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Acknowledgements American Colleagues:
K. Barrett, N. Busch‐Rossnagel, R. Harmon, C. Maslin‐Cole
European and Australian Colleagues:M. Cuskelly, L. Gilmore, K. Jozsa
Asian Colleagues:H.‐F. Liao, A.‐W. Hwang, J. Wang, P.‐J. Wang, Q. Xu
Many others have shared their DMQ data includingS.‐Y. Huang, K.‐L. Lay
Translation & Assisting with the workshop: P.J. Wang , Y.L. Pan, C.L. Chen, H.Y. Liu
What is Motivation? A psychological force that leads one to either approach or avoid an object or goal
Persistence, curiosity, exploration and interest are all general indicators of motivation
A motivated child is not necessarily highly competent and may not have good skills at the present time
What is Mastery Motivation?
Mastery Motivation is a psychological force that stimulates an individual to attempt independently, in a focused and persistent manner, to solve a problem or master a skill or task which is at least moderately challenging for him or her
(Morgan, Harmon, & Maslin‐Cole, 1990)
Key Features of Mastery Motivation
Child’s attempts to solve problems may not be successful.
Motivation ≠ Competence or ability Attempts are persistent and focused on a goal or task.
Task should be moderately challenging for each individual child. Not too hard or too easy.
Importance of Mastery Motivation
Early indicators of mastery motivation seem to be precursors of later competence (e.g., Yarrow, et al, 1975; Messer et al., 1986; Jozsa & Molnar, in press; Gilmore & Cuskelly, 2009)
Cited in US National Academy of Science report, Neurons to Neighborhoods, as a key developmental concept that should be assessed in early childhood. (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000)
Assumptions
Infant mastery motivation is primarily intrinsic or built into all young children.
However, there are marked individual differences. Both genetics and environment influence these individual differences, especially as the infant becomes a toddler and older.
More Assumptions
Mastery motivation is more malleable than intelligence or temperament. It is affected by experience.
Infants with high mastery motivation will become high in competence later. Attempts to master lead to learning and competence.
Key Mastery Motivation Behaviors
What behaviors are indexes or measures of Mastery Motivation?
Historically, mastery motivation focused primarily on persistence at object‐oriented behavioral tasks in infants and toddlers. Two key measures are:
Persistence (task‐directedness) at moderately challenging tasks
Mastery pleasure: positive affect during task–directed behavior or just after a solution
Shape Sorter Mastery TaskTester Demonstrates Child is Task‐Directed (whether or
not the shape goes into the hole)
Four Ways of Assessing Mastery Motivation in Young Children
1. Structured, problem‐posing tasks2. Ratings of overall home or school behavior by parent,
teacher or self —The Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ)
3. Global ratings of goal‐directed persistence during standardized tests or mastery tasks
4. Observations of semi‐structured or free play
Structured Mastery Tasks
Originally (Yarrow et al 1982, 1983) the tasks were selected to be challenging for a typical child of a specific age (for example 12 months)
All children received the same tasks So they were too hard for some and too easy for others Later (Morgan et al 1992) developed the individualized task method
Individualized Task Method(Morgan et al., 1992)
Sets of similar tasks that vary in level of difficulty Select level presumed to be moderately challenging for this child
If task is too hard, use an easier oneIf task is too easy, use a harder oneuntil find moderately challenging task
Task is moderately challenging if this child can solve part of it, but not all of it quickly
Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ)
(Morgan et al., 2009)
The DMQ assesses six aspects of adults’ perceptions of children’s mastery related behaviors and also a measure of the child’s competence.
Used by over 70 samples of 6‐month to 19‐year olds rated by their parent or teacher, and/or elementary school‐age and teens rated themselves.
Children are assessed on 5‐point Likert‐type scales of how typical each of 45 behaviors is for the child
DMQ Scales Instrumental aspects of mastery motivation
1. Cognitive Object-oriented persistence
2. Gross motor persistence
3. Social persistence/mastery motivation with adults
4. Social persistence/mastery motivation with children
Expressive aspects of mastery motivation
5. Mastery pleasure
6. Negative reactions to failure in mastery situations
Ability to master in contrast to motivation to master tasks
7. General competence
Total mastery motivation scales (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
No. of Items
9
8
6
6
6
5
5
35
Global Ratings of Goal Directed Persistence during Testing
Nine point rating scale from1. No evidence of goal‐directed effort
to9. Very high absorption in mastery tasks, even if they
are very difficult for the child Can be used to rate the child’s motivation during developmental tests or mastery tasks
Free Play Assessment
Used by researchers in the 1970s and 1980s to assess infant and toddler motivation (e.g., Jennings et al., 1979, Morgan et al., 1991; Vondra and Belsky, 1991)
Several different coding procedures, but none widely used by other researchers
Free play measures are useful for other purposes, but not very good to assess motivation to master challenging tasks
Four Issues1. Can mastery motivation and competence be
separated? Are they inseparably intertwined?2. Is mastery motivation a useful concept in
domains other than for object‐oriented tasks?3. Are there developmental transformations and
age changes in mastery motivation?4. How can we facilitate/encourage high mastery
motivation in children?
First IssueCan mastery motivation and competence
be separated? High mastery motivation but low competence:Some children try hard to do things that are challenging for them, even if they aren’t very good at them initially.
High competence but low mastery motivation:Others are good at solving problems but don’t persist at things they can not do quickly.
However competence and persistence are correlated for most children.
Mastery Motivation vs Competence
Early studies found them to be moderately interrelated. Also true of the DMQ.
Can they be separated? Maybe. The individualized assessment method helps by attempting to give every child tasks that are moderately difficult for each of them individually.
Thus, children with lower developmental ages should get easier tasks that are moderately challenging for them personally.
Second Issue
Is mastery motivation a useful construct in domains other than for object oriented tasks? Is there more than one type or domain of mastery motivation?
Yes.(Busch‐Rossnagel and Morgan, in press)
Domains of Mastery Motivation
At least 3 types/domains exist: Object‐oriented mastery motivation Gross‐motor mastery motivation Socially‐oriented mastery motivation includes
Social with peers, and Social with adults
Children may be high in one, but low in another domain of mastery motivation.
Third Issue
Are there developmental transformations in mastery motivation? Does mastery motivation change as children grow? Yes, in infancy. (Barrett & Morgan, 1995) Maybe not later. But it seems to decline after about age 10. (Jozsa & Molnar, in press)
Developmental Transitions(Barrett & Morgan, 1995)
Mastery motivation changes as child grows Birth to approximately 9 months: exploration, interest in novel objects, pleasure when makes something happen
9 months to approximately 18 months: practicing emerging skills and joy at being a cause
18 months to approximately 3 years: persistence at completing tasks, pleasure in meeting standards, and negative reactions to failure
Older than 3 years: persistence at many types of tasks,mastery pleasure, and preference for challenge
Fourth Issue
Can we produce/facilitate high mastery motivation in children?
Probably, but how is complex and not fully understood.
Some Parental Factors Found to Positively Influence Mastery Motivation
Early sensory stimulation: variety and type are more important than amount, especially if stimulation interrupts or controls the child’s behavior
Support for autonomy versus overprotection, controlling, or interfering with mastery attempts
Contingent responsiveness to the child’s care cues Maternal warmth and positive mother‐child affective exchanges
Maternal scaffolding of task. Unobtrusive guidance, focusing, pointing out critical features
Based on a variety of research studies. See references.
Some Parental Factors Found to Negatively Influence Mastery Motivation
Over protectivenessOverstimulation and over structuring/highly directive of mastery attempts
Negative affective exchangesMaternal depression Parental stress and burden
Based on a variety of research studies. See references.
Actions to Promote in Interventions to Increase Mastery Motivation (1) Provide moderately challenging goals
Appropriate match between the child’s skill and environment demands.
Not too hard nor too easy Encourage goal‐directed behavior
Allow and promote initiation of independent goal‐directed behavior
Reward attention to tasks, effort, and practicing rather than praising the child’s skills and success
Reward persistence at challenging tasks
Actions to Promote in Interventions to Increase Mastery Motivation (2) Promote use of multiple strategies to achieve a goal Promote enjoyment of trying and of partial success
Encourage small steps toward mastery to maintain motivation in the face of challenges and failure in everyday life.
Adapted fromKeilty, B., & Freund, M. (2004)Cuskelly, M., Gilmore, L., & Carroll, A. (in press)
Selected References Barrett, K. C., MacTurk, R. H., & Morgan, G. A. (1995). Concluding comments on mastery
motivation: origins, conceptualizations, and applications. In R. H. MacTurk & G. A. Morgan (Ed.), Mastery motivation: Origins, conceptualizations, and applications (pp. 339–359). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Busch‐Rossnagel, N. A. (1997). Mastery motivation in toddlers. Infants and Young Children, 9, 1‐11. Cuskelly, M., & Gilmore, L., Carroll, A. (in press). Self‐regulation and mastery motivation in
individuals with developmental disabilities: Barriers, supports and strategies. In K. C. Barrett (Ed.), Handbook on self‐regulatory processes in development: New directions and international perspectives.New York, NY: Routledge.
Gilmore, L., & Cuskelly, M. (2011). Observational assessment and maternal reports of motivation in children and adolescents with Down syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 116, 153–164.
Harter, S. & Zigler, E. (1974). The assessment of effectance motivation in normal and retarded children. Developmental Psychology, 10(2), 169‐180.
Jennings, K. D., Connors, R. E., & Stegman, C. E. (1988). Does a physical handicap alter the development of mastery motivation during the preschool years? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 312‐317.
Jennings, K. D., Harmon, R. J., Morgan, G. A., Gaiter, J. L., & Yarrow, L. J. (1979). Exploratory play as an index of mastery motivation: Relationships to persistence, cognitive functioning and environmental measures. Developmental Psychology, 15, 386‐394.
Selected References (continued) Jozsa, K. & Molnar, E. D. (in press). The relationship between mastery motivation, self‐regulated
learning and school success: A Hungarian and European perspective. In K. C. Barrett (Ed.), Handbook on self‐regulatory processes in development: New directions and international perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.
Keilty, B., Freund, M. (2004). Mastery motivation: A framework for considering the “how” of infant and toddler learning. Young Exceptional Children, 8, 1‐10.
Majnemer et al., (2010). Level of motivation in mastering challenging tasks in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52, 1120‐1126.
Maslin‐Cole, C., Bretherton, I., & Morgan, G. A. (1993). Toddler mastery motivation and competence: Links with attachment security, maternal scaffolding, and family climate. In D. Messer (Ed.), Mastery motivation in early childhood (pp. 205‐229). London: Routledge.
Messer, D., McCarthy, M., McQuiston, S., MacTurk, R., Yarrow, L. J., & Vietze, P. (1986). Relation between mastery behavior in infancy and competence in early childhood. Development Psychology, 22, 366‐372.
Morgan, G. A., Busch‐Rossnagel, N. A., Barrett, K. C., & Wang, J. (2009). The Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ): A manual about its development, psychometrics, and use. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Retrieve from https://sites.google.com/a/rams. colostate.edu/georgemorgan/mastery‐motivation
Morgan, G. A., Busch‐Rossnagel, N. A., Maslin‐Cole, C. A., & Harmon, R. J. (1992). Individualized assessment of mastery motivation: Manual for 15 to 36 month old children. Unpublished document. Fordham University, Department of Psychology. Retrieve from https://sites.google.com/a/rams.colostate.edu/georgemorgan/mastery‐motivation
Selected References (continued) Morgan, G. A., Busch‐Rossnagel, N. A., Maslin‐Cole, C. A., & Harmon, R. J. (1992). Individualized
assessment of mastery motivation: Manual for 15 to 36 month old children. Unpublished document. Fordham University, Department of Psychology. Retrieve from https://sites.google.com/a/rams.colostate.edu/georgemorgan/mastery‐motivation
Morgan, G. A., Harmon, R. J., & Maslin‐Cole, C. A. (1990). Mastery motivation: Definition and measurement. Early Education and Development, 1, 318‐339.
Morgan, G. A., Wang, J., Liao, H.‐F., & Xu, Q. (in press): Using the dimensions of mastery questionnaire (DMQ) to assess mastery motivation of English and Chinese speaking children: Psychometrics and implications for self‐regulation. In K. C. Barrett (Ed.), Handbook on self‐regulatory processes in development: New directions and international perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.
Shonkoff, J.P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Vondra, J. I. & Belsky, J. (1991). Infant play as a window on competence and motivation. In C. Schaefer, K. Gitlin, & A. Sandgrund (Eds.), Play diagnosis and assessment (pp. 11‐38). New York, NY: Wiley.
Yarrow, L. J., Klein, R. P, Lomonaco, S., & Morgan, G. A. (1975). Cognitive and motivational Development in early childhood. Exceptional Infant, 491‐502.
Yarrow, L. J., McQuiston, S., MacTurk, R. H., McCarthy, M. E., Klein, R. P., & Vietze, P. M. (1983). Assessment of mastery motivation during the first year of life. Contemporaneous and cross‐age relationships. Developmental Psychology, 19, 159‐171.