GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AROUND BREGA REGION… archival/download.php?file=pdf-63.pdf · GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AROUND BREGA REGION, LIBYA Arun Kumar Beach

Open Access e-Journal Earth Science India- www.earthscienceindia.info Popular Issue, VIII (II), April, 2015, p. 1-14

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GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AROUND BREGA REGION, LIBYA

Arun Kumar

Beach rocks are the consolidated deposits resulting from lithification by calcium carbonate of sediment in the intertidal and spray zones. They are formed in the tropical to subtropical climate belts under a thin cover of sediment that overlies the unconsolidated sand. The sea water, supersaturated with calcium carbonate and high temperatures, within the beach sediments is a necessary condition for cementation and thus for the formation of beach rocks…….. Mediterranean coastal Quaternary deposits of NE Libya are represented by the Ajdabiya Formation, sabkhas, aeolian deposits, beach and coastal sand dunes and alluvium deposits.

The town of Brega (30°26'06.0"N 19°40'01.0") is located on the southeastern corner of the Gulf of Sirte (Figure 1). It is also known as Mersa Brega or Marsa al-Brega or Marsā al Burayqah (meaning Brega Seaport). This industrial town is divided into three regions, Area One, Area Two and the New Brega, and the outcrop locations of various stratigraphic units are shown in Figure 2. This area has several intriguing geological features which are briefly described and illustrated. Brega, being a coastal windy town, the impact of wind in the area is clearly evident; this is being shown in man-made structures and on local trees. The following features are briefly described and illustrated in this article which is primarily based on the work of this author.

A. Geological Features: 1. Outcrops along the coast

a. Brega Sandstone Bed b. Upper part of the Sahabi Formation V (the sea cliff section) c. Ajdabiya Formation d. Beach rocks e. Sand dunes and sheets with beach balls

2. Stratigraphy of the Brega area 3. Trace fossils of the Brega Sandstone Bed 4. Shallow lagoons and coastal sabkhas 5. Quaternarypaleo-streams B. Environmental Features: 1. Impact of wind


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Figure 1: Map of Libya showing locations of Bregaon the southeastern corner of the Gulf of Sirte and major sand seas. (website 1)

A. Geological Features:

1. Outcrops along the coast a. Brega Sandstone Bed This stratigraphic unit was described by the author of this article (Kumar, 2014A). Its

descriptions are based on observations on two outcrops in the Brega Area Two (see locations in Figure 2). One of the outcrops is the freshly excavated surface of massive white sandstone that does not show any clear bedding surface except at the very top (Figure 3A). It is a medium to coarse grained, calcareous sandstone bed, devoid of any sedimentary structures or body fossils. However, a few small cross beds were observed in the outcrop section of this bed along the road nearby (Figure 3C). Since the top of the bed is buried under the Holocene sand sheet and bottom is not seen its thickness could not be measured. The bed has a rich assemblage of trace fossils that are dominated by various types of vertical, oblique and horizontal burrows that are branched and unbranched.

A new outcrop of the Brega Sandstone Bed was located on the east coast of the beach

near the Brega Area One (Kumar, ms; Figure 3B). The base of the formation is under the sea and here it is overlain by the Pleistocene Ajdabiya Formation (Figure 4B). This outcrop is spread over about 250 m along the coast and is up to 30 m in width. Although the base is under the sea the thickness of the exposed outcrop is approximately 20 m that dips southeasterly to 250 to 350. The Brega Sandstone Bed is equivalent to the lower part of the Sahabi Formation V (El-Arnauti and El Sogher, 2004; Kumar, 2014A).

b. Upper part of the Sahabi Formation V (the sea cliff section) There is a ‘Sea cliff section’ just 2 km SW of New Brega along the road to the Brega

Area Two (Figure 2) which shows a section of thinly bedded greyish to greenish sandstone interbedded with gravel and pebble beds (Figure 3F). They are considered here to represent


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the upper part of Member V of the Sahabi Formation (El-Arnauti and El Sogher, 2004; Kumar 2014A). The outcrop also shows the disconformable contact between the upper part of Member V of the Sahabi Formation and overlying Ajdabiya Formation (Figure 3D); the overlying Ajdabiya Formation shows two marine dunes one overlying the other (Figure 3G).

Figure 2: Google Map of the Brega area showing locations of various outcrops (BR: Beachrock, CSS: Coastal sand dunes and sand sheets with beach balls, BSB1 and BSB2: Brega Sandstone Bed, AF: Ajdabiya Formation, SCS: Sea cliff section) (after Kumar, ms).

c. Ajdabiya Formation The Ajdabiya Formation was described as white calcareous sandstones having

rounded limestone clasts with diverse marine invertebrate fauna deposited during the Tyrrhenian (Pleistocene) marine transgression (Giglia, 1984). These consolidated dune deposits or “fossil dunes” occur as discontinuous patches along the Mediterranean Sea coastal plains near the modern day shoreline. They are mounds of various shapesbut generally rounded and of variable width and may also occur as continuous ridges but more often are elongated hillocks, either single or arranged in chains.

In the Brega area, the Ajdabiya Formation occurs as small to large isolated hills or

almost flat topped long ridges that are at times isolated and occur close to the present day coastline of the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 4A). This formation around Brega is represented by grey to light brown, cemented calcareous sandstones, usually thickly but at times thinly bedded with extensive cross beds (Figure 4D). There are heavily bioturbated zones in this formation as well (Figures 4B, D). The thickness of the Ajdabiya Formation in Brega ranges between 10 and15 m.


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Figure 3: Outcrops of the Brega Sandstone Bed in Brega Area Two: A. The newly cut section and C. The road side outcrop. B and E. Outcrop of the Brega Sandstone Bed along the Brega Area One beach. Outcrops near the Sea cliff section: F. Thinly bedded greyish to greenish sandstone interbedded with gravel and pebble beds considered to be equivalent to the upper Member V of the Sahabi Formation and D. Outcrop showing the disconformable contact between upper part of Member V of the Sahabi Formation and overlying Ajdabiya Formation


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at the See cliff section; the author is standing as scale showing the contact, and G. The overlying Ajdabiya Formation shows two marine dunes one overlying the other. d. Beachrocks

Beach rocks are the consolidated deposits resulting from lithification by calcium carbonate of sediment in the intertidal and spray zones (Scoffin and Stoddart, 1987). They are formed in the tropical to subtropical climate belts between latitudes 350N and 350S under a thin cover of sediment that overlies the unconsolidated sand. The sea water, supersaturated with calcium carbonate and high temperatures, within the beach sediments is a necessary condition for cementation and thus for the formation of beach rocks. Beach rocks typically consist of multiple layers resulting from multiple episodes of cementation and exposure and dip seaward (4 - 10°) as the internal beach bedding. Thickness of beach rocks ranges from a few centimeters up to 5 meters with approximately 2 meters being the most common (Turner, 2005).

About 200 m long and discontinuous outcrops of the beach rocks are located on the southwestern end of the Brega Area One beach (Figures 2 and 4E, F, G, H). They are almost horizontal or gently inclined towards the sea; their maximum thickness is close to one meter. These rocks are very hard, of grey to dark grey color and are exposed along the sea coast (Figure 4E). These rocks are characterized by numerous circular to sub-circular holes of various diameters and depths (Figure 4E). Although most of these holes are isolated occasionally they may get joined into multiple holes of various diameters. The origin of these holes cannot be explained conclusively but they appear to be the result of constant wave action on the beach. Often these holes are filled by floating crude oil (Figure 4F). The source of this crude oil is from leakages and spills while crude oil is being pumped into large ships for export. Brega is a major crude oil exporting sea port in Libya. Although crude oil pollution in the Mediterranean Sea off Brega is not common minor leakages and spills cannot be ruled out. Thus scattered small patches of dried crude oil can often be seen around the coast of Brega. Mostly these rocks are unfossiliferous; however, fossil corals (Figure 4G) and fossil gastropods (Figure 4H) have been observed in these rocks.

e. Sand dunes and sheets with beach balls Mediterranean coastal Quaternary deposits of NE Libya are represented by the

Ajdabiya Formation, sabkhas, aeolian deposits, beach and coastal sand dunes and alluvium deposits (Tawadros, 2012). The Holocene sediments around Brega include coastal and inland sand dunes, and sand sheets. There are a large number of sand dunes of various sizes that occur all over this region. One very striking feature of the Mediterranean Sea beaches around Brega is the presence of millions of “Beach Balls” that occur mixed with sand in the sand sheets and sand dunes (Figure 5A). These balls are of various sizes ranging mostly between 3 and 10 cm in diameter, spherical or semispherical and oval in shape. They are spread all along the beach and at times mark the limits of the waves reaching on land. They are made of fibers entangled around some kind of nucleus, also known as Egagropili (Posidonia spheroids), a technical term used to describe spherical or oval light brown, felt textured, agglomerates generated by the progressive disintegration of fibrous leaves residue which surrounds the rhizome of the Posidonia plant (Kumar 2014B). Beach balls of various sizes form part of the sand ripple (Figure 5B) and in due course of time large sand dunes mixed with beach balls have been formed along the Mediterranean coast (Figures 5B and C).


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Figure 4: Outcrops of the fossilized dunes of the Ajdabiya Formation: A. Isolated outcrops near the Mediterranean Sea coast in Brega Area Two. B. An outcrop showing unconformable contact between underlying Brega Sandstone Bed and overlying Ajdabiya Formation on the southwestern end of the Brega Area One beach (Keith Wilkins in foreground; height 177 cm). C. Highly bioturbated outcrop of the Brega Sandstone Bed along the Brega Area One beach. D. Bioturbated zones of the Ajdabiya Formation outcropping along the Brega Area One beach. E. Outcrop of the beach rock on the southwestern end of the Brega Area One beach. These are hard, grey to dark grey beach rocks exposed along the sea coast. F. Beach rocks with several circular to sub-circular holes of various diameters and depths which are filled by the floating crude oil. G. Beach rock with fossil corals. H. Beach rock with fossil gastropods.


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Figure 5: Beach Balls of the Brega’s Mediterranean Sea coast and formation of sand dunes mixed with the beach balls. A. A single beach ball (diameter-10 cm), B. A bunch of beach balls of various sizes form part of the sand ripple, C. Formation of sand dunes mixed with beach balls, and D. A series of large sand dunes of beach balls (after Kumar, 2014A).

1. Stratigraphy of the Brega area Stratigraphy of the Brega area was published by this author (Kumar, 2014A) and based on

further work a modified stratigraphy has been proposed (Kumar ms). The Brega Sandstone Bed is the oldest stratigraphic unit that outcrops in the Brega area; it has been shown to be equivalent to the lower part of Member V of the Pliocene Sahabi Formation whereas the upper part of Member V is represented by medium to coarse grained, greyish-greenish, thinly bedded sandstone with pebbles that outcrops at the sea coast section. The overlying stratigraphic unit is the Ajdabiya Formation of Pleistocene age composed of marine dunes. The beach rocks at the southwestern end of the Brega Area One beach are considered to be younger than the Ajdabiya Formation. There is no stratigraphic contact between the two and the age of the beach rocks is unknown. However, due to the active nature of the sandy coast along this beach and well known Quaternary sea-level oscillations in the Mediterranean Sea it is postulated that this beachrock is less than a few thousand years old. Holocene sand sheets and dunes mixed with beach balls overlie the beach rocks and the Ajdabiya Formation and thus are the youngest sediments in the Brega area. The revised stratigraphy of the Brega area is shown in Table-1 (Kumar ms).

2. Trace fossils of the Brega Sandstone Bed

The ichno faunal assemblage of the Brega Sandstone Bed is dominated by various types of vertical, oblique and horizontal burrows that are branched and unbranched (Figure 6). They are dominated by ichnogenera Ophiomorpha and Skolithos. The trace fossils assemblage or the ichnocoenose is dominated by these two ichnogenera belonging to the marine soft ground Skolithos ichnofacies. Lithology of the ‘Brega Sandstone Bed’ and its


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ichnocoenose indicate a shallow marine, intertidal to shallow subtidal, moderate to high energy depositional environments. Figure 6 displays various types of trace fossils reported from the Brega sandstone Bed (Kumar, 2014A).

3. Shallow lagoons and coastal sabkhas Mediterranean coastal Quaternary deposits of NE Libya are represented by large numbers

of sabkhas, aeolian deposits, beach and coastal sand dunes and alluvium deposits, in addition to the Ajdabiya Formation (Tawadros, 2012). Lagoons are a stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef and are common coastal features around the world (website 2).


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Figure 6: Trace fossils of the Brega Sandstone Bed. A. Differenttypes of burrows (Photograph Area: 1.00 x1.15m); B. Ophiomorpha (Photograph Area: 40 x50 cm); C. Skolithos (Photograph Area: 1.00 x1.00m); D. Longitudinal section of Ophiomorpha shaft (Photograph Area: 10x10 cm); E. Cross section of Ophiomorpha tunnels and vertical burrow (O: Ophiomorpha; OS: Ophiomorpha shaft; S: Skilothos) (after Kumar 2014A).

Sabkhas are described as (website 3) “A flat area between a desert and an ocean, characterized by a crusty surface consisting of evaporite deposits (including salt, gypsum, and calcium carbonate), windblown sediments, and tidal deposits. Sabkhas form primarily through the evaporation of sea water that seeps upward from a shallow water table and through the drying of windblown sea spray.” These are areas of coastal flats subject to periodic flooding and evaporation, which result in the accumulation of aeolian clays, evaporites, and salts, typically found in North Africa and around the Arabian Peninsula. Shallow lagoons of various sizes and sabkhasare common along the Mediterranean coast west of Brega (Figures 7 A, B, and C). Sometimes Quaternary paleo-channels are seen to connect these lagoons (Figure 7D). Figure 8A shows presence of extensive development of sand dunes close to a shallow lagoon and sabkha west of Brega along the Mediterranean coast. Kumar and Abdullah (2011) provide an extensive overview of the origin, morphology and distribution of various types of desert forms including sand dunes, sabkhas and playas of the Rub’ al Khali Desert of the Southern Arabian Peninsula.

4. Quaternary paleo-streams

If one flies from Tripoli to Brega (Figure 1) in the northern regions of Africa one may notice several remnants of paleo-streams that flowed in the past from southern highlands northward into the Mediterranean Sea. During my several flights in this vast region I noticed that many such paleo-streams exist in the western side than towards the Brega region. Figure 8D shows such a paleo-stream and Figure 7D shows a paleo-stream that drained sometimes during Quaternary into a shallow lagoon located west of Brega. These remnants of paleo-streams indicate that during Quaternary there were episodes of wet and humid conditions in the Mediterranean region of North Africa.

Quaternary climatic oscillations and sea-level changes in the Mediterranean Sea have

been well studied and documented from various parts of North Africa and Southern Europe (Lewin et al. 1995). Throughout the Quaternary Period the North African landscape varied between a dry arid environment and a wet humid environment. During wet periods heavy rainfalls in the highlands gave rise to several small and large streams that flowed northward and drained into the Mediterranean Sea. The introductory chapter in Levin et al. (1995) physiographically defines the Mediterranean Basin, examines Quaternary environmental changes in the region, and provides a synopsis of alluvial settings highlighting past and contemporary river environments. They (op cit.) summarize the climate events as follows: “Quaternary climate fluctuations in the Mediterranean Basin can be related to shifts in the boundaries, and influence of, mid-latitude and subtropical weather systems, which resulted in significant changes in the seasonality and geographic distribution of precipitation in the region. Humid and arid phases of climate have been characteristic of both the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.”


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Figure 7: Aerial photographs of the Mediterranean Sea coast near Brega showing shallow lagoons, sabkhas and a paleo-channel (Photos: The author) A. The zig-zag coastline of the Mediterranean coast west of Brega showing sand sheets and sand dunes typical of desert environments; scanty small bushes are seen closer to the coast. B and C. Shallow lagoons and coastal sabkhas near the Mediterranean coast west of Brega. D. A paleo-channel connecting a shallow lagoon close to the coast.

B. Environmental Features: 1. Impact of wind

According to Encyclopedia Britannica (website 4) “Libya’s climate is dominated by the hot, arid Sahara, but it is moderated along the coastal littoral by the Mediterranean Sea. The Saharan influence is stronger in summer. From October to March, prevailing westerly winds bring cyclonic storms and rains across northern Libya”.

“Along the coast, the Mediterranean climate is characterized by a cool, rainy winter

season and a hot, dry summer. The warmest months are July and August, when average temperatures in Banghāzī and Tripoli, in the Mediterranean zone, reach between the low 70s and mid-80s F (low to upper 20s C) and the low 60s and mid-80s F (upper 10s and low 30s C), respectively. The coolest months are January and February; winter monthly temperatures in Banghāzī range from the low 50s to low 60s F (low to mid-10s C), while those in Tripoli range from the upper 40s to low 60s F (low to mid-10s C). Banghāzī has an average annual precipitation of about 10 inches (250 mm), and Tripoli receives an annual average of about 15 inches (380 mm)”.


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Figure 8: Aerial photographs of the shallow lagoons, coastal sabkhas, sand sheets, sand dunes, paleo-stream and erosional features along the coast near Brega (Photos: The author) A. Shallow lagoon and sabkha close to the Mediterranean coast and sand dunes west of Brega. B. An arcuate shaped sand ridge, probably an eroded paleo-dune, near the Mediterranean coast west of Brega. Concave side is towards the sea indicating the direction of the prevailing wind blowing from north. C. Sand sheet showing a remnant of a paleo-channel in the middle west of Brega. D. A dry paleo-stream west of Brega indicating past episodes of wet periods in the region.

The author of this article has discussed in detail various natural hazards of the Arabian

Peninsula including the atmospheric hazards such as tropical cyclones, storm surges, sand and dust storms (Kumar, 2013). Such wind related hazards commonly impact North Africa that also includes Libya’s Mediterranean coast. Elmabrouk (2009) published data on the various parameters of the wind for various locations in Libya. These parameters included the mean wind speed, directional data, and variations about the mean in the short term (gusts),daily, seasonal and annual variations, and variations with height. This paper provides background information about harnessing wind power. The paper also reviews the available data obtained from seven different meteorological stations in Libya that does not include data from Brega or any nearby location. This study indicates that the wind power varies from one location to another and Misurata on the northeastern coast of Libya has the maximum power, annual energy and capacity factor.

Libya has 2,103 species of tropical and Mediterranean plants that belong to 856

genera and 155 families and herbs (annual to perennial) dominate over woody (tree and shrub) species (Feng et al. 2013). The Mediterranean coastal ecosystems of Libya cover an


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area 25-100 km wide where the annual rainfall is about 200-250 mm. Over 75% of vascular plants are distributed in the coastal areas, such as Acacia spp., Borassus, Phoenix etc. The Mediterranean xerophytic plants protect shorelines from erosion and storms. The higher proportion of herbs (annual to perennial) and lower proportion of woody (tree and shrub) species reflect the defensive capabilities of vegetation in such drought conditions (Website 5).

In the Brega area xeric juniper trees were planted along the roadside when this industrial town was built during 1950-1960. Southwardly bent trees (xeric Junipers; Juniperusphoenicea var. turbinata) occur in Brega indicating predominant winds in this area are from north to south (Figures 9A, B and C). This variety of Juniperusphoenicea is confined to the coastal sand dunes of Libya (Website 5).

Figure 9: Impact of wind on trees and sidewalk bricks in Brega (Photos: The Author, 2014). A. Twisted trunk of a xeric pine tree. B. These xeric pine trees probably are Aleppo Pine (Pinushalepensis) that were planted along the road during the time of construction of Brega Area Two. They are all bent southward indicating the direction of prevailing wind blowing from north. C. A row of Aleppo Pine (Pinushalepensis) trees on another road in Brega; all bent southward indicating the direction of the prevailing wind blowing from north (notice the smoke from the refineries too is blowing southward). Another species of xeric junipers Juniperousphoenicea are stronger trees; they are not bent as much by the wind; see a row of almost erect Juniperousphoenicea closer to the camera. D. Brega is a windy city and is surrounded by sand sheets and sand dunes thus sand occurs ubiquitously in this area. Due to constant sand-blasting near the ground level the lower bricks along the sidewalks get eroded.

The impact of wind is evident on the lower level bricks along the sidewalks of Brega

Area 2. Since this area is surrounded by sand sheets and sand dunes there is no dearth of sand


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here. Actually sand is ubiquitous and can be seen all along the sidewalks. Due to the constant impact of sand blasting due to the windy nature of this town lower level bricks get gradually eroded (Figure 9D)and thus the wall becomes weak. The upper layers of bricks are impacted to a lesser extent because sand blasting at the lower level is much more intense.

Table 1: Stratigraphy of the Brega area (after Kumar ms.)

Lithology Fossils Paleoenvironment Age

Holocene

White, grey and yellowish sandstones, massive, medium to coarse grained (Brega Sandstone Bed)

Sahabi Formation (Member V)

Lower part

Early PlioceneIntertidal to shallow

subtidal Burrows and trails,

bioturbated

Intertidal to supratidal

Corals, Gastroppds Intertidal ?Pleistocene-Holocene

Ajdabiya FormationMarine sand dunes, compact, and at places cross

beddedOccasionally bioturbated PleistoceneShallow marine

Stratigraphic units

Sand sheets and dunes Sand mixed with beach balls Occasional molluscs Aeolian

Beachrock Hard, massive, calcareous sandstone

Upper partMedium to coarse, greyish-greenish, thinly bedded

sandstone with pebblesNone observed

Acknowledgements: I thank my colleagues Keith Wilkins and M. S. Rajanandan for assisting me during the field work. I also thank my son Anshuman Kumar for linguistic improvements to this article. References: El-Arnauti, A. and El Sogher, A. 2004. Geology of East Libya. Short notes and guidebook on

The Geology of QasrAs Sahabi Area. Sedimentary Basins of Libya, 3rd Symposium.Gutenberg Press, Malta, p.95.

Elmabrouk, A. M. 2009. Estimation of wind energy and wind in some areas (Second Zone) in Libya. Ecologic Vehicles; Renewable Energies, Monaco, March 26-29, 2009.

Feng, Y., Lei, J-Q., Xu, X-W., and Pan, B-R. 2013. Composition and characteristics of Libyan flora. Arch. Biol. Sci., Belgrade, 65 (2), 651-657.

Giglia, G. 1984. Sheet Ajdabiya (NH-34), Geological map of Libya, scale 1:250,000, Exploratory Booklet. Industrial Research Center, Tripoli.

Kumar, A. 2013. Natural hazards of the Arabian Peninsula: their causes and possible remediation. In: Sinha, R. and Ravindra, R. (Eds.), Earth System Processes and Disaster Management. Pp. 155-180. Springer.

Kumar, A. 2014A.Geology of the Brega area and the ichnofauna of the ‘Brega Sandstone Bed’ (Pliocene), Libya.Arabian Jour. Geosciences. DOI 10.1007/s12517-014-1656-8 (published online: 11 October, 2014).

Kumar, A. 2014B. Origin and distribution of “Beach Balls” (Egagropili) of Brega, Libya, “Kedron Balls” of New Brunswick, Canada, and Carboniferous “Coal Balls”. Earth Science India, Popular Issue, VII (III): 1-12. (www.earthscienceindia.info)

Kumar, A. ms Coastal geology and revised stratigraphy of the Brega area, Libya. Arabian Jour. Geosciences. (submitted: 24 February, 2015)

Kumar, A. and Abdullah, M. M. 2011.An overview of Origin, Morphology and Distribution of Desert Forms, Sabkhas and Playas of the Rub’ al Khali Desert of the Southern


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Arabian Peninsula. Earth Science India, eISSN: 0974 – 8350, Vol. 4(III), July, 2011, pp. 105-135 http://www.earthscienceindia.info/

Lewin, J., Macklin, M. J., & Woodward, J. C. 1995. Mediterranean Quaternary River Environment (Ed. Lewin, J. et al.), Proceedings of International Conference on Univ. Cambridge, U.K. Sept. 28-29, 1992. A. A. Balkema.

Scoffin, T.P., and Stoddart, D.R., 1987.Beachrock and intertidal cements. In: Scoffin, T.P.,(ed.), An Introduction to Carbonate Sediments and Rocks. Glasgow: Blackie Publishing Company, pp. 401-425.

Tawadros, E. 2012. The Geology of North Africa.Balkema, London. Turner, RJ. 2005. Beachrock, in Schwartz, M. L., ed., Encyclopedia of Coastal Science.

Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Pp. 183-186. Web References Website 1: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-

HCeIPGn1aY8/TWt8FNcXDWI/AAAAAAAAAFE/9lyNbV60xIQ/s1600/map_of_libya.jpg)

Website 2: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon Website 3: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sabkhas Website 4:http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46542/Climate Website 5: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Flora_of_Libya

About the Author

Dr. Arun Kumar is an Adjunct Professor, Department of Earth Science, Carleton University Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre. 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada Email: [email protected]

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GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AROUND BREGA REGION… archival/download.php?file=pdf-63.pdf · GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES AROUND BREGA REGION, LIBYA Arun Kumar Beach