Geologic and Biological Timeline of the Earth

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Geologic and Biological Timeline of the Earth

Astronomical and geological evidence indicates that the Universe isapproximately 13,700 million years old, and our solar system is about4,567 million years old. Earth's Moon formed 4,450 million years ago,just 50 million years after the Earth's formation. Because the compositionof the rocks retrieved from the Moon by the Apollo missions is verysimilar to rocks from the Earth, it is thought that the Moon formed as aresult of a collision between the young Earth and a Mars-sized body,sometimes called Orpheus or Theia, which accreted at a Lagrangian point60° ahead or behind the Earth. A cataclysmic meteorite bombardment ofthe Moon and the Earth 3,900 million years ago is thought to have beencaused by the debris of a planetary collision beyond the earth or byasteroids whose orbits were destabilized and were sent toward the innersolar system during the formation of planets beyond the Earth. The MarsReconnaissance Orbiter and the Mars Global Surveyor have foundevidence that the Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars mayhave been created by a colossal impact with an object 2,000 kilometersin diameter approximately 3,900 million years ago.[20] The debris fromthis impact is a possible source for the cataclysmic meteoritebombardment (Late Heavy Bombardment) of the Earth and the Moon.

Simplified model of

the formation of the Moon

Approximately 3,000 million years ago, the earth was cool enough forland masses to form. The supercontinent Rodinia was formed about 1100million years ago, and it broke into several pieces that drifted apart 750million years ago. Those pieces came back together about 600 millionyears ago, forming the Pan-African mountains in a new supercontinentcalled Pannotia. Pannotia started breaking up 550 million years ago toform Laurasia and Gondwana. Laurasia included what are now NorthAmerica, Europe, Siberia, and Greenland. Gondwana included what isnow India, Africa, South America, and Antarctica. Laurasia and Gondwanarejoined approximately 275 million years ago to form the supercontinentof Pangea. The break up of Pangea, which still goes on today, hascontributed to the formation of the Atlantic Ocean.

(mya = million years ago)The times are approximate and may vary by a few million years.

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Precambrian Time(4567 to 542 mya)

Hadean Eon (4567 to 3800 mya)

HadeanEon

(4567 to3800 mya)

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * - 4567mya:Formationof theSolarSystem Sun was only 70% asbright as today. - 4450 mya: Earth's collisionwith a planetoid forms the moon. - Earth's original hydrogenand helium atmosphere escapes Earth's gravity. - Earth day is 6 hours long - 3900 mya: Cataclysmicmeteorite bombardment. - Earth's atmospherebecomes mostly carbon dioxide, watervapor, methane, and ammonia. - Formation of carbonateminerals starts depleting atmosphericcarbon dioxide. - There is no geologic recordfor the Hadean Eon.

Archaean Eon (3800 to 2500 mya)

ArchaeanEon

(3800 to2500 mya)

- 3800 mya:Surface of theEarth changedfrom molten tosolid rock. - Water started condensing inliquid form. - Earth day is 15 hours long - 3500 mya: Monocellular lifestarted (Prokaryotes). First known oxygen-producing bacteria: cyanobacteria(blue-greenalgae) formstromatolites - 3000 mya:Atmosphere has 75%

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nitrogen, 15% carbon dioxide. - Sun brightens to 80% ofcurrent level. - Oldest record of Earth'smagnetic field.

Proterozoic Eon (2500 to 542 mya)

ProterozoicEon

(2500 to542 mya)

Paleoproterozoic Era (2500to 1600 mya) Siderian Period (2500 to2300 mya) - Stable continents firstappeared. - 2500 mya: First freeoxygen is found in the oceans andatmosphere. - 2400mya: GreatOxidationEvent, alsocalled theOxygenCatastrophe. Oxidation precipitatesdissolved iron creating banded ironformations.[14] Anaerobic organisms arepoisoned by oxygen. - 2400 mya: Start ofHuronian ice age Rhyacian Period (2300 to2050 mya) - 2200 mya: Organisms withmitochondria capable of aerobicrespiration appear. - 2100 mya: End of Huronianice age Orosirian Period (2050 to1800 mya) - Intensive orogeny(mountain development) - 2023 mya: Meteorimpact, 300 km crater Vredefort, South Africa [9] - 2000 mya: Solar luminosityis 85% of current level. - Oxygen starts accumulatingin the atmosphere - 1850 mya: Meteorimpact, 250 km crater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada[9] Statherian Period (1800to 1600 mya)

The Changing Earth

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- Complex single-celled lifeappeared. - Abundant bacteria andarchaeans.Mesoproterozoic Era (1600to 1000 mya) Calymmian Period (1600to 1400 mya) -Photosyntheticorganismsproliferate. - Oxygenbuilds up in the atmosphereabove 10%. - Formation of ozone layerstarts blocking ultraviolet radiation fromthe sun. - 1500 mya: Eukaryotic(nucleated) cells appear. Ectasian Period (1400 to1200 mya) - Green (Chlorobionta) andred (Rhodophyta) algaeabound. Stenian Period (1200 to1000 mya) - 1200 mya: Spore/gameteformation indicates origin of sexualreproduction. - 1100 mya: Formation ofthe supercontinent Rodinia

Neoproterozoic Era (1000to 542 mya) Tonian Period (1000 to850 mya) - 1000 mya: Multicellularorganisms appear. - 950 mya: Start ofStuartian-Varangian ice age - 900 mya: Earth day is 18hours long. Cryogenian Period (850to 630 mya)

- 750 mya: Breakup of

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Rodinia and formation of thesupercontinent Pannotia - 750 mya: End of lastmagnetic reversal - 650 mya: Mass extinctionof 70% of dominant seaplants due to global glaciation("Snowball Earth"hypothesis). Ediacaran(Vendian)Period (630to 542 mya) - 590 mya: Meteorimpact, 90 km crater Acraman, South Australia - 580 mya: Soft-bodiedorganisms developed: Jellyfish, Tribrachidium,and Dickinsonia appeared. - 570 mya: End ofStuartian-Varangian ice age - 550 mya: Pannotiafragmented into Laurasia andGondwana

Phanerozoic Eon(542 mya to present)

Paleozoic Era (542 to 251 mya)

PaleozoicEra

(542 to 251mya)

Cambrian Period (542 to488.3 mya) - Abundance of multicellularlife. - Most of the major groups ofanimals first appear Tommotian Stage (534 to530 mya) - Animals with shellsappeared Solar brightness was 6%less than today.Ordovician Period (488.3 to443.7 mya) - diversemarine

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invertebrates, such astrilobites, became common - First vertebrates appear inthe ocean. - First green plants and fungion land. - Fall in atmospheric carbondioxide. - 450 mya: Start of Andean-Saharan ice age. - 443 mya: Glaciation ofGondwana. * Mass extinction of manymarine invertebrates. Second largest massextinction event. 49% of genera of faunadisappeared.Silurian Period (443.7 to416 mya) - 420 mya:End ofAndean-Saharan ice age. - Stabilization of the earth'sclimate - Coral reefs appeared - First fish with jaws - sharks - Insects (spiders,centipedes), and plantsappear on landDevonian Period (416 to359.2 mya) - Ferns andseed-bearingplants

(gymnosperms) appeared - Formation of the firstforests - Earth day is ~21.8 hourslong. - Wingless insects appearedon land - 375 mya: Vertebrates withlegs, such as Tiktaalikappeared. - Atmospheric oxygen level isabout 16% - First amphibians appear - 374 mya:* Massextinction of 70% of marinespecies. This was a prolonged seriesof extinctions


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occurring over 20 millionyears. Evidence of anoxia inoceanic bottom waters, and global cooling. Surfacetemperatures dropped from about 93°F (34°C) toabout 78°F (26°C) - 359 mya: Meteorimpact, 40 km crater Woodleigh, AustraliaCarboniferous Period(359.2 to 299 mya) Mississippian Epoch(359.2 to 318.1 mya) (Lower Carboniferous) - 350 mya:Beginning of Karoo iceage. - Large primitive treesdevelop - Forests consist of ferns,club mosses, horsetails, andgymnosperms. - Oxygen levels increase - Vertebrates appear onland - First winged insects. - Seas covered parts of thecontinents - Animals laying amnioteeggs appear (318 mya) Pennsylvanian Epoch(318.1 to 299 mya) (UpperCarboniferous) - 310 mya:First reptiles - Atmospheric oxygen levelsreach over 30% - Earth day is ~22.4 hourslong. - Giant arthropods populatethe land - Transgression andregression of the seas caused by glaciation - Deposits of coal form inEurope, Asia, and North AmericaPermian Period (299 to 251mya) - 275mya:

Formation of thesupercontinent Pangea

Caution:Do not pokeT. rex withyour pointer


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- Conifers andcycads firstappear - Earth is coldand dry - Sail-backed synapsids like Edaphosaurus andDimetrodon appeared - 260 mya: End of Karoo iceage. - 251 mya: * Mass extinction(Permian-Triassic) - Possible 480km-widemeteor crater in the Wilkes Land region ofAntarctica [26] - Period of great volcanism inSiberia releases large volume of gases(CO2, CH4, and H2S) [8] - Oxygen (O2) levels droppedfrom 30% to 12% Carbon dioxide (CO2) levelwas about 2000 ppm Earth's worst massextinction eliminated 90% of ocean dwellers,and 70% of land plants and animals.

Mesozoic Era (251 to 65.5 mya)

MesozoicEra

(251 to 65.5mya)

Triassic Period (251 to199.6 mya)


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- Break-up of Pangaea starts - Survivors ofP-T extinctionspread and recolonize - Reptiles populate the land. - 240 mya: Sea urchins(Arkarua) appear - 235 mya: Evolutionary splitbetween dinosaurs and lizards - Giant marine ichthyosaursand plesiosaurs populate theseas - First small dinosaurs suchas celophysis appear on land - Adelobasileusproto-mammalemerged (225mya) - 214 mya: Meteor impact, 100 km crater Manicouagan, Quebec,Canada [9] - 205 mya: First evidence ofmammals: Morganucodon - 201 mya: * Mass extinctioncaused by oceanic anoxicevent killed 20% of all marinefamiliesJurassic Period (199.6 to145.5 mya) - Earth iswarm. Thereis no polar ice - Cycads, conifers andginkgoes are the dominantplants - Age of the dinosaurs - Giant herbivores andvicious carnivores dominate the land - Flyingreptiles(Pterosaurs)appeared. - 180 mya: North Americaseparates from Africa - 167 mya: Meteorimpact, 80 km crater Puchezh-Katunki, Russia[9] - 166 mya: Evolutionary splitof monotremes from primitivemammals - 150 mya: First


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birds likeArchaeopteryxappear - 148 mya: Evolutionary splitbetween marsupial and eutherianmammals - 145 mya: Meteorimpact, 70 km crater Morokweng, South Africa[9]Cretaceous Period (145.5 to65.5 mya) - Period of Active Crust PlateMovements - 133 mya: Meteorimpact, 55 km crater Tookoonooka, Australia [9] - 125 mya: Africa and Indiaseparate from Antarctica - Global warmingevent starts (120 mya) Carbon dioxidelevels were 550 to 590 ppm[27] - Flowering plants(angiosperms) appeared - 110 mya: Crocodilesappeared - South America breaks awayfrom Africa (105 mya) - Formation ofthe AtlanticOcean - Earth has nopolar ice - Modern mammals and birdsdeveloped - 100 mya: Earth's magneticfield is 3 times stronger thantoday. - 90 mya: Global warmingevent ends - 70 mya: Meteor impact,65 km crater Kara, Russia [9] - 68 mya: Tyrannosaurus rexthrived - 67 mya:Deccan Trapsvolcaniceruptions start inIndia and produce great volumeof lava and gases. - 65.5 mya: Meteorimpact, 170 km crater Chicxulub, Yucatan, Mexico[9] - * Mass extinction of


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80-90% of marine species and 85% of land species,including the dinosaurs.

Cenozoic Era (65.5 mya to today)

CenozoicEra

(65.5 myato today)

Paleogene Period (65.5 to23.03 mya) Tertiary Period (65.5 to2.58 mya)

PaleoceneEpoch(65.5 to54.8 mya) - 63 mya: End of DeccanTraps volcanic eruptions inIndia - Appearance of placentalmammals (marsupials,insectivores, lemuroids,creodonts) - Flowering plants becomewidespread. - 60 mya: Earliest knownungulate (hoofed mammal) - Formation of the RockyMountains - 55 mya: Major globalwarming episode North Pole temperatureaveraged 23°C (73.4°F), CO2 concentration was2000 ppm. Eocene Epoch (54.8 to33.7 mya) - 50 mya: India meets Asiaforming the Himalayas -45 mya: Australiaseparates from Antarctica - Modern mammals appear rhinoceros, camels, earlyhorses appear - 35.6 mya: Meteorimpacts, 90 and 100 kmcraters Chesapeake Bay,Virginia, USA, and Popigai, Russia [9,10] - 34 mya: Global coolingcreates permanent Antarctic ice


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sheet [21]

Oligocene Epoch (33.7 to23.03 mya) - Appearance of manygrasses - First elephants withtrunks - 27.8 mya: La Garita,Colorado supervolcaniceruption

Neogene Period (23.03mya to today) Miocene Epoch (23.03 to5.3 mya) - African-Arabian platejoined to Asia - 14 mya: Antarcticaseparates from Australia andSouth America circum-polar oceancirculation builds upAntarctic ice cap. - Warmer global climates - First raccoons appear. - Drying of continentalinteriors - Forests give way tograsslands - 6 mya: Upright walking(bipedal) hominins appear PlioceneEpoch (5.3 to2.58 mya) - 4.4 mya:Appearance ofArdipithecus, an earlyhominin genus. - 4 mya: North and SouthAmerica join at the Isthmusof Panama. Animals and plants crossthe new land bridge. Ocean currents changein the newly isolated AtlanticOcean. - 3.9 mya: Appearance ofAustralopithecus, genus ofhominids. - 3.7 mya:Australopithecus hominidsinhabit Eastern and NorthernAfrica. - 3 mya: Formation ofArctic ice cap. - Accumulation of ice atthe poles


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- Climate became coolerand drier. - Spread of grasslands andsavannas - Rise of long-leggedgrazing animalsQuaternary Period (2.58mya to today) PleistoceneEpoch (2.58 mya to11,400 yrs ago) - Several majorepisodes of globalcooling, orglaciations - 2.4 mya: Homohabilis appeared - 2.1 mya: Yellowstonesupervolcanic eruption - 2 mya: Tool-makinghumanoids emerge. - 1.7 mya: Homo erectusfirst moves out of Africa - 1.3 mya: Yellowstonesupervolcanic eruption - 1.3 mya to 820,000 yrsago: Sherwin Glaciation - Presence of large landmammals and birds - 700,000 yrs ago: Humanand Neanderthal lineagesstart to diverge genetically. - 680,000 to 620,000 yrsago: Günz/Nebraskan glacialperiod - 640,000 yrs ago:Yellowstone supervolcaniceruption - 530,000 yrs ago:Development of speech inHomo Heidelbergensis[15] - 455,000 to 300,000 yrsago: Mindel/Kansan glacialperiod - 400,000 yrs ago:Hominids hunt with woodenspears and use stone cuttingtools. - 370,000 yrs ago: Humanancestors and Neanderthals are fully separatepopulations. - 300,000 yrs ago:Hominids usecontrolled fires - Neanderthal man spreadsthrough Europe 230,000 yrs ago - 200,000 to 130,000 yrsago: Riss/Illinoian glacial


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period - 160,000 yrs ago: Homosapiens appeared. Origin of human femalelineage (Mitochondrial Eve) - 125,000 yrs ago: Eemianstage or Riss/Würminterglacial period. Hardwood forests grewabove the Arctic Circle. Melting ice sheetsincreased sea level by 6meters (20 feet) - 110,000 yrs ago: Start ofWürm/Wisconsin glacialperiod - 105,000 yrs ago: Stoneage humans forage for grassseeds such as sorghum. - 80,000 yrs ago:Non-African humansinterbreed withNeanderthals[28] - 74,000 yrs ago: Tobavolcanic eruption releases large volume ofsulfur dioxide - Homo sapiens reduced toabout 10,000 individuals. - 70,000 yrs ago: Tahoeglacial maximum glaciers cover Canadaand northern US. - 60,000 yrsago: Oldest maleancestor ofmodernhumans[3] - 46,000 yrsago: Australiabecomes arid, bush fires destroyhabitat, and megafauna dieoff. - 40,000 yrs ago:Cro-Magnon man appearedin Europe. - 28,000 yrs ago:Neanderthals disappear fromfossil record.[29] - 26,500 yrs ago: Tauposupervolcanic eruption in New Zealand - 22,000 yrs ago: Tiogaglacial maximum sea level was 130meters lower than today - 19,000 yrs ago: Antarcticsea ice starts melting.[22] - 15,000 yrs ago: Beringland bridge between Alaska


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and Siberia allows humanmigration toAmerica - 12,900 yrs ago: Explosion of comet overCanada [23, 24, 25] causes extinction ofAmerican megafauna such asthe mammoth and sabretooth cat(Smilodon), as well as theend of Clovis culture - Fired pottery invented(12,000 yrs ago) - 11,400 yrs ago: End ofWürm/Wisconsin glacialperiod. Sea level rises by 91meters (300 ft) Holocene Epoch (11,400years ago to today) - Development ofagriculture - Domestication of animals. - 9,000 yrs ago: Metalsmelting started - 5,500 yrs ago: Inventionof the wheel - 5,000 yrs ago:Development ofwriting - 4,500 yrs ago:Pyramids of Giza - 2,230 yrs ago:Archimedes advancesmathematics - 250 yrs ago: Start of theIndustrial Revolution - 50 yrs ago: Space travel Artificial satellite orbitsthe earth (1957). Humans walk on thesurface of the moon (1969).

ClickHere to

Takea Tripon the

GeologicTime

Machine

Thefivemajormassextinctions


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eventsoccurredduringtheterminalOrdovician(443mya),LateDevonian(374mya),terminalPermiancalledthe"GreatDying"(251mya),terminalTriassic(201),andterminalCretaceouscalledtheK/Tevent(65.5mya).

HumansasagentsofenvironmentalchangeSomescientistshavetriedtocorrelatethemigrationofhumanstoAmericawiththeextinctionofthemegafaunaofthePleistoceneEpoch


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whileothersfeelthatweatherchangesbroughtaboutbytheexplosionofanasteroidorcometoverNorthAmericamighthavebeenresponsible.[25]Thereisnodoubtthathumanactivitiescanhaveasubstantialimpactontheenvironmentandnativespecies.Thedodo,indigenoustoMauritius,becameextinctinthelate17thcenturyfrommassivehuntingandtheintroductionofanimals


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suchasdogs,pigs,andcats.ThePassengerPigeonwentfrombeingthemostcommonbirdinNorthAmericatoextinctionbytheendofthe19thcenturyduetohuntingandlossofhabitatbydeforestation.TheDustBowlwasaperiodofsevereduststormsbetween1930and1936causedbydeepplowingofthetopsoilofthe


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GreatPlainswhichdestroyednativegrasseswhoserootshadprotectedthesoilfromerosion.Soilsthathadbeenfertilebecameincapableofsustainingcropsafterthetopsoilwasblownaway.ThecollapseofCanneryRowwasbroughtaboutbyoverfishingthecostalwatersofCalifornia.Productiondroppedfrom235,000tonsoffishin1945toonly15,000tonsoffish


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by1948.

TheEarth'snear-termfutureHumanindustrialactivitythatreliesonburningfossilfuels,suchascoalandpetroleumproducts,hasbeengeneratingthegreenhousegasescarbondioxide(CO2),methane(CH4),andnitrousoxide(N2O),inlargequantitiessinceabout1750.Thechartbelowshowsthelevelsofatmosphericcarbondioxideduringthelastmillenniumanditssharprise


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duringthelastcentury.[2]Atmosphericmodelspredictthatelevatedgreenhousegaseswillcauseglobalwarmingandinfluenceweatherpatternsthatwillmeltpolariceanddestroythehabitatofanimalssuchasthepolarbear.Theincreaseofglobaltemperatureswillalsoreducetheamountofsnowdepositedonmountainsthusdecreasingtheflowofwaterinriverswhicharenow


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usedfornavigation,irrigation,andassourcesofpotablewater.Carbondioxidewillalsoincreasetheacidityofseawaterandthreatencoralreefsandshell-buildingoceaniclifeforms.

Today,theconcentrationofatmosphericcarbondioxideis380partspermillion(ppm)


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andtheNorthPole'smeanannualtemperatureis-20°C.AnalysisofcoresedimentsintheArcticCircleindicatethat55millionyearsago,thecarbondioxideconcentrationwas2,000ppmandtheNorthPole'stemperatureaveraged23°C(73.4°F).[4] SatelliteimagesbyNASAshowapproximatelya20%reductionintheEarth'sminimumicecoverbetween1979and2003.[5] Arcticperennialseaice


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hasbeendecreasingatarateof9%everytenyears.Atthisrate,thesummertimeArcticOceanwillbeice-freebeforetheyear2100.

ThereisalargeamountofwaterstoredasiceoverthelandmassesofGreenlandandAntarctica.Iftheicesheetsmelt,theresultingriseinglobal


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sealevelwillfloodmanycoastalareasaroundtheworld.TheGreenlandicesheetcontainsenoughwatertoincreasetheglobalsealevelby24feet(7.3meters),theWestAntarcticicesheetcouldraisesealevelby19feet(5.8meters),andtheEastAntarcticicesheetcouldraisethesealevelgloballyby170feet(51.8meters).[12] Thecombined


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effectofmeltingalltheiceonGreenlandandAntarcticawouldresultinasealevelriseof213feet(65meters).

Usingcomputermodels,scientistsattheUniversityofArizonaDepartmentofGeoscienceshavecreatedmapsthatshowareassusceptibletorisesinsealevel(inred).Thefollowingmapshowsthata6-meter(20-foot)risewouldfloodMiami,


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FortLauderdale,Tampa,andtheentireFloridacoastline,aswellaspartsofOrlandoandotherinlandareas.MostofthecityofNewOrleans,Louisianawilldisappearunderwaterifthesearisessixmeters.Somescientistshavewarnedthatbytheyear2200,atthecurrentrateofgreenhousegasemissionsfromhumanactivities,theatmosphericlevelsofcarbon


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dioxide,methane,andnitrousoxidewillbeatthesamelevelsassociatedwithmass-extinctioneventsintheEarth'spast.[8]

Larger Image ofFlorida[6]

Flooding animation of NewOrleans [7]

TheEarth'slong-termfutureThefutureoftheEarthislinkedtothefateoftheSun.TheSunishalfwaythroughitslifecycle


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andwillexhaustitssupplyofhydrogenfuelinaround4,000millionyears.AstheSuncools,itscorewillcollapseanditsatmospherewillexpandtransformingtheSunintoaredgiantstar.TheswellingSunwillengulftheplanetsclosesttoit,andtheEarthwillbecompletelyvaporized.TheSunwilldieinseveralstages.Whenitscore


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crashesinwards,itwillstartfusingheliumatomsintocarbon.Whentheheliumsupplyrunsout,thecenterwillcollapseagainandformawhitedwarfstarthatwillbecomedimmeruntilitslightfinallyfades.ThefinalcollapseofstarswhichareafewtimeslargerthantheSunendsinamassivesupernovaexplosionthatleavesbehindarapidly


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spinningneutronstar.

LongbeforetheSunbecomesawhitedwarf,2,000millionyearsfromnow,ourMilkyWayGalaxyispredictedtocollidewiththeAndromedaGalaxy.[13]ThecollisionwilltakeplaceforseveralmillionyearsandresultinonecombinedsupergalaxynamedMilkomeda.ThesunmaybecomepartoftheAndromedasystemduringthecollisionandcould


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eventuallyendupfarawayfromthenewmergedgalacticcenter.TheEarthmayalsoeventuallyloseitsMoon.ScientistsusingthelaserrangingretroreflectorpositionedontheMoonin1969bytheApollo11astronautshavedeterminedthattheMoonisrecedingfromEarthatarateofabout3.8centimetersperyear.

(my =millions

ofyears)

Earth's


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Long-TermFuture

* * * * * * ** * * * * * ** * * * * * ** * * * * * ** * * * * * ** * +200 years:Possibleglobalwarmingevent causedbyanthropogeniccarbondioxide(CO2)[8] +1500 my:Sun is about6000 millionyears old and15% brighterthan today. +2000 my:Milky WayGalaxy startscolliding withAndromedaGalaxy.[13] +3000 my:Solar systembecomes partof the newMilkomedaGalaxy. +4000 my:Sun is abouttwice asbright astoday and itsradius is 40%greater. Sunstarts toexhaust itssupply ofhydrogen. +5000 my:Sun startschanging intoa red giantstar, 3 timesits presentsize.[18] Earth isengulfed bythe red giantSun. +10000 my:


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Red giant Suncollapses andbecomes awhite dwarf. +20000 my:White dwarfSun becomesa black dwarf.

Glossary

Aeon-SeeEon.

Age-Anageisaunitofgeologicaltimeshorterthananepoch,usuallylastingseveralmillionyears.

Archean,Archaean-Aneonofgeologictimeextendingfromabout3800to2500millionyearsago.DerivedfromtheGreekarchaiosmeaning


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"ancient".TheArcheaneonisdividedintofoureras:Eoarchean,Paleoarchean,Mesoarchean,andNeoarchean.

Cambrian-ThefirstperiodofthePaleozoicEra,duringwhichmostmodernanimalphyladeveloped.ThenamederivesfromMedievalLatinCambria"Wales".

Cenozoic,Caenozoic,Cainozoic-Thecurrentgeologicera,whichbegan65.5millionyearsagoandcontinuestothepresent.Theword


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comesfromtheGreekkainos"new"+zoe"life".

Cretaceous-APeriodfrom145to65.5millionyearsagodividedintotwoepochs:TheEarlyCretaceousEpochhadsixAges:Cenomanian,Turonian,Coniacian,Santonian,Campanian,andMaastrichtian.TheLateCretaceousEpochhadsixAges:Berriasian,Valanginian,Hauterivian,Barremian,Aptian,andAlbian.

EoceneEpoch-Anepochfrom54.8


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to33.7millionyearsagowithfourAges:Ypresian,Lutetian,Bartonian,andPriabonian.

Eon-Aprimarydivisionofgeologictimelastingover500millionyears,fourofwhichhavebeendefined:Hadean,Archean,Proterozoic,andPhanerozoic.EonsaredividedintoEras,whichareinturndividedintoPeriods,EpochsandAges.

Epoch-Adivisionofgeologictime


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lastingtensofmillionsofyears.Epochsaresubdivisionsofgeologicperiods.

Era-Adivisionofgeologictimeofseveralhundredmillionyearsinduration.Aneraissmallerthananeonandlongerthanaperiod.

GeologicTimeScale-Acategorizationofgeologicaleventsbasedonsuccessivelysmallertimespans:eons,eras,periods,epochs,andages.


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Hadean-TheearliesteoninthehistoryoftheEarthfromthefirstaccretionofplanetarymaterialuntilthedateoftheoldestknownrocks.Thename"Hadean"derivesfromtheGreekHades"Hell".

Jurassic-APeriodfrom200to145millionyearsagodividedintothreeepochs:TheEarlyJurassicEpochhasfourAges:Hettangian,Sinemurian,


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Pliensbachian,andToarcian.TheMiddleJurassicEpochhasfourAges:Aalenian,Bajocian,Bathonian,andCallovian.TheLateJurassicEpochhasthreeAges:Oxfordian,Kimmeridgian,andTithonian.

Mesoproterozoic-anerawiththreeperiods:Calymmian,Ectasian,andStenian.

Mesozoic-AneraoftimeduringthePhanerozoiceonlastingfrom251millionyearsagoto65.5millionago.Derivedfrom


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theGreekmesos"middle"+zoe"life".

MioceneEpoch-Anepochfrom23.03to5.3millionyearsagowithsixAges:Aquitanian,Burgidalian,Langhian,Serravalian,Tortonian,andMessinaian.

Neogene-Aperiodfrom23.03totoday.ThisisthenewnamegiventothetimestartingfromtheMioceneEpochtotoday.

Neoproterozoic-anerawith


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threeperiods:Tonian,Cryogenian,andEdiacaran.

OligoceneEpoch-Anepochfrom33.7to23.03millionyearsagowithtwoAges:RupelianandChattian.

Paleocene,PalaeoceneEpoch-Anepochfrom65.5to54.8millionyearsagowiththreeAges:Danian,Selandian,andThanetian.

Paleogene-Aperiodfrom65.5to23.03millionyearsago.Thisisthe


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newnamegiventothefirstportionoftheTertiaryPeriod.

Paleoproterozoic-anerawithfourperiods:Siderian,Rhyacian,Orosirian,andStatherian.

Paleozoic,Palaeozoic-Aneraofgeologictimelastingfrom542to248millionyearsago.DerivedfromtheGreekpalai"longago,farback"+zoe"life".

Period-Adivisionofgeologictime


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lastingtensofmillionsofyearswhichshorterthananeraandlongerthananepoch.

Phanerozoic-Themostrecenteonofgeologictimebeginning542millionyearsagoandcontinuingtothepresent.DerivedfromtheGreekphaneros"visible"+zoe"life".

PlioceneEpoch-Anepochfrom5.3to2.58millionyearsagowithtwoAges:


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ZancleanandPiacenzian.

Precambrian-GeologictimefromthebeginningoftheearthtothebeginningoftheCambrianPeriodofthePaleozoicEra.

Proterozoic-ThegeologiceonlyingbetweentheArcheanandPhanerozoiceons,beginningabout2500andending542millionyearsago.DerivedfromtheGreekproteros"earlier"+zoe"life".TheProterozoiceonisdivided


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intothePaleoproterozoicera,Mesoproterozoicera,andNeoproterozoicera.

Quaternary-Aninformalsub-erafrom2.58or1.8myatotoday.TheQuaternaryistraditionallyassociatedwiththeHoloceneandPleistocene,butanalternativedefinitionsetsitsstartduringthecycleofglacialsandinterglacialsaround2.6mya.

Stage-Asuccessionofrockstratalaiddownina


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singleageonthegeologictimescale.

Tertiary-Aninformalsub-erafrom65.5to2.58or1.8millionyearsago,dependingonhowtheQuaternaryisdefined.TheTertiaryoverlapswiththeNeogenePeriodandisdividedintofiveepochs:Paleocene,Eocene,Oligocene,Miocene,andPliocene.

Triassic-APeriodfrom251to200millionyearsagodividedinto


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threeepochs:TheEarlyTriassicEpochhastwoAges:InduanandOlenekian.TheMiddleTriassicEpochhastwoAges:AnisianandLadinian.TheLateTriassicEpochhasthreeAges:Carnian,Norian,andRhaetian.

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Frequentmisspellingsofgeologicterms:creataceous,cretaceus,cretacous,jurassique,jurasik,jurasic,jurossic,


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myscene,myocene,myoscene,phanaerozoic,triasic


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Documents

Geologic and Biological Timeline of the Earth