv. Bhadra: on River Bhadra, Karnataka.

xv. Kukadi: Maharashtra

xvi. Naptha Jhakri: Himachal Pradesh.

xvii. Dulhasti: Jammu and Kashmir on river Chenab.

xviii. Girna: on river Girna, Maharashtra

xix. Jawai Project: on River Jawai, Rajasthan

xx. Jakham Project: Rajasthan

xxi. Parwati Project: River Parwat, Rajasthan

xxii. Orai Project: River Orai, Rajasthan

xxiii. Singrauli Super Power Project: Uttar Pradesh

Hydroelectric Plants:

I. Andhra Pradesh: lower silent, upper Sileru, Machkund, Nizam, Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar, Shri Sailam(Krishna)

II. Bihar: Kosi

III. Gujarat: Ukai (Tapi), Kadana (Mahi)

IV. Punjab and Himachal Pradesh: Bhakara Nangal on Satluj, Dchar on Beas, Giri Bata, Andhra, Binwa,Rukti, Rongtong, Bhabanggar, Bassi, Baira Siul, Chamera, Nathpa Jhakri on Sutlej (biggest hydel powerproject in India)

V. Jharkhand: Subarnarekha, Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya (all three under DVC)

VI. Karnataka: Tungbhadra, Sarawati, Kalinadi, Mahatma Gandhi (Jog fall), bhadra, ShivaSamudram(Kaveri),Shimasapur, Munirabad, Lingnamakki

VII. Kerala: Idduki (Periyar), Sabrigiri, Kuttiaddy, Sholayar, Sengulam, Pallivasal, Kallada, Neriamangalam,Parambikulam Aliyar, Poringal, Ponniyar

VIII. Madhya Pradesh: Gandhi Sagar (Chambal), Pench, Bargi (Narmada), BansagarTons

IX. Maharashtra: Koyana, Bhivpuri(Tata Hydroelectric works), Khopli, Bhola, Bhira, Purna, Vaiterna, Paithon,Bhatnagar Feed.

X. Orissa: Hirakund (Mahanadi), Balimela.

XI. Rajasthan: Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar (Chambal)

XII. Uttar Pradesh: Rihand, Khodri, Chibro (Tons).

XIII. Uttaranchal: Tehri Dam (Bhagirathi)

XIV. Tamil Nadu : Pykara, Mettur, Kodyar, Sholayar, Allayar. Sakarpathi, Moyar, Suruliyar, Papanasam.

XV. West Bengal: Panchet.

XVI. Jammu and Kashmir: Lower Jhelum, Salal (Chenab), Pool Hasti ,and Karrah.

XVII. North Eastern States:

Nagaland: Dikhu, Doyang

Tripura: Gomuti

Manipur: Loktak

Assam: Kopi

Meghalaya: Khandong and Kyrdemkulai

Mizoram: Selrui and Barabi

Arunachal Pradesh: Ranganadi.

RETURN TO INDEX

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Geography: Transport System in India

TRANSPORT:

A. Roadways:India has 3.3 million km of road network and the second largest in the world. The road traffic accounts forabout 80% of the passenger traffic and 60% of the goods. In India, roadways have preceded railways.43.5% of the total roads is surfaced roads.In India, roads are classified in the following six classesaccording to their capacity.

1. Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:The government has launched a major road developmentproject linking Delhi-Kolkata- Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways has a totallength of 5846kms. The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) andKanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) and East-West Corridor connecting Silcher (Assam) and Porbander(Gujarat) are part of this project. The project has a total length of about 7300km. The majorobjective of these Super Highways is to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities ofIndia. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India(NHAI).

2. National Highways: National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primaryroad systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). Anumber of major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions. The historicalSher-Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar. The total lengthof the National Highways is 58,112 km. constitutes only two percent of the total road length but carry40% of the total road traffic. NH 7 passes through Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Bangalore andMadurai and is the longest one with the total length of 2369 km.

3. State Highways: Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known asState Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public WorksDepartment (PWD) in State and Union Territories. These roads constitute 5.6% of total length of allroads. Other Roads.

4. District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

5. Border Roads: Apart from these, Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertakingconstructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country. This organisation wasestablished in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern andnortheastern border areas. These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain andhave helped in the economic development of these area.

Road Density : The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of roads. Distributionof road is not uniform in the country.

Lowest in Jammu and Kashmir (10 km).

Highest in Kerala (375 km)

National Average (75 km).

Density of metalled roads: National average (42.4 km)

Goa has the highest density (153.8 km)

Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest density (3.7 km).

B. RailwaysRailways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India. Indian Rail transportis largest in Asia and fourth largest in the world. The Indian Railways is the largest public sectorundertaking in the country with 1.6 million staff. The first train steamed off from Mumbai(Bori Bunder ) toThane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km. The Indian Railway have a network of 7, 031 stations spreadover a route length of 63, 221 km. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321 passenger service vehicles, 4904other coach vehicles and 228, 170 wagons as on 31 March 2004.

The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 17 zones.

ZONES Head Quarters

Central Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus)

Eastern Kolkata

Northern Delhi

Southern Chennai

Western Mumbai (Churchgate)

North East Gorakhpur

North East Frontier Malegaon (Guwahati)

South East Kolkata

South Central Secundrabad

East Coast Bhubneshwar

East Central - Hajipur

North Central Allahabad

North Eastern Jaipur

South Western Bangalore

West Central Jabalpur

South East Central Railway Bilaspur

Konkan Railway Navi Mumbai

Units manufacturing rolling stocks run by Indian Railways are:

1. Chittaranjan locomotive works: Chittaranjan (W.Bengal).

2. Diesel locomotive works: Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh).

3. Integral Coach factory: Perambur (Tamil Nadu).

4. Rail Coach factory: Kapurthala (Punjab).

5. Wheel and Axle plant: Bangalore.

6. Diesel Component works: Patiala (Punjab).

7. M/s Jessops (Kolkata).

8. Bharat Earth Movers Ltd, (Bangalore).

Railway Track Density:

1. High Density : Delhi, Punjab, Bihar, W. Bengal, Haryana, Assam, Chandigarh, Pondicherry,Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat.

2. Medium Density (1525 km/ 1000 sq.km): this covers the western part of the peninsulaincorporating Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Rajasthan.

3. Low Density (515km/ 1000 sq.km): eastern part of the peninsular India. Orissa and MadhyaPradesh (undulating topography, low population density and poor economic developmenthave led to low density of rail network.).

4. Very Low Density

C. Waterways:

India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 3,700 km are navigable bymechanised boats.Out of the 4,300 km canal length, 900 km is navigable but only 330 km is used.

The following waterways have been declared as the National Waterways by the Government.

1. The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1

2. The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2

3. The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3

The other viable inland waterways include the Godavari, Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, Buckingham Canal,Brahmani, East-west Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal.

The Inland Water Ways Authority of India was set up in 1986 for the regulation, maintenance anddevelopment of National Waterways.

A. SEAWAYS:With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 12 major and 184 medium and minor ports. Thesemajor ports handle 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade.

Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour. The JawaharlalNehru port was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for thisregion. Marmagao port (Goa)is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country. This port accountsfor about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export. New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters tothe export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh mines. Kochi is the extreme south-westernport, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.

Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume oftrade on the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition. Kandlais a tidal port.Moving along the east coast, you would see the extreme south-eastern port ofTuticorin, in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich hinterland. Thus, it has aflourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even our neighbouring countries like SriLanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports ofthe country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade and cargo.

Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. This port was, originally,conceived as an outlet for iron ore exports. Paradip port located in Orissa, specialises in the exportof iron ore. Kolkata is an inland riverine port. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland ofGanga- Brahmaputra basin. Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia portwas developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port.

B. Airways:

The air transport was nationalised in 1953.

Airport Authority of India (AAI) provides for safe efficient air traffic and aeronautical communicationservices in the India Air Space. The Authority manages 11 international and 112 domestic Airports.Italso manages 28 passenger terminals at defense airfields.

International Air Ports are:Mumbai (Chhatrapati Shivaji International Air Port), Delhi (Indira Gandhi International Air Port),Kolkata (Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose), Chennai (Meenambakkam), Trivendrium(Thiruvananthpuram), Ahmedabad (Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Air Port), Cochin (NeedumbasseryI.A), Goa (Dabolim LA), Guwahati (Lokpriya Gopinath Bardoloi LA), Hyderabad (Rajiv Gandhi LA),Amritsar, Banglore.

Civil Aviation Training College (Allahabad) provides training on various operational areas.

National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) at Delhi is managed by AAI.

Indira Gandhi Rastriya Udan Academy at Fursat Ganj in U.P is an autonomous body under Ministryof Civil Aviation. It imparts training to the parts.

On the operational side, Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines), private scheduledairlines and non- scheduled operators provide domestic air services. Air India provides internationalair services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. Provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural GasCommission in its off- shore operations, toinaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Jammuand Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Indian Airlines operations also extend to theneighbouring countries of Southand south-east Asia and the Middle east.

C. Pipelines: Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India. In the past, thesewere used to transport water to cities and industries. Now, these are used for transporting crude oil,petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and bigthermal power plants.The far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas basedfertilizer plants could be thought of only because of pipelines.There are three important networks ofpipeline transportation in the country.

1. From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. Ithas branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati toSiliguri.

2. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It hasbranches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.

3. Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in MadhyaPradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in UttarPradesh.

D. Communication: The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. In comparison with the othercountry, India has about 37,565 telephone exchanges spread all over in the country. Newspapers arepublished in about 100 languages and dialects.The largest number of newspapers published in the countryare in Hindi, followed by English and Urdu. India is the largest producer of feature films in the world.TheCentral Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both Indian and foreign films.

E. International Trade: India has trade relations with all the major trading blocks and all geographicalregions of the world. Among the commodities of export, whose share has been increasing over the last fewyears are agriculture and allied products (2.53 percent), ores and minerals (9.12 percent), gems andjewellery (26.75 percent) and chemical and allied products (24.45 per cent), engineering goods( 35.63percent) and petroleum products (86.12 percent) The commodities imported to India include petroleum andpetroleum products (41.87 percent), pearls and precious stones (29.26 percent), inorganic chemicals(29.39 percent), coal, coke and briquettes (94.17 per cent), machinery (12.56 per cent). Bulk imports as agroup registered a growth accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. This group includes fertilizers(67.01 per cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint (5.51 per cent).