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Georesources for SustainabilityIn Cornwall & the Isles of Scilly

SETTINGTHE SCENE

WHAT IS THIS REPORT ABOUT?GEORESOURCES ARE MATERIALS, SERVICES AND SOURCES OFINSPIRATION THAT COME FROM THE GROUND BENEATH OUR FEET – THATIS, FROM THE SOLID EARTH (THE GEOSPHERE, WHICH INTERACTS WITHTHE HYDROSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE AND BIOSPHERE).These include raw materials that we extract from the surface or subsurface, including: constructionmaterials such as building stone, sand and gravel; minerals containing metals of all kinds; and fossilfuels (coal, oil and natural gas). Georesources also include less obvious physical resources such assubsurface heat and groundwater, soils to sustain agriculture and ecosystems, carbon sinks and other‘buffering’ functions against natural and human processes. Finally, they include attributes thatcontribute to less tangible assets like landscape, cultural identity, human health and wellbeing.

SUSTAINABILITY REFERS TO THE NEED FOR HUMAN SOCIETIES TO EXIST INHARMONY WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT, TO ENSURE THE LONG TERMVIABILITY OF BOTH.The UN World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defined sustainable developmentas development that ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs’. This depends in turn on ensuring that present-day humanactivities do not harm our environment, and that we protect and sustain biodiversity and other aspectsof natural capital. A closely linked concept is that of environmental growth – the regeneration ofnatural systems and growth of natural capital, providing a greater quantity and quality of environmentalgoods and services as the basis for a thriving society, a prosperous and resilient economy, and anabundance of wildlife. The circular economy will play a vital role in achieving this, encompassing notonly recycling, but a wider rethink of how we use materials, designing out waste and pollution, keepingproducts and materials in use, and progressively decoupling economic activity from the consumption ofnatural resources. Natural capital also underpins ecosystem services – that is, the ways in which wederive societal and economic benefit from the environment.

The responsible use of georesources is integral to a sustainable future. Metals from the ground will beneeded for low-carbon energy technologies, from wind turbines to batteries. We can harnessgeothermal energy from the subsurface as a renewable energy source. Recognising the vital part thegeosphere plays in a wide range of ecosystem services will help us protect and regenerate naturalcapital. We can also learn from unsustainable past behaviours such as the indiscriminate burning offossil fuels and insensitive approaches to mining, ensuring that georesources are extracted and used ina socially and environmentally responsible way, and that mined materials are then kept in use to meetthe needs of future generations as well as our own.

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This report introduces some of the world-leading examples of georesourcesbeing used to ensure sustainable development in Cornwall and the Isles ofScilly. The report is written for all those interested in understanding thediversity and potential of georesources and sustainable development asfound in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, and aims to inspire debate,innovation and decision making.

Cornwall’s Environmental Growth Strategy2015-2065, produced by Cornwall Counciland Cornwall and Isles of Scilly Local NaturePartnership (and being refreshed in 2021).The first of its kind nationally, the strategyrecognises the importance of local naturalresources and landscape (includingCornwall’s historic mining landscape) for theeconomy and society.

Climate Change Plan, developed by CornwallCouncil in 2019 following its declaration of aclimate emergency. This sets the demandingtarget of making Cornwall carbon neutral by2030 (compared with a national target of2050), through investment in renewableenergy and associated infrastructure andprotecting and enhancing natural carbonsinks, among many other means.

Cornwall and Isles of Scilly (CIoS) IndustrialStrategy, led by the CIoS Local EnterprisePartnership (draft, awaiting sign-off by theUK government). This builds on the earlierStrategic Economic Plan for CIoS and themore recent 10 Opportunities document. Itseeks to address social and environmentalimbalances arising from past narrowconceptions of economic growth, to deliverinclusive, clean and circular growth. Itidentifies five areas of distinctive opportunityfor Cornwall, including clean energy(including geothermal) and georesources(referring to mineral resources, especially forthe low-carbon economy).

The Cornwall Plan 2020-2050, developedby the CIoS Leadership Board. Thishighlights the major economic potential ofthe ‘green and blue economy’, bringingtogether (mineral) georesources, renewableenergy and marine technologies. Itenvisages deep geothermal, floatingoffshore wind power and lithium productionin Cornwall resourcing a carbon-neutralCornwall by 2030, and contributing todecarbonisation of the UK; and asustainable tourism sector drawing on senseof place and cultural identity, as part of amore diversified economy.

Cornwall is richly endowed with georesources, and with the capabilities to harness them forsustainable development. These advantages are recognised and embraced by local leaders andcommunities, who have put them at the heart of Cornwall’s ground-breaking and far-sighted plans forsustainable economic and environmental growth, including:

Georesources are fundamental to delivering these plans, using Cornwall’s natural resources to buildsustainable and advanced industries, improve productivity and opportunity for all, and enhance theenvironment and quality of life.

CORNWALL'S PLANS FOR A PROSPEROUS & SUSTAINABLEFUTURE

MORE INFOCornwall’s Environmental Growth Strategy2015-2065https://www.cornwall.gov.uk/environmentalgrowth

CIoS Draft Industrial Strategyhttps://www.cioslep.com/vision/local-industrial-strategy

Cornwall Plan 2020-2050https://www.tinyurl.com/cornwallplan

The topics outlined in this report are relevantto all those interested in deliveringenvironmental growth and sustainableeconomic development in Cornwall. Theseinclude policy makers and others working innational and local government, companies,economic development bodies, voluntary andcivil society organisations, and localcommunities. They also include geoscientists,environmental and social scientists, and otherresearchers and practitioners working toensure that Cornwall’s georesources are usedresponsibly, in the service of sustainabledevelopment. An aim of the report is tostimulate and inform dialogue between thesegroups and communities, and to help themengage wider public audiences in decisionmaking about Cornwall’s future.

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WHO IS THIS REPORT FOR?

KYNANCE COVEThis stunning coastal site is enjoyed by Cornwall’scommunities and visitors, provides a habitat to distinctiveflora and fauna, and helps us understand the Earth’s deeppast so we can live more sustainably on it in future. p 14 - 15

ISLES OF SCILLY

WHEAL JANE

GEEVOR TIN MINE

JUBILEE POOL

HEARTLANDSThis former mine at the heart ofthe UNESCO Cornwall and WestDevon Mining Landscape WorldHeritage Site celebrates Cornwall’smining heritage, and offers a widerange of activities and amenitiesto visitors from near and far,helping to stimulate sustainableeconomic regeneration.

The historic �n mine is now hometo a museum and heritage centre,as part of the UNESCO Cornwalland West Devon Mining LandscapeWorld Heritage Site. p 6 - 7

Soils are an often overlookedgeoresource, and are a vital partof ecosystems and economiesacross Cornwall – and in the Islesof Scilly, where they have longunderpinned the commercialcultivation of narcissi, pinks andother flowers. p 12 - 13

This beautiful historic art deco lidois the largest in the UK, andfeatures a geothermal pool,sustainably heated using energyfrom beneath the ground. p 10 - 11

Now the site of a uniqueEarth Science Park,rising groundwater atthis former mine sitecaused majorcontamination of theCarnon River and FalEstuary in 1992, but ithas since become anexemplar of mine siteregeneration and minewater treatment.p 12 - 13

p 6 - 7

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With the first launch planned for 2022, thisis expected to be the UK’s first launch sitefor satellites, which play an essential role inenvironmental intelligence gathering formany applications, including georesourceexploration and global monitoring of miningimpacts. p 16 - 17

Cornwall’s china clay industryremains one of the largestproducers in the world, generatingincome and employment, while alsoproducing resources from waste andleading the way in sustainable siteremediation. p 8 - 9

The iconic tourist attraction islocated in a former china clay pit,and promotes visitors’understanding of sustainability.p 14 - 15

Home to the UK’s first planneddeep geothermal power plant,this is also the test site forCornish Lithium’s innovativeapproach of extracting lithiumneeded for low-carbon energytechnologies from the hot springsin and around the granitebeneath the surface. p 10 - 11

Shared by the University of Exeter and theUniversity of Falmouth, and home to theCamborne School of Mines, the campus isa hub for globally respected research andeducation in a wide range of fields essentialto using and managing georesourcessustainably, in Cornwall and around theworld. p 16 - 17

MILLOOK HAVEN

PENRYN CAMPUS

EDEN PROJECT

IMERYSUK KAOLIN PLATFORM

UNITED DOWNS

SPACEPORT CORNWALL

Cornwall’s extraordinary and variedlandscapes, on the coast and inland,are underpinned by their geology –they are essential to its tourismsector, promote physical and mentalwellbeing, and provide leisure andenjoyment to local communities.p 14 - 15

Local building stones are vital to thecharacter of Cornwall’s built environment,and have been reused for centuries. p 6 - 7

DELABOLE SLATE QUARRY

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Minerals and metals have been fundamental to human societiesfor thousands of years, and their extraction in Cornwall dates backto antiquity. At its height, the Cornish mining sector provided someof the key resources that made the industrial revolution (see p 7),and this has left a complex and sometimes contested legacy.

Our need for a wide range of mineral resources is greater than ever. Theyunderpin modern society in a multitude of ways, being used in everythingfrom building construction to complex new technology applications. Their useoften goes unrecognised, despite their presence being essential to tacklingthe energy transition and other sustainable development goals. Yet, as wellas providing vital resources, employment opportunities and potentialeconomic benefits, mining has in many cases caused great harm to theenvironment and communities where it has been undertaken. Despiteconsiderable progress by the mining sector in addressing these challenges,the legacy is often still felt today.

While metalliferous mining in Cornwall largely ceased in the late 20th century,mining and quarrying still make a significant contribution to the county’seconomy, through the china clay industry and the extraction of high qualitybuilding stone. Increasing demand for technology materials such as thoseused in batteries is once again stimulating exploration for minerals. Togetherwith technical advances in mining and improved approaches to addressingits social and environmental impacts, this offers the prospect of revivingmining production in Cornwall, and placing it at the forefront of sustainablemining best practice internationally.

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THE PAST, PRESENT &FUTURE OF MINING INCORNWALL

CORNISH BUILDINGSTONES

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In addition to its history of mining for metalsand china clay, Cornwall is home to anexceptional variety of igneous andsedimentary rocks that have been quarriedthroughout history as building stones,decorative stones and aggregates. Theserange from granite and slate to more exoticmaterials like luxullianite and serpentine.They contribute enormously to the characterand richness of Cornwall’s built environment,and are highly prized further afield, withCornish granite being used in theconstruction of iconic landmarks such asLondon’s Tower Bridge.

Geomaterials that are well suited to theirfunction and environment can last for manycenturies. The slate seen in 5th-6th centurybuildings on Tintagel Island has provedhighly resistant to weathering, and stone andslate from old buildings has been recycledover the centuries – the original circulareconomy! A distinctive human-made part ofthe Cornish landscape are the thousands ofmiles of ‘Cornish hedges’, made up of stone,earth and vegetation. They are stable andlong-lasting, as long as they are maintainedby refurbishing them every 150 years or so.Some are thought to date from 2000-4000years ago, when they were made from stonecleared from fields.

The quarrying of building stone in Cornwallcontinues, and some of the oldest graniteand slate quarries still operate. Delabolequarry, noted for its distinctive silvery greyslate, has been continuously operating sincethe 15th century at least – possibly muchlonger – and is one of the oldest slatequarries in the world. Locally sourced stoneis gaining in importance once again withincreased attention to sustainable buildingmaterials with a low carbon footprint, andrestoration and conservation of historicalbuildings using sympathetic materials.

THE LEGACY OF METALMINING IN CORNWALLSignificant tin mining took place in Cornwallthroughout the medieval period. However, by themid-18th century, a mining revolution wasunderway. From around 1750, Cornwall led theworld supply of tin and copper for over a century,and between 1800 and 1830 it is estimated tohave provided two thirds of global copper supply,along with significant amounts of other metals.Not only did this play a fundamental role inresourcing the industrial revolution, first inBritain and then across much of the world – italso transformed mining technology, especiallyin the application and improvement of steampower (vital for water pumping), drilling, diggingand ore refinement techniques. By the late1800s, Cornish mining technology and expertisewas exported around the world. Mining becamea defining and enduring element of Cornishidentity, at home and globally.

Despite the significant wealth that Cornwall’smining revolution generated, this was notequitably shared at the time, and the rapiddecline of metal mining together with lack ofeconomic regeneration left behind extensivepoverty and deprivation. The industry alsoshaped today’s Cornish landscape, in ways asimmediately recognisable as its naturalcharacteristics. It features over 200 enginehouses, other disused or repurposedinfrastructure, waste tips and remains ofmineral processing, as well as hidden aspectssuch as thousands of underground mine shaftsand tunnels. The designation of the UNESCOCornwall and West Devon Mining LandscapeWorld Heritage Site in 2006 recognised thisunique landscape, together with its contributionto the industrial revolution. Some of the physicallegacies of mining have competingenvironmental and social dimensions – theymay require careful remediation or ongoingenvironmental management, as well asproviding scope for economic and socialregeneration, sustainable tourism, biodiversitygrowth and future resource extraction. Thesedrivers may not be easy to reconcile, and requiresensitive management in partnership with localcommunities.

MORE INFO:Cornwall and West Devon Mining LandscapeWorld Heritage Site- https://www.cornishmining.org.uk

REMIX Report - Georesources Cornwall- https://emps.exeter.ac.uk/csm/research/environment/remix

Cornwall Council - Guide to Cornwall’s BuildingStones - https://www.tinyurl.com/cornwallstones

RESPONSIBLE MINING& SUSTAINABILITY

Achieving carbon targets will require rapid increase in the use oflow-carbon energy technologies such as wind turbines, solarpanels and electric vehicles. The volume of these technologiesrequired will need huge quantities of metals, including somewhich have not previously been mined in significant quantities.The World Bank estimates that production of lithium, cobalt andgraphite may need to increase by nearly 500% by 2050 to meetthese requirements, for example. However successful we are inreducing our energy consumption, and implementing recyclingand other circular economy approaches, mining will continue tobe necessary for the foreseeable future.

Cornwall’s rocks are still home to potentially significant mineral wealth –lithium offers the greatest immediate prospects, but tungsten and remainingdeposits of tin may also be economically worthwhile to extract. Other metalssuch as copper, zinc, lead, cobalt and indium are known to be present in theground too, and may become viable if prices increase or mining technologiesdevelop sufficiently. There is also potential to extract metals from materialsdiscarded as mine waste in the past, or even from the waters that have filledold mine workings. Mining the resources needed for a sustainable futuremust be done in a socially and environmentally responsible way –minimising waste, maximising co-production of resources, and listening tocommunities to sensitively address tensions between economic andenvironmental priorities at the planning stage, among other considerations.Cornwall’s mining expertise and heritage positions it ideally to lead the wayin this.

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LITHIUM IN CORNWALL IMERYS - RESOURCESFROM WASTELithium was detected in Cornish hot springs

as early as the 1860s, but was notconsidered a useful or economically viableresource. But demand for lithium is nowgrowing rapidly, and new technologies arebeing developed to extract it sustainably.These innovations make Cornwall’s lithium apotentially world-class resource, and helppoint the way towards a rejuvenated, sociallyand environmentally responsible Cornishmining sector, providing sustainableeconomic opportunity to the county whilecontributing to the global imperative todecarbonise our energy systems. Companiesexploring for lithium include Cornish LithiumLtd and British Lithium Ltd, both of whichare developing novel low-energy approachesto extracting lithium from mica minerals inthe near-surface granites that also hostCornwall’s china clay resources.

Cornish Lithium also plans to extractdissolved lithium directly from thegeothermal waters that circulate deepbeneath Cornwall’s surface. Lithium-richbrine will be pumped to the surface viaboreholes to extract the lithium, and theheat it contains potentially used to generategeothermal energy, before returning it safelyto the subsurface. This novel, low-impactextraction approach will minimise oreliminate many of the environmentalchallenges often associated with mining.There will be no need to remove ore fromthe ground and crush it for processing –activities that use huge amounts of energyand create extensive waste materialsrequiring careful long-term management.Nor will evaporation ponds be required, ashappens on a large scale when extractinglithium from salar brines in South America.

Exploration to locate and evaluate the mostpromising lithium resources is nowunderway, combining historical miningarchives, data from satellite imaging, fieldmapping by geologists, and digital mappingusing drones – minimising the need forexploratory drilling. Results so far are highlypromising, and also suggest the futurepossibility of other technology metals aspotential by-products. A pilot-scale extractionplant is also under development, incollaboration with Geothermal EngineeringLtd’s United Downs deep geothermal powerplant (see pages 10-11), to demonstratethat lithium hydroxide can be produced fromgeothermal waters with a net zero carbonfootprint by using the geothermal energy topower the lithium extraction plant. In future,it is hoped that as well as providing theenergy needed for lithium extraction, it willbe possible to co-produce lithium, heat andelectricity for external use.

Cornwall’s historic china clay (or kaolin) industrycontinues to be globally significant, making the UKthe third largest producer of kaolin globally. ImerysMinerals Ltd is the current operator, employingabout 650 people across 20 quarrying andindustrial sites in the UK, mostly in Cornwall.

Imerys leads the way in addressing thesustainability impacts of its activities and playing apositive role in local communities. Its programmeof post-mining restoration and regeneration hasresulted in the creation of over 1500 hectares ofvaried biodiverse habitats over the past decade,including heathland, woodland and pasture, and40km of public access trails. The Enterprise Spacefor Advanced Manufacturing, developed inpartnership between Cornwall Council and privatecompanies to house new high tech businesses, isalso built on former mining land, and a gardenvillage is planned at West Carclaze to providesustainable homes and community spaces. Imeryshas also installed wind turbines and solar panelson redundant land to generate renewable energy,reducing its carbon footprint.

Imerys has made particular progress withsustainable waste management. In common withother mining, china clay extraction has historicallyproduced vast amounts of waste material, givingrise to the distinctive white spoil heaps sometimescolloquially known as the ‘Cornish Alps’. As well asfinding ways to reduce the amount of wasteproduced, Imerys works in partnership with othersto reuse waste materials and generate resourcesfrom them. At Littlejohns Pit, for example,Brookland Sand and Aggregates Ltd produces sandand aggregates from ‘stent’ – rock produced as aby-product of kaolin extraction. Imerys is alsoamong the partners from industry, academia andgovernment in the EU INTERREG North Westfunded UrbCon project, which is exploring how by-products can be used to produce sustainableconcrete.

One particularly innovative sustainable productmade from china clay waste is Green&Blue’sBeeBrick. The waste constitutes 75% of theconcrete mix from which they are made. TheBeeBrick is designed to provide a habitat for non-swarming solitary bees, repurposing locallysourced waste to provide a sustainable buildingmaterial, while also supporting biodiversity.

Cornish Lithium - https://www.cornishlithium.com

REMIX Report - Georesources Cornwall- https://emps.exeter.ac.uk/csm/research/environment /remix

World Bank report - Minerals for Climate Action- https://www.tinyurl.com/minerals-for-climate

MORE INFO:

ENERGY FROMBENEATH OUR FEET

As well as minerals for low-carbon energy technologies, thesubsurface can provide us with sustainable energy more directly.The temperature of the Earth’s crust increases with depth, due toheat from its interior, and in Cornwall additional heat isgenerated by the decay of radioactive elements that occurnaturally at low levels in the granite. This results in heatgradients more than double the UK average, making Cornwall themost promising area for deep geothermal energy productionanywhere in the country.

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Geothermal energy is renewable as it draws itsheat from the very slow cooling of the Earth. It isa consistent energy source that complementsother more intermittent renewable sources likewind and solar power, as it is unaffected by theweather.

In settings such as Cornwall, water can bepumped through rocks at depth (typically severalkilometres), where it is heated before beingreturned to the surface, via enclosed boreholes.If it is sufficiently hot, this water can be used togenerate electricity, with heat for localcommercial or domestic use as a co-product. TheUK’s first deep geothermal power plant, at UnitedDowns, is at an advanced stage of development,and a further project at the Eden Project site issoon to get underway. There is potential for manymore sites across Cornwall, providing low-carbonheat and electricity to local communities, andgenerating income by contributing to the UK’selectricity supply via the national grid.

The community-run Jubilee Pool in Penzance, theUK’s largest art deco seawater lido, already usesgeothermal energy (though from shallowerdepths and at lower temperatures) to heat itsunique Geo Pool, making it an attractive place forlocals and visitors to swim throughout the year. Afurther potential energy source is water that hasfilled former mine workings, which is slightlywarmed by the subsurface even at fairly shallowdepths – this can be used for both heating andcooling. While the waters associated with coalmining are well mapped across the UK, metalmines are often overlooked in this regard. Thereis also considerable scope for domestic andcommercial use of ground source heat pumpsthat can use solar energy stored near the Earth’ssurface to warm buildings in the winter – some ofthese can also transfer heat to the subsurface toprovide cooling in the summer.

Construction of two directional wells forgeothermal power production at the UnitedDowns Industrial Site near Redruth wascompleted in 2019. Water will be pumpedthrough the injection well to a depth of2393m, and will then be heated as itpasses through fractures in the hot rocksbelow, before being returned to the surfacevia the 5275m-deep production well. Finalstages of testing have continued in 2020,and the power plant to generate electricityfrom the superheated water is expected tobe commissioned in 2021. The binarydesign of the plant will keep geothermalbrines physically separate from thesecondary fluid that will drive the turbine.Buildings will be low-rise, and the plant willnot produce vapour plumes, meaning thatonce completed it will have very little visualimpact.

Eden’s geothermal plant is planned to bedeveloped in two phases. The first phasehas been approved and drilling is due tostart in 2021. This will consist of a singlewell around 25cm wide, reaching about4.5km underground, and should produceenough heat for the Eden Project’s biomes,offices and nursery greenhouses. A secondphase is expected to follow, with theconstruction of a second well and a binarypower plant at the site, which like theUnited Downs project will have low impacton the landscape. It is hoped that by 2023,enough renewable electricity will beexported from the site to completelyneutralise the Eden Project’s carbonfootprint.

UNITED DOWNS DEEPGEOTHERMAL POWERPLANT

EDEN GEOTHERMAL

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MORE INFO:United Downs Deep Geothermal Project- https://geothermalengineering.co.uk/united-downs

Eden Geothermal Project- https://www.edengeothermal.com

Jubilee Pool, Penzance- https://jubileepool.co.uk

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HIDDEN VALUEIN THE GROUND

Some georesources are frequently overlooked, but arenonetheless fundamental to environmental growth, humanwellbeing and sustainable economic development. If theirimportance is not recognised, they are at greater risk of not beingprotected or managed appropriately. These ‘hidden’ georesourcesinclude groundwater, soils, and less tangible ecosystem services.

Groundwater passes through the ground to the ‘saturated zone’ below thewater table, where it resides in porous rocks, moving through the subsurface(often very slowly) until it is eventually discharged into body of surface watersuch as a spring, a river or the sea. The geology of Cornwall is not suitable tosustain the extraction of groundwater for public water supply, as happens insome other parts of the UK. However, it is appropriate for private watersupply to homes, farms and some other businesses, which may come fromsprings, wells, boreholes and even adits (see p 13). As much of Cornwall isrural, connecting to the mains can be impractical, and many people rely onprivate supply for drinking water (estimated at 5% of the population acrossthe county, and as much as 16% of inhabitants in hamlets and smallvillages). Cornwall Council currently monitors the quality of nearly 4000private supplies. Water can be naturally contaminated, but is also at risk ofpollution from human activities, including agriculture and mining. Arsenic isthe most significant pollutant in Cornwall – most is natural, but some comesfrom old mining and arsenic processing works.

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Groundwater provides base flow to rivers,keeping them flowing in the summer, and in turnsustaining ecosystems. Environmental changeand increased drought risk may put groundwaterlevels and quality at risk. Groundwatercirculating at much greater depths is also thebasis for generating geothermal energy (seepages 10-11) – this happens far below thedepths from which drinking water is extracted,and proper casing of wells ensures thatcontamination does not arise.

Soils, composed of geological and biologicalmatter, are vital for agriculture and as a part ofecosystems. They are also valuable carbonsinks, and their role in providing otherenvironmental buffering functions is becomingincreasingly apparent. Understanding,preventing and remediating soil contamination isessential to sustaining these functions.Preserving soil quality is equally important,especially given the potential environmentalconsequences of reliance on artificial fertilisers.One initiative in this area, the Soil CarbonProject, is developing a methodology to test theamount of organic matter and carbon in soil,and investigating the impacts of farmingpractices on soil health. It is a collaborationbetween Duchy College, Farm Carbon Toolkit,Rothamsted Research North Wyke and theUniversity of Plymouth, funded by Agri-TechCornwall and the Esmeé Fairbairn CharitableTrust.

Mining has interacted with Cornwall’sgroundwater for centuries. A hidden legacy ofCornwall’s mining history is its many adits –long, slightly sloping tunnels that were dug todrain water from mines by lowering thenatural water table, thus reducing theamount of pumping that was needed to keepmines from filling with water. The greatest ofthese, known as the Great County Adit, wasstarted in 1748, and by the 19th century hadreached a length of over 40 miles, drainingover 100 mines into the Carnon River. Someadits move water from one catchment intoanother, and if they are not maintained theycan become blocked and rebound, causing‘new’ springs to appear – in fact, theseprobably represent the reappearance ofhistorical springs, potentially affecting rowsof cottages that were often originally builtalong lines of springs.

After the Wheal Jane mine ceased operatingin 1991, pumping of groundwater at the sitealso stopped, causing groundwater levels torise. In January 1992, this resulted in thedischarge of red ochreous acid minedrainage from an adit, causing majorcontamination of the Carnon River and FalEstuary. As well as a very visible orangeplume and the impact of the low pH of thecontaminated water, there was concern overdissolved metals including toxic cadmium.Fortunately the impact of the incident onwildlife seems to have been limited, althoughit is thought that it killed some fish and mayhave contaminated wild fowl. Following short-term remedial action, a high-quality watertreatment system was put in place. Theformer mine site is now an exemplar of minesite regeneration, and is home to the WhealJane Earth Science Park, which provides ser-vices and jobs in fields such as sustainableenergy, water treatment, geological and min-ing consultancy, jewellery making, and post-mining land use.

The Isles of Scilly have long been renownedfor their flowers, especially narcissi andpinks. Their cultivation depends onprotecting the islands’ mostly sandy soilsfrom salt spray and wind erosion, notably bygrowing hedges known locally as ‘fences’,and on preventing degradation of soilquality which has sometimes resulted fromunsustainable agricultural practices. Nitratefertilisers applied to supplement soil qualityhave leached into groundwater and causedproblems with the quality of drinking water,which comes mostly from boreholes andshallow wells, supplemented by a reverseosmosis desalination plant on St Mary’s.The islands’ richer soils are manmadehumus soils, resulting from the historicalapplication of natural fertilisers such asseaweed – an instance of sustainableintegrated management of bioresourcesand georesources where the land meets thesea.

GROUNDWATER &MINING IN CORNWALL

SOILS & FLORICULTUREON THE ISLES OF SCILLY

MORE INFO:British Geological Survey & EnvironmentAgency groundwater report - Granites ofSW England- https://www.tinyurl.com/SWEngland-groundwater

Natural England National Character Areaprofile - Isles of Scilly- https://www.tinyurl.com/NCA-Scilly

Soil Carbon Project- https://www.farmcarbontoolkit.org.uk/soil-carbon-project

LANDSCAPE &RECREATION

Natural environments, human communities and sustainableeconomic development are inextricably linked. Cornwall’sextraordinary and varied landscapes are underpinned by theirgeology, shaped over millions of years by natural processes –from the chevron folds of Millook Haven to the granite tors ofBodmin Moor – and more recently by human processes soevident in historic mining districts, for instance. They have hugeeconomic value for the tourism sector, but they also promote andsustain the physical and mental wellbeing of all who spend timein them, from near and far. Cornwall’s landscapes and placesprovide opportunities for leisure, amenity and enjoyment to localcommunities, and contribute immeasurably to their sense ofidentity.

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The Cornwall Geoconservation Group is avoluntary body that aims to identify, conserveand raise awareness of the rich and diversegeological and geomorphological heritage ofCornwall and the Isles of Scilly. It is linked to theCornwall Wildlife Trust, and works to ensure thatgeoconservation is fully integrated into the workof the Trust, recognising that geodiversity andbiodiversity are intertwined.

THE EDEN PROJECTThe Eden Project’s iconic domed biomes andbotanical gardens are located in a reclaimedchina clay pit which was mined for over 160years. It exemplifies how the sustainablemanagement of multiple georesources,biodiversity and communities can cometogether to stimulate environmental growth,human wellbeing and economic activity. As avital part of Cornwall’s tourism sector, itprovides employment opportunities, andengages and informs visitors aboutecosystems and sustainability – over amillion of them in 2019. It demonstrates howpost-mining landscapes can be transformed,and is a showcase for site remediation.Groundwater is continually pumped toprevent the site from flooding, as it sits belowthe water table. A geothermal energy projectat the site is soon to get underway, and isexpected to generate enough electricity topower the Eden Project together with 7,000houses, as well as commercial andcommunity heating (see p 11).

GREAT GEOSITES INCORNWALL

MILLOOK HAVENThe amazing ‘chevron folds’ in the cliffswere formed when layers of sandstone andshale, originally deposited underwater,deformed and buckled under hugepressures. As well as being strikinglybeautiful to visit, they illustrate the Earth’sdynamic nature and the extraordinarychanges that Earth processes can causeover time.

KYNANCE COVEThe rocks of the Lizard record an ancientocean – formed in the Earth’s crustbeneath this nascent ocean, they weresubsequently forced to the surface by thecollision of two continental plates 300million years ago. At Kynance Cove,distinctive red and green serpentinite, inamongst dark grey igneous rocks andstriped metamorphic ones, have beenpolished by the waves over thousands ofyears to give them a shiny snakeskinappearance. Further round the Lizard, atCoverack, is one of the few places in theworld where you can walk across the‘Moho’ boundary between the Earth’scrust and mantle!

GEEVOR TIN MINEThe mine at Geevor operated from 1911until 1990, although tin and copperwere mined in this area for hundreds ofyears. It is now part of the UNESCOCornwall and West Devon MiningLandscape World Heritage Site, and ishome to a museum and heritage centreshowing visitors how the metals thatunderpinned the industrial revolutionwere mined in Cornwall, and what lifewas like for those who worked there.

The diversity of the UK’s geology, spanningnearly three billion years, is second tonone. As well as enriching people’s livesthrough their enjoyment of beautiful andfascinating places, and providing myriadgoods and services in often overlookedways, this geological heritage has beenfundamental to advancing ourunderstanding of our planet, and how wecan live sustainably on it. In 2014, theGeological Society of London, partnerorganisations and members of thegeoscience community across the UK andIreland celebrated 100 Great Geosites thatexemplify aspects of this rich scientific,cultural and communal heritage.

There were three Cornish sites on the list:

MORE INFO:The Eden Project - https://www.edenproject.com

Geological Society: 100 Great Geosites -https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/100geosites

Cornwall Geoconservation Group Facebookpage - https://www.tinyurl.com/Cornwall-GCG

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HUMAN & INSTITUTIONALGEORESOURCES FORSUSTAINABILITY

Cornwall benefits from close-knit but welcoming business andacademic communities; local government bodies that areengaged and knowledgeable about georesources, environmentalgrowth and sustainable economic development; and localcommunities with close connections to Cornwall’s environmentas well as its mining heritage.

A key part of the business community is the Cornwall Mining Alliance,launched in October 2016. This business and innovation cluster of over 100organisations is the only one of its kind in the UK, and brings together SMEsand local branches of larger companies. Most of its members export goodsor services, and between them they have connections to 155 countries,continuing Cornwall’s tradition of engagement in the global mining sector,and providing a network through which high standards of environmental andsocial responsibility can be promulgated.

A much anticipated addition to Cornwall’s infrastructural capabilities isSpaceport Cornwall. This is expected to offer horizontal launch of satellitesfrom 2022, and will be the UK’s first satellite launch site. It will make asignificant contribution to sustainable georesources, both in Cornwall andfar beyond its borders, given the vital and growing role of satellites inproviding environmental intelligence data, including for environmentalmonitoring of mining and its impacts. Satellite imaging can alsocomplement other techniques in innovative approaches to environmentallyand socially sensitive mineral exploration, such as that currently beingcarried out by Cornish Lithium.

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The Penryn Campus opened in 2004, and wasfinanced by the EU and UK government. It isshared by the University of Exeter and FalmouthUniversity, and is home to several departmentsand initiatives that are making a vitalcontribution to georesources for sustainability,in Cornwall and globally.

The Camborne School of Mines (CSM) wasfounded in 1888, coinciding with the export ofCornish mining technology and expertise aroundthe world, and soon developed an internationalreputation. It has been part of the University ofExeter since 1993, and provides research andtraining across the core geology and miningdisciplines, which now include social andenvironmental sustainability – a field in which ithas globally recognised expertise. CSM hasplayed an active role in many EU-fundedresearch projects relating to georesources andsustainability, which bring together universitiesand other partner organisations from acrossEurope. Two recent examples are the MIREUproject, which established a network ofEuropean mining and metallurgy regions to helpensure the sustained and sustainable supply ofmineral raw materials, and the REMIX Interregproject, which produced the GeoresourcesCornwall working paper in 2019, proposing anintegrated approach to Cornwall’s minerals,geothermal energy, and industrial and naturalheritage.

The Exeter Centre for Circular Economy (ECCE),part of the University of Exeter Business School,has rapidly established itself as a national andinternational focus for circular economyresearch and education, and leads the UKRINational Circular Economy Hub. New areas ofcollaboration between ECCE and CSM, as wellas with the university’s Environment andSustainability Institute and others, aremobilising circular economy thinking andexpertise for responsible mining andsustainable resource management, and are keyto delivering the University of Exeter’s climateemergency plan. Together with the EuropeanCentre for Environment and Human Healthhosted at the university’s medical school site inTruro, they help put Cornwall at the forefront ofholistic approaches to the urgent challenges ofsustainability.

Falmouth University is renowned for itsexpertise in design, gaming, and virtual andaugmented reality – all of which can make avaluable contribution to georesources forsustainability. Its Design Centre seeks tofacilitate research and innovation projects torealise novel low-carbon technologies, productsand services, and aims to integrate smarttechnologies, digital platforms and sustainabledesign principles, including in areas such as thebuilt environment, energy and transport.

PENRYN CAMPUS TEVITevi (Cornish for ‘grow’) has the twin aims ofpromoting environmental growth andeconomic growth throughout Cornwall andthe Isles of Scilly. Its work to date has beenfunded by the EU’s European RegionalDevelopment Fund. Tevi is led by a teamfrom the University of Exeter based at thePenryn Campus, in partnership with theCornwall Wildlife Trust, Cornwall Council andthe Cornwall Development Company. Itbrings together a community of SMEs fromacross Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, andsupports these enterprises in delivering avariety of sustainability and circulareconomy objectives, drawing on theexpertise of its full-time specialist staff andacademic researchers from a range ofrelevant disciplines. Tevi has drawn on itsgrowing community of stakeholders frombusiness, academia and civil society toestablish several challenge networks,including one on georesources that focuseson the role they can play in deliveringenvironmental growth and a circulareconomy.

Tevi has also launched Lagas(www.lagas.co.uk), an environmentalintelligence hub for Cornwall incorporatingmapping tools, live video feeds and otherinformation resources. As Lagas developsfurther, the resources it contains will com-plement other projects and data setsrelating to Cornwall’s georesources andtheir sustainable management and use,One such complementary initiative is theDeep Digital Cornwall project, which willbring together researchers and specialistsfrom the University of Exeter, the SouthWest Centre of Excellence in SatelliteApplications, and companies from acrossCornwall. It will create a Cornwall and Islesof Scilly data hub and visualisation suite for3D spatial data sets relating to thegeoresources and subsurface of Cornwall,and their relation to surface informationsuch as that contained in Lagas.

MORE INFO:Tevi - https://www.tevi.co.uk

Camborne School of Mines- https://emps.exeter.ac.uk/csm

Exeter Centre for Circular Economy- https://business-school.exeter.ac.uk/research/centres/circular

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Conducted in 2020 during the global Covid-19 pandemic, against thebackdrop of a mounting climate emergency, ‘The Cornwall We Want’ wasCornwall’s biggest ever listening campaign, involving thousands ofresidents. It shaped the vision put forward in ‘Gyllyn Warbarth, TogetherWe Can: The Cornwall Plan 2020-2050’. Over 75% of participants wantedthings to be different after the pandemic, with many calling for a fairer,more inclusive and greener Cornwall. 70% said they would be happy tochange the way they work and travel to address climate change and otherenvironmental challenges – a resolve that seems to have strengthenedduring the pandemic.

The Cornwall Plan and other roadmap documents developed over the past few yearsrecognise the enormous natural assets that Cornwall possesses, many arising from ordependent on the geosphere, from mineral and energy resources to landscape andsense of place. But they also recognise that these assets must be used differently infuture from how they have been in the past, in pursuit of environmental growth,equitable and inclusive communities, and sustainable economic development. Sectorsfrom mining to tourism must develop not just with public consent, but with the activeparticipation of communities that feel they are listened to and have agency in decisionsabout the places where they live. Understanding and engaging with public perceptionsof the world beneath our feet, as research at the University of Plymouth relating togeothermal power in Cornwall has done, for example, can play a valuable role inenabling meaningful participation.

Unleashing Cornwall’s potential to use its georesources for sustainability, locally,nationally and globally, will require action from UK government, in addition to thecommitment and work of local bodies and communities. Smarter and more resilientenergy infrastructure must be developed at a national level, including extension of thenational electricity grid which currently ends at Indian Queens, to facilitate efficientdeployment of multiple renewable energy sources and stimulate innovation in energystorage. Government has previously paid little attention to the mineral resources thatwill be required for decarbonisation and other aspects of national industrial strategy –this is starting to change, but greater coordination is needed across departments.Improved digital connectivity is essential to Cornwall’s low-carbon, high-tech future. Itremains unclear how the Shared Prosperity Fund (replacing EU structural funding suchas the European Regional Development Fund) will work, and the impact of the UK nolonger participating in Interreg is not yet known – Cornwall has benefitted significantlyfrom these, and risks losing both funding and international influence if such uncertain-ties are not urgently addressed.

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DELIVERING SUSTAINABLEGROWTH FOR CORNWALLIN A CHANGING WORLD

When Cornish policy and planningdocuments refer to georesources, it is usuallyin the narrow sense of minerals andgeothermal energy. But a more holistic viewis called for if Cornwall’s georesources are toused and managed sustainably,encompassing the broader variety ofinterconnected georesources outlined in thisreport. A useful way of framing these, in thecontext of environmental and sustainabilitypolicy-making, may be as geosystem services– that is, the full range of ecosystem servicesthat depend on the geosphere. These includeprovisioning services such as the supply ofenergy, water and mineral resources;regulating services including subsurfacestorage, carbon sinks and other naturalbuffering capacities; supporting services thatunderpin ecosystems, including geochemicalcycles; and cultural services such asenjoyment and appreciation of landscape,minerals and fossils. Non-living aspects ofnatural capital such as rocks and mineralsare often overlooked, and the provision ofsubsurface resources is rarely recognised asan ecosystem service, unlike food crops forinstance.

MINING IN CORNWALL -BUILDING BACK BETTER

CORNWALL & THE UNSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT GOALS

Economic research carried out for theREMIX project estimates that exploration,production and refining of Cornwall’slithium, tin and tungsten resources couldgenerate £1 billion GVA (gross valueadded) over the next 20 years. Thisopportunity could also be the springboardfor Cornwall to lead the way in responsibleextraction and use of such resources.Cornish Lithium Ltd and British LithiumLtd, for instance, are developinginnovative technologies to minimise socialand environmental impacts of lithiumextraction (from hard rock settings as wellas brines). With other partners, they arealso exploring the potential for lithiumprocessing in the UK, capturing more ofthe value chain, shortening the globaljourneys that mineral resources passthrough, and maximising the sustainabilitybenefits that responsible use oftechnology metals can deliver.

REMIX’s Georesources Cornwall workingpaper also included a detailed set of policyrecommendations. For example, it is vitalthat local and national policy makersfacilitate the development of asustainable ‘industrial ecosystem’ whilemining is going on, to ensure ongoingeconomic productivity and positivelegacies for communities andenvironments when it ceases. TheEnterprise Space for AdvancedManufacturing developed on formerkaolin mining land is a good example ofthis - in contrast to the legacy of poverty,deprivation and ecological damagefollowing the closure of Cornwall's metalmines, in the absence of effectiveplanning and regeneration.

Climate change is just one of theinterconnected global challenges set out inthe UN Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs). Georesources, used and managedresponsibly, have the potential to contributedirectly or indirectly to all 17 goals. A keyprinciple of the SDGs is to leave nobodybehind, and they apply in all nations andregions – not only in poorer countries mostlikely to bear the brunt of environmentalchange and unsustainable resource use.Cornwall can play an important role indelivering the SDGs globally, providing rawmaterials needed for low-carbon technologieswhile leading the way in sustainable mining.The G7 meeting to be held in Cornwall in June2021 promises to focus on building backbetter from the Covid-19 pandemic to createa greener, more prosperous future, providingan ideal showcase for these Cornishstrengths, and setting the scene for theCOP26 UN Climate Change Conference inGlasgow in November 2021. The SDGs arealso a useful external framework forCornwall’s own sustainable developmentplans – the Cornwall Plan 2020-2050, forexample, sets out indicators of progresstowards a greener and more inclusiveCornwall, and maps these to the SDGs.

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MORE INFO:The Cornwall We Want consultation- https://tinyurl.com/cornwall-we-want

Geological Society - Geology and theUN SDGs- https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/sustainabledevelopment

- https://emps.exeter.ac.uk/csm/research/environment/remix

REMIX Report - Georesources Cornwall

Acknowledgements:Thanks to Mark Alcock (Satarla), Deeba Ansari (Imerys), Lucy Crane (Cornish Lithium), Cathryn MacCallum (Sazani Associates / Satarla), Neil Morrin (Morvah Consulting / Satarla), Sarah Morrin (Morvah Consulting / Satarla), Roderick Smith (British Lithium), Frances Wall (Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter), Dave Watkins (Cornwall Council), Jeremy Wrathall (Cornish Lithium).

Authors: Nic Bilham (Satarla / University of Exeter), Sarah Gordon (Satarla / Responsible Raw Materials)

Design: Amy Ball

Communications: www.tevi.co.uk

@TeviCornwall

info@tevi.co.uk