Georgia Forestry Study Guide

2014 International Envirothon

July 20-25, 2014 Athens, Georgia

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Georgia-specific Learning Objectives

In addition to the information provided by the North American Envirothon Curriculum Guidelines and Resources, the information provide in this guide is provided to develop and deepen Envirothon participant knowledge about forestry in Georgia.

Envirothon participants must be able to...

1. Identify (common and scientific names; correct spelling is required) and describe the selected species of angiosperms and gymnosperms listed in this guide (p. 3).

2. Identify (common and scientific names) and describe the forest insects and diseases listed in this guide (pp. 4-8).

3. Identify (common name only) and describe the invasive plant species listed in this guide (pp.9-14).

4. Define prescribed fire and list the reasons why prescribed fire is used as a forest management tool (pp. 15-16).

5. Measure tree height (ft) and diameter (in), and calculate timber volume for a designated set of trees (Scribner log rule will be provided). Describe the differences between forest stand types (e.g. Even-aged, Uneven-aged, etc.), and list activities associated with establishing and managing a forest from planting to final harvest (pp. 17-23).

6. List and describe timber and non-timber forest products produced in Georgia (pp. 24-26).

7. Describe and discuss the ecosystem services provided by forests in Georgia (pp. 27-32).

8. Discuss the relevance of forestry to the economy of Georgia (p. 33). 9. Increase comprehension about tree biology and forestry by using the

glossary (p. 36).

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1. Tree Species in Georgia

Students competing in the 2014 Envirothon should be able to identify the 35 trees listed below by common and scientific name. In addition to identification, students should be able to describe any unique characteristics, forest products produced, or importance to wildlife of these trees.

Scientific Name Common Name (Angiosperms) Acer rubrum Red maple Betula nigra River birch Carya glabra Pignut hickory Carya tomentosa Mockernut hickory Cornus florida Flowering dogwood Fagus grandifolia American beech Fraxinus pennsylvanica Green ash Ilex opaca American holly Liquidambar styraciflua Sweetgum Liriodendron tulipifera Yellow poplar Magnolia grandiflora Southern magnolia Morus rubra Red mulberry Platanus occidentalis American sycamore Prunus serotina Black cherry Quercus alba White oak Quercus coccinea Scarlet oak Quercus falcate Southern Red oak Quercus laurifolia Laurel oak Quercus nigra Black oak Quercus prinus Chestnut oak Quercus stellata Post oak Quercus rubra Northern Red oak Quercus virginiana Live oak (State tree) Sassafras albidum Sassafras Ulmus alata Winged elm Ulmus americana American elm (Gymnosperms) Juniperus virginiana Eastern redcedar Pinus echinata Shortleaf pine Pinus elliottii Slash pine Pinus palustris Longleaf pine Pinus strobus Eastern white pine Pinus taeda Loblolly pine Pinus virginiana Virginia pine Taxodium distichum Bald cypress Tsuga canadensis Eastern hemlock

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2. Forest Insects and Diseases in Georgia

Students competing in the 2014 Envirothon should be able to identify and describe the damage caused by the following forest insects and forest diseases listed below. Students must know these by both the common and scientific names. A good reference guide for more information about this topic is:

Price, T. S. 2008. Forest Health Guide for Georgia. Georgia Forestry Commission, Macon, GA.

Southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis The southern pine beetle is the most destructive pine bark beetle species in the South. The SPB attacks all species of southern yellow pines including eastern white pine. It is particularly destructive in overmature and overcrowded stands. Outbreaks are cyclic and are usually preceded by drought or flooding. In non-outbreak years individual spots are often associated with lightning and man caused disturbances.

Eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americanum, feeds on cherry, apple, and plum. Full-grown caterpillars are about 1.6 inches long; coloration varies but in general they have black heads, bodies marked with a mid-dorsal white stripe down the length of the back and yellow lateral stripes between each pair of which occurs a blue dot The adult moths are light brown with two diagonal white stripes across the forewings. Silken tents usually occur in tree forks. 

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, feeds on most hardwood species preferring oaks (right). Full grown caterpillars are from 1.5-2 inches long and have a series of blue and red dots along the back. The gypsy moth is a serious spring defoliator of forest and shade trees. The destructive stage is the caterpillar, which feeds on several hundred species of trees and shrubs.

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Pine sawflies are a unique group of defoliating insects.  The redheaded pine sawfly (Neodiprion lecontei) is the most widely distributed species in the south and is usually the species responsible for region-wide outbreaks covering several states. It is capable of producing three or more generations per year in the south

 

 

The Nantucket pine tip moth, Ryacionia frustrana, is the most widely distributed species and causes the most damage to recently planted pines. All native pines up to about 15 feet in height are attacked. Eastern white pine is considered resistant. Slash and longleaf pines may be infested under certain conditions but are generally considered resistant. Loblolly and shortleaf are the favored hosts. Severe and repeated attacks often result in stunted, bushy, and deformed trees. The adult Nantucket pine tip moth is about 1/4” in length with irregular brick red and coppery patches on the forewings. The wingspan is about 1/2”. The pitch pine moth range overlaps with the Nantucket pine tip moth and positive field identification is difficult. However, they have similar habits. The larvae of both species are small, yellowish to brownish and are approximately 1/8” in length. 

The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, is another exotic beetle from Asia that kills ash trees. So far it has spread through many mid-western states and as far south as Tennessee and North Carolina. It attacks all species within the Fraxinus genera  

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Annosum root disease Heterobasidion annosum, can be a serious problem of pines in plantations that have been thinned one or more times. Loblolly, slash and white pines are affected most but shortleaf and longleaf are sometimes infected. The fungus that causes annosum root rot reportedly enters pine stands when its airborne spores land on freshly cut stump surfaces. The spores progress downward into the roots and then spread to adjacent healthy trees through root contacts in the soil.

The fungus that causes Dutch elm disease (DED), Ophiostoma ulmi, was introduced into the United States many years ago. This disease affects all native elm species. The earliest symptoms are wilting, curling and yellowing of leaves on one or more branches, followed by leaf fall and death of the branches. Trees of all ages can be affected. Trees may die within a few weeks of the onset of symptoms or may die a limb at a time over a period of a year or more. The springwood of the last annual ring of an infected tree shows in cross section as a dark brown ring or as a series of dark dots.

Fusiform rust, Cronarium quercuum sp. fusiforme, is the most damaging disease of slash and loblolly pines throughout the southeastern United States. This disease causes stem and branch cankers (galls) to form on infected trees. The majority of infections occur prior to age 5. In early spring active galls produce yellow-orange spores (aeciospores) that are windblown to young, tender oak leaves. Water, willow and laurel oaks are the species most affected.    

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 The fungus, Dibotryon morbosum, causes black knot of cherry and plum. The fungus causes irregular shaped, ugly knots. The great majority of infections occur on green shoots however, older branches can be infected if the bark has been damaged. A major source of infection for ornamental cherries and plums are the native wild cherries that grow along fencerows. Eliminating wild cherries will help reduce the source of inoculum. Diseased branches should be pruned and destroyed. Otherwise, the disease will continue to spread within the tree.   

  Laurel wilt, a new disease of redbay (Persea borbonia) (below) and other plant species in the family Lauraceae, is causing widespread mortality in the coastal regions of several southeastern states. The disease is caused by a fungus (Raffaelea lauricola) that is introduced into trees by an exotic insect, the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus).  

 

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IMPORTANT CURRENT ISSUE: Don’t Move Firewood!

Why is moving firewood a problem?

Forest health experts agree that moving firewood has been linked to the spread of destructive, non-native insects and diseases to forest ecosystems. While these pests can't move far on their own, they can travel hundreds of miles when people move firewood, logs, chips, and mulch. Forest pests can kill our native trees and be very expensive, if not impossible, to control.

Many species of hardwood and pine trees serve as potential hosts for these destructive pests, so no firewood is considered safe to be moved long distances. Non-native organisms can wreak havoc on the environment. They are often resistant to natural controls and can spread unchecked, resulting in much greater harm to our forests than is experienced with native pests. Tiny, non-native insects and their larvae, and even microscopic fungus spores can hide in firewood that is transported by visitors into campsites and parks. They can fall unnoticed to the ground on a small chip of bark, or washed off the firewood from a sudden rainstorm.

What can you do?

To combat the threat and spread of non-native pests and diseases, campers visiting Georgia are asked to leave their firewood at home and purchase local wood. If wood has been inadvertently brought into camp, it should be burned on-site or turned over to park officials.

What are some pests threatening Georgia's forests?

Georgia is currently battling a non-native insect known as the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus) that has been spread by the movement of firewood. It has killed millions of our native Redbay trees (Persea borbonia), and is also killing our native Sassafras (Sassafras albidum).

Other non-native threats to Georgia's forests include the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), and sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio). These pests are already established in the northeastern portion of the United States and could spread into Georgia through the movement of firewood. The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) has spread by eggs laid on firewood.

 

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3. Invasive plant species in Georgia

An invasive species is defined as any plant or animal that has been introduced and aggressively competes with and displaces local native communities; normally having no native enemies to limit reproduction and spread. A comprehensive guide can be found online:

Miller, J.H., E.B, Chambliss, N.J. Loewenstein. 2010. A Field Guide for the Identification of Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. General Technical Report SRS-119. Asheville, NC. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 126 p.

#1 Chinese privet The most prevalent species of privet in Georgia is Chinese privet. The fruit is desirable to both birds and animals which are responsible for the spread of it. This woody shrub also spreads by sprouting, and is shade tolerant. Maybe the most famous “stand” of Chinese privet can be found in Sanford Stadium where the Georgia Bulldogs play “Between the (privet) Hedges” on Saturdays in the fall.

#2 Nepalese browntop (aka. Japanese stiltgrass) This is an annual grass that flourishes in alluvial floodplains and along streams. First discovered in the U.S. in Tennessee in the early 1900’s it has spread to most eastern and southeastern states. It has very little value as wildlife browse.

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#3 Chinaberry A medium sized tree that readily populates disturbed areas. Fruit is showy but messy and poisonous to many mammals but it is readily consumed by birds which help the spread of this tree. The tree has bipinnately compound leaves.

#4 Kudzu A leguminous vine originally introduced in the US in the 1930’s to help control soil erosion. However it does not effectively prevent soil movement. The vine spreads rapidly, completely covering trees, buildings and any stationary object over time and often referred to as “the vine that ate the south.” Kudzu has a very well developed root system that makes this invasive difficult to eradicate. Browned out kudzu readily burns and serves as a ladder fuel to move prescribed fire and wildfires into the canopy.

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#5 Bi-color lespedeza At one time bi-color lespedeza widely planted as a wildlife food source especially for Bobwhite quail. Readily spreads forming dense thickets choking out native species. A legume, this plant will grow well on poor soils.

#6 Japanese climbing fern This native of Japan forms dense mats and will climb native trees and shrubs shading them out in the process. A perennial, this vine dies back in the winter the but the dead vines provide ready access to new climbing shoots and this dead material also serves as a ladder fuels for both prescribed fire and wildfire allowing flames to reach the canopy.

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#7 Mimosa Mimosa was introduced into the US as ornamental displaying showy pink flowers and bipinnately compound leaves. A legume, the seed of the mimosa may lie dormant for years and is spread by consumption of birds and by water. When cut, this tree will readily resprout and can form dense stands that compete with and shade out native species.

#8 Multiflora rose Non-native roses were introduced in the U.S. in the 1800’s as ornamentals and were later planted for wildlife food and as living fences. They can form thickets that restrict animal and human movement and displace native plants. They are not shade tolerant and do not do well under canopy but readily establish and spread in disturbed areas with available light.

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#9 Tallowtree Introduced into the U.S. in the 1700’s as an ornamental for its attractive fall coloring, this invasive is fast growing and produces a 3 lobed capsule housing 3 seeds covered in a waxy covering. The tree is somewhat drought hardy and the seeds are spread by birds and water but the leaves and seed are toxic to many animals.

#10 Autumn-olive Introduced into the U.S. in the 1800’s these invasives spread rapidly taking over sites from native vegetation. While originally planted and widely used as a wildlife food source as the drupes produced are desirable to wildlife, the uncontrollable way in which it spreads makes it a poor choice and a problem for the landowner.

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#11 Chinese wisteria This invasive vine is very showy and is often admired by individuals for the color and sweet smell produced by the flowers and it has been cultivated in the U.S. since the 1800’s. However, this vine will climb trees and shrubs shading out competitors and will also girdle trees that it has climbed over the course of many years. Curing seed pods will “pop” sending seed flying for 30 feet or more.

#12 Cogongrass Introduced into the U.S. as a livestock forage and for erosion control in the early 1900’s this grass is actually unpalatable for livestock. Spreading via rhizomes and by wind borne seeds it is very aggressive effectively outcompeting native plants. Its ability to spread and take over a site has this plant on the Federal Noxious Weed list. Cured cogongrass burns very hot making prescribed fire difficult under pine stands and creating dangerous conditions for fire fighters fighting wildfires in forest stands with an understory of cogongrass. An offset white rib and fuzzy flowers/seed pods help identify congongrass.

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4. Prescribed Fire

Prescribed fire (Rx fire) is defined as fire applied in a knowledgeable manner to forest fuels on a specific land area under selected weather conditions to accomplish predetermined, well-defined management objectives.

Reasons to Burn Reduce hazardous fuels

Forest fuels accumulate rapidly in pine stands. In 5 to 6 years heavy roughs can build up, posing a serious threat from wildfire to all forest resources. Prescribed fire is the most practical way to reduce dangerous accumulation of combustible fuels under southern pine stands. Wildfires that burn into areas where fuels have been reduced by Rx fire cause less damage and are much easier to control.

Prepare sites for seeding and planting

Rx fire is useful when regenerating southern pine by direct seeding, planting, or natural regeneration. On open sites, fire alone can expose adequate mineral soil and control competing vegetation until seedlings become established.

Improve wildlife habitat

Rx fire is highly recommended for wildlife habitat management where loblolly, shortleaf, longleaf, or slash pine is the primary overstory species. Periodic fire tends to favor understory species that require a more open habitat. A mixture of burned and unburned areas tends to maximize "edge effect", which promotes a large and varied wildlife population. Deer, dove, quail, and turkey are some of the game species that benefit from Rx fire.

Manage competing vegetation

Low-value, poor quality, shade tolerant hardwoods often occupy or encroach upon land best suited to growing pines. Unwanted species may crowd out or suppress pine seedlings. In most situations, total eradication of understory is neither practical nor desirable. However, with the careful use of Rx fire the understory can be managed to limit competition with desired species while at the same time providing browse for wildlife.

Control insects and disease

Brownspot disease is a fungal infection that may seriously weaken and eventually kill longleaf pine seedlings. Once the seedlings become infected, burning is the most practical method of disease control. Any type of burning that kills the diseased needles without killing the terminal bud is satisfactory. Rx fire has been successfully used under very

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exacting fuel and weather conditions to control cone insects such as the white pine cone beetle, while the pest is overwintering in cones on the ground. Rx burning costs much less than traditional chemical control methods used to control this beetle.

Improve forage for grazing

Rx burning improves grazing in open pine stands on the Coastal Plain. Low intensity burns increase availability, palatability, quality, and quantity of grasses and forbs.

Enhance appearance

Rx burning improves recreation and aesthetic values. Burning maintains open stands, produces vegetative changes, and increases numbers and visibility of flowering annuals and biennials. Rx burning also maintains open spaces such as mountain balds, and creates vistas.

Improve access

Burning underbrush prior to the sale of forest products improves the efficiency of cruising, timber marking, and harvesting. The reduced amount of fuel helps offset the greater risk of wildfire during harvesting. Moreover, the improved visibility and accessibility often increases the stumpage value of the product.

Weather Effects on Fire

Knowledge of weather is the key to successful Rx burning, and is mandatory for proper management of smoke produced by burning.

An understanding of weather and its effects on fire is essential to any Rx burn. The more important elements to consider for executing a good burn are:

Preferred weather conditions

Wind: in-stand wind speeds 3- 5 mph

Humidity: 30-55 percent

Temperature (winter): below 60 degrees Fahrenheit

Fine fuel moisture: 10 to 20 percent

Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI): between 250 and 400

KBDI is the measure of moisture in the duff or upper soil layers. It ranges from 0 (very wet) to 800 (drought conditions). Low KBDI relates to very wet conditions, which would make it difficult for a fire to carry in the understory. High KBDI readings relate to dry conditions and may cause the fire to burn too deeply into the duff layer causing damage to root systems as well as possible soil damage.

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5. Measuring and Managing the Forest

Tree height will be calculated to the nearest foot using a clinometer. Which scale (percent, topo, or degrees) used is up to the individual student.

A diameter tape will be used to measure tree diameter at breast height (DBH), which is always at 4.5 feet above the ground on the high side of the tree.

TIMBER MANAGEMENT

One objective of many forest landowners is timber production. Forestland managed primarily for wildlife, recreation or water protection has the ability produce timber. The professional practice of forest management is sustainable and economically viable. Well-managed forests generally have several common features:

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Tree species that are suited to the local climate, soils and markets Crop Trees with adequate room to grow Minimal numbers of damaged, diseased or insect-infested trees Protection from fire and destructive grazing Easy access Best Management Practices (BMPs) to prevent soil erosion and sedimentation to protect

water quality Boundaries and corners are clearly marked and maintained, and A written forest resource management plan that considers all resources that govern

activities.

When selecting how to manage a forest, the following must be addressed:

Objectives or goals Financial and physical limitations The size, condition and capabilities of the forest The availability of technical and contractual services in your area, and Expected markets.

It is strongly suggested that a forestry consultant be used to provide current market values for timber. The consultant fee is cost-effective in selling a landowner’s timber.

For tree species and stocking information contact a forestry professional. Normally, the Georgia Forestry Commission recommends 500-700 trees/acre (these stocking rates are subject to change based on the objective of the landowner).

Types of Timber Stands

Even-aged stands Certain tree species grow in even-aged stands, where all the trees are approximately the same age. Strategies for managing even-aged stands are best suited to tree species that do not grow well in the shade. Normally, these stands are harvested by techniques which allow maximum sunlight to reach the forest floor. Two-aged stands While similar to even-aged stands, these have two different age classes. Uneven-aged stands Trees of more than two ages and size classes are present in uneven-aged stands. Species which thrive in full or partial shade are best suited to these stands. These methods do require more access roads and trails when planning for timber harvests. Extreme care must be used to prevent damage to trees left after each selective harvest. Uneven-aged stand management is complex. It is better suited to larger forests, particularly where the owner wants repeated, frequent timber harvests and income.

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Establishing and Managing Timber Stands

Linking timber harvesting, regeneration, and intermediate stand management treatments in a logical sequence to meet your goals is complex. Generally, management practices fall into three categories depending on the age and condition of the forest:

1. Forest establishment or regeneration

2. Intermediate stand management practices, and

3. Harvest systems.

The Young Stand Establishing or regenerating a forest can be achieved by artificial means, primarily planting trees, or by natural methods, which rely on seed, sprouts and/or naturally occurring seedlings. These practices are used to establish the forest with desirable trees.

1. Site Preparation Site preparation can be the most intensive, soil disturbing activity done to your property. BMPs must be followed to protect water and soil quality. Removing undesirable vegetation or preparing a seedbed may be needed. Depending on the soil type, soil moisture, geographic region and the type and density of the competing vegetation, different methods can be used to clear the site. These include prescribed burning, herbicides, heavy equipment or manual labor. 2. Stand Establishment Which technique used must be identified in pre-harvest planning. Natural Regeneration Relies on available seed, stump sprouts and/or existing seedlings to produce the new stand. Success depends on whether there is adequate seed, seedling or sprout supply; adequate moisture; a well-prepared seedbed; and control of competing vegetation. Careful planning is required to ensure success.

Artificial Regeneration Seed can be sown by either spreading from ground-level or broadcasting by helicopter over the site. Success will be determined by many of the same factors that affect natural regeneration.

Tree Planting This lets you pick the type of tree (species) and the spacing of the seedling and allows you to use genetically superior seedling stock. It will be successful if the selected species are well adapted to the site, and high-quality, healthy seedlings are carefully planted. In rare instances, seedlings may need to be treated with insecticides or fungicides to protect from early death. Tree planting may be done by hand or machine. Planting on the contour is advised to limit erosion and protect water quality.

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How Many Trees Should I Plant? The density of an initial planting of trees depends upon both the species and objectives of the landowner. In general, landowners planting strictly for timber production will plant Loblolly, Slash or Longleaf pines and will tend to plant at higher densities. Landowners that have other objectives, such as wildlife habitat, may plant pines and other species at a lower density to satisfy their goals. A compromise initial spacing for timber and wildlife is between 500 and 600 seedlings per acre.

Check with your forester or wildlife biologist for more information about species selection, planting densities and typical site preparation and care after planting to expect good results. The following table shows the most common tree planting densities.

Typical Spacing (in feet)  Trees/Acre

6 x 10  726 

6 x 12  605 

7 x 10  622 

7 x 12  519 

8 x 8  680 

8 x 10  544 

8 x 12  454 

9 x 9  538 

9 x 10  484 

10 x 10  435 

3. Competing Vegetation Control (After Planting) Grasses, brush and annual or perennial weeds, which choke out or stunt the growth of seedlings, can be controlled by hand, mechanical means or herbicides. Extreme care must be used to avoid water contamination with pesticides.

4. Fertilization Fertilization is rarely needed during the first four years after planting.

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The Middle-Age Stand Your forest will be healthier and more productive if it is managed by manipulating: the stocking (number of trees per acre); species composition; competition levels, and the use of prescribed burning. Generally speaking, trees or competing vegetation that do not contribute to your objectives for timber production, wildlife, aesthetic or recreational goals can be eliminated in favor of more desirable components in your stand.

1. Competing Vegetation This can be done by the use of hand tools, mechanically, prescribed fire , or chemical methods. Usually brush and herbaceous weeds are not marketable; therefore, they are killed in place. As they decompose, the recycled nutrients become valuable to your forest. Keep in mind that many of these weeds have some benefit to wildlife.

As a method to eliminate less desirable trees, concentrate on removing shade produced from competing vegetation. In most cases, less desirable vegetation sprouts grow rapidly, quickly overtopping planted seedlings. Without release, crop tree seedlings’ early growth can suffer, or they may die.

2. Thinning When competition begins to occur, thinning is usually done in even-aged stands when the tree crowns become so dense the trees start to shade each other. Failure to thin will cause the growth rate and vigor of the crop trees to diminish. Also, unthinned stands are more vulnerable to disease and insect infestations and will take longer to reach marketable size. Enough space is needed for the development of selected crop trees. Pre-commercial thinning removes small trees, which are not yet marketable. In older stands, thinning may produce some income from the sale of the removed trees. By allowing more sunlight to reach, not only the total crown of selected crop trees, but also the forest floor, low vegetation will grow and provide food and cover for many wildlife species.

3. Timber Stand Improvement Timber stand improvement (TSI) is a cutting or culling of undesirable species, usually in a sapling stand of less than 4 -inches in diameter. By removing undesirable species and poorly formed, diseased or insect-infested trees, the species composition and stand quality will improve. Also, TSI will increase the growth rate of the desirable trees remaining. Undesirable trees may be killed in place by herbicides, prescribed burning, or removed to use as firewood. Improvement cuttings are done in older stands to accomplish the same result, but the stems removed are sold.

4. Prescribed Fire This lowers the risk of wildfire, as well as the population of undesirable wood species. Many species, such as most pines, are tolerant of “cool” fires under controlled conditions. Fire can be used to eliminate buildups of leaves, needles, and other fuels that can ignite and cause a major wildfire, as well as removing less fire-tolerant tree and brush species. In addition, prescribed burning returns nutrients to the soil. An added benefit to prescribed burning is the stimulation of many herbaceous species of plants that provide food and cover for certain wildlife species.

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In Georgia, there are specific guidelines for prescribed burning. In order to burn, you must get a burn permit.

5. Pruning Removing persistent low branches improves wood quality by increasing the percentage of valuable clear and knot-free wood. Pruning is best done when branches are less than 2-inches in diameter and the stem diameter is less than 4 -inches. But you should never prune higher than two -thirds of the total height of the tree.

6. Fertilization Intermediate aged stands may need nitrogen and phosphorus to increase the growth and yield of the forest. When there is enough sunlight, water and other nutrients, trees - just like corn - will respond to nitrogen with larger, more productive foliage. Conducting a foliar test will provide information on fertilization rates. It is best to talk with a professional forester to determine the amount of fertilization needed on a specific timber stand. Before applying any type of fertilizer, have the foliage analyzed to determine fertilization rates. Please read about Best Management Practices before applying fertilizer. Following BMPs will help to avoid violations of the Clean Water Act.

The Mature Forest Several options can be used that relate to your forest regeneration planning strategy. Actual cutting of trees can be by hand or machine felling; moving (skidding) of the stems to a loading area (deck) by machine or livestock; and the loading and hauling of the cut timber to market. Timber harvesting, skidding, and hauling on forest roads and trails are potential causes of soil erosion, soil degradation and sedimentation. With the assistance of a professional forester, you can make a pre-harvest plan that will result in a good timber sale and harvest contract. A list of Master Timber Harvesters can be obtained from the Georgia Forestry Commission or the Georgia Forestry Association.

Before harvesting timber, it is strongly suggested that a forestry consultant be used to determine timber volumes and provide current market values for timber. The consultant fee is cost-effective in selling a landowner’s timber. The forestry consultant determines the harvestable products and volume by a timber cruise. Cruises should be conducted before timber sales to estimate the value of the stumpage (standing timber).

1. Clearcutting This removes the entire marketable portion of the stand in one cutting. It is the most efficient and easiest to administer and is appropriate for mature stands or where the stand is of poor quality and even-aged regeneration is desired. While clearcutting creates a drastic landscape change that some people object to, many valuable species must have full sunlight for regeneration. In addition, it is beneficial to many wildlife species. However, it is critical that you follow the BMPs when clearcutting along stream sides.

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2. Seed Tree This method also produces an even-aged forest. It is similar to clearcutting, but 4 to 20 high quality seed producing trees are left per acre to naturally re-seed the site after harvest. It is crucial to plan the timing of the harvest and to assure adequate seed will fall. Planning is also required to remove the seed trees after regeneration, since loggers are reluctant to return where there are few trees left. Risks include either not enough seeds or too many seeds, resulting in an understocked or overstocked stand.

3. Shelterwood This harvest method leaves 21 to 60 seed trees per acre, which can be described as a heavy seed tree harvest. This harvest is a preferred even-aged natural regeneration system for non-prolific seed producing species and as a visually appealing system for hardwood and conifer species. A shelterwood harvest provides an abundance of seed and shelter for seedlings, as well as residual shade to control weeds. Since there is a larger number of trees left, loggers are more willing to return and remove the shelter trees after regeneration is established, usually within three to five years.

Shelterwood with reserves (two-aged stand): Also called deferment cuts, the shelterwood trees are left to mature until they grow larger and more valuable.

4. Selection This system regenerates uneven-aged stands of shade tolerant tree species. Single tree selection removes scattered individual trees, while group selection removes scattered groups of trees to create openings of 1/4 to ½ acre in size. Selective harvest does not work with valuable shade intolerant or moderately shade tolerant species, including many pine and quality hardwoods. While this method removes financially mature and high risk trees, care must be taken to not remove all the biggest and best trees, leaving poor quality trees behind. This practice results in a badly degraded forest with little timber value. There are many advantages to selective harvest, including frequent income and visual attractiveness. A major disadvantage is that it requires more roads and trails, which greatly increases the potential for soil erosion and sedimentation.

Aesthetically Pleasing Timber Harvesting The impacts of timber harvesting can be minimized to protect the aesthetic quality of your land. With proper planning and communication with timber harvesters, your objectives and goals for your forestland can be achieved. Other considerations: wildfire, insects, diseases and overgrazing are destructive to your forest. Frequent visits by you and a professional forester are recommended to maintain firebreaks, provide evaluation of your forest’s health and vigor, and protect your investment. Other issues include: harvest is timed to avoid conflicts with seasonal outdoor activities; method and equipment used is selected to limit damage to residual stand; harvest area is shaped and sized to limit visibility from public roads; skid trails and wood roads are maintained to limit erosion and impact on public roads, and loading decks are kept free of limb and brush piles.

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Comparison of Silvicultural Activities

Shelterwood Method

General Information 1. Results in “uneven-age management” regime 2. Harvesting strategy requires 3 cuts: 1) preparatory; 2) seed; 3) final harvest of crop trees 3. Requires experienced forester to implement

Advantages 1. Residual trees protect seedlings/saplings 2. Best trees remain until final harvest (25-50 TPA) 3. Natural regeneration - best trees provide “seed source”; reduce regeneration costs 4. Produces a sustainable yield = income, benefits, etc. 5. Provides cover and food source for many species of wildlife 6. Provides protection of the site & aesthetics

Disadvantages 1. Care must be taken NOT to damage residual trees with each harvest entry 2. Logging costs are higher 3. May require a “pre-commercial” thinning to adjust stocking density 4. May require “timber stand improvement (TSI)” activity

Final Harvest (Clear cut)

General Information 1. Results in “even-age management” regime 2. Primary silvicultural method used for pine (conifer) forests 3. Artificial regeneration is used most often

Advantages 1. Simple and efficient 2. No residual stand to work around for site prep and planting 3. Control genetics of planting stock 4. Control planting density 5. Economical for management activities = trees in a row 6. Work is concentrated in “time” and “space” 7. Excellent for wildlife; forage plants thrive, provides cover and nesting sites

Disadvantages 1. Increased soil erosion potential (site preparation is important to good survival) 2. Decreased aesthetic appearance

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Thinning

Why do we thin? 1. Produce income (commercial thinning operation; 3rd or 5th row common practice) 2. Reduce TOTAL volume in the stand to increase growth & vigor of crop trees 3. Remove small trees (i.e. stunted, dead, dying) and insect or disease infected trees 4. Remove large trees: open canopy to maximize growth of dominant & co-dominants

Seed Tree Method

General Information 1. Results in “even-age management” regime 2. Similar to Final harvest method 3. Leave 4-10 TPA as seed source (slope, species, time, costs, wind)

Advantages 1. Natural regeneration - leave superior trees for seed sources; reduce regeneration costs 2. Provide good cover and food for wildlife

Disadvantages 1. Stocking density not uniform 2. Competition may need to be controlled 3. Poor seed crop 4. Seed trees could be damaged or destroyed (windthrow, insects/disease)

6. Timber and Non-timber Products

Over 5,000 products are produced from trees including ice cream and makeup.

Timber Products

Pulpwood for paper, sawtimber for lumber, poles, and veneer logs are valuable timber commodities to Georgia's economy. These are the products most people think of and value in terms of tree products since they are used for the building, furniture, pencils, and paper products we use daily.

Non-Timber Products  

Pine straw

The Georgia Forestry Commission (GFC) has maintained a listing of pine straw producers in Georgia since 1987. In 1989 pine straw legislation was enacted by the General Assembly of Georgia to protect landowners from pine straw theft. A Certificate of Harvest is required for anyone in pine straw production.

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A 10-year-old pine stand can yield up to 100 bales per acre every 3 years. Older stands can yield more. Slash, loblolly and longleaf are the species of choice for pine straw production. The primary use of pine straw is as mulch.

Christmas trees

Ninety percent (90%) of Georgia's Christmas tree production is Virginia pine. The other 10% is Leyland cypress, eastern red cedar, white pine, and others. Seventy percent (70%) of all Christmas tree sales from Georgia Christmas tree growers come from choose and cut operations.

Approximately 889 trees can be grown per acre (7 foot x 7 foot spacing; 5-year rotation; 6 feet average height).

Firewood

Firewood is sold by weight, truckload, or a cord (pile of wood containing 128 cubic feet including wood, bar, and air space; a standard cord measures 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, 8 feet long). Oaks, hickories and ash are the most common species used for firewood.

Fat Lighter Wood

Fat lighter wood is used as fire starters for wood stoves and fireplaces (note: fat lighter is highly flammable due to its resin content) and as decorative mantle and hearth products. Chemicals for commercial production are extracted from fat lighter wood and stumps. The major competition of fat lighter wood is waxed sawdust logs.

Food

Fruit from apple, peach, pear, and persimmon trees as well as nuts from pecan, hickory, and walnut trees are all favorite products from Georgia trees.

Floral Greenery

Holly berries and leaves and magnolia leaves are favorite floral greenery for holidays and special occasions.

Honey

Honeys from sourwood, tulip poplar, and tupelo trees are popular both for food and medicinal value.

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Medicine

A variety of trees are used for medicinal purposes:

sassafras ‐ roots are used as herbal tea (sassafras is thought to be carcinogenic)  witch hazel ‐ astringent  palmetto berries ‐ diuretic   willow bark ‐ analgesic 

Pine Cones

Pine cones are used mainly as decoration year round. Quality slash and longleaf pine cones are popular. Demand for pine cones is expected to increase due to public's view of "natural" products.

Pine Tree Gum

Gum is the extraction of the raw fluid, or resin, from pines trees, predominantly slash and longleaf pines. Georgia was once a top producer of gum naval stores (naval stores name came from early use of gum to waterproof ships). China, Portugal, and Brazil are now the three top producers of gum naval stores due to a more available and economical labor force.

Resin is the source of rosin and turpentine. Rosin chemical derivatives are used in adhesives, printing inks, synthetic rubber, chewing gums, soaps, and detergents. Turpentine in whole form is used as a solvent for paints and varnishes and as a cleaning agent. It is also chemically versatile and derivatives from it are used in disinfectants, fragrance and flavor applications.

Shitake Mushrooms

The growing of Shiitake mushrooms in the south is a fairly new enterprise. The mushroom is of Japanese origin. The word "Shiitake" means mushroom of the shii, or oak tree. It is grown primarily as a health food and rich flavor supplement to main dishes.

Shiitake mushrooms are grown from spore innoculum plugs implanted in oak or sweetgum logs. The logs are usually 3"-8" in diameter and 3'-5' long stacked vertically and leaned against a frame.

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The logs have to be kept wet and cool. Production begins within 6 months of inoculation and lasts up to 5 years on oak. Production per log can be anywhere from 2-4 pounds (fresh).

Trees for Landscaping

Red and Florida maple, willow, water, Shumard and pin oaks, Yoshino and black cherry, dogwood, sourwood, redbud, crabapple, and bald cypress are just a few species used for landscaping.

 

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7. Ecosystem Services Ecosystem services are the processes and outputs of nature that are of direct benefit to humans. The Millennium Assessment, a four-year United Nations-led assessment of the status and trends of the world's ecosystems, grouped ecosystems services into four broad categories: Provisioning Services

The ecosystem produces food, fiber, clean water, and other goods.

Regulating Services

Ecosystems regulate climate/temperature, the spread disease, and control rate, quality and output of water.

Supporting Services

Examples include new soil formation, carbon sequestration, nutrient and waste recycling, and pollination.

Cultural Services

The educational, aesthetic, cultural heritage values of ecosystems, including tourism and recreation.

Traditionally, most ecosystem services are considered free benefits to society. These public goods provide the basis for sustainable economies, communities, and livelihoods, but have no recognized economic value in the marketplace. Since these outputs are absent from society's balance sheet, the vital contributions of ecosystem services often go unrecognized in individual, corporate, and public decision making. When forests and other ecosystems are undervalued, they are more susceptible to development pressures and conversion to non-forest uses.

The following executive summary is cited from: Moore, R., T. Williams, E. Rodriguez, J. Hepinstall-Cymmerman. 2011. Quantifying the value of non-timber ecosystem services from Georgia’s private forests. Georgia Forestry Foundation, Forsyth, GA. 51 p.

Georgia's 22 million acres of private forestland provide society with non-timber benefits and services worth more than $37.6 billion every year, according to a 2011 study led by Dr. Rebecca Moore at the University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources.

Georgia’s forests provide essential ecosystem services like water filtration, carbon storage, wildlife habitat, recreational opportunities and scenic beauty. However, because no market exists in which to trade many of these services, it is difficult to quantify the benefits they provide. Ecosystem services are those things that nature provides that are of direct benefit to humans. The purpose of the research summarized in this report is to provide an estimate of the value of ecosystem services provided by private forests in Georgia.

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A four-step process is used for estimating the public ecosystem service benefits of private forests in Georgia: 1) Identify the geographic, ecological and economic scope of the study; 2) Create a landscape classification system based on forest characteristics which predict significant differences in the flow and value of ecosystem services; 3) Use the best available data to estimate average per-acre values for each unique combination of forest characteristics and each ecosystem service identified; 4) Calculate the total ecosystem service value. Identify the geographic, ecological and economic scope of the study The scope of our study is limited to the 22 million acres of privately-owned forestland in Georgia. Based on a review of the literature, we identified eight types of ecosystem services forests provide: 1. Timber and forest product provision: Forests provide raw materials for many uses. 2. Recreation: Forests provide a potential place for recreation. 3. Gas and climate regulation: Forests contribute to the general maintenance of a habitable planet by regulating carbon, ozone, and other chemicals in the atmosphere. 4. Water quantity and quality: Forests capture, store, and filter water mitigating damage from floods, droughts, and pollution. 5. Soil formation and stability: Forest vegetation stabilizes soil and prevents erosion. 6. Pollination: Forests provide habitat for important pollinator species that naturally perpetuate plants and crops. 7. Habitat/refugia: Forests provide living space to wild plants and animals. 8. Aesthetic, cultural and passive use: Forests provide scenic value and many people have a positive existence value for forestland. We are interested only in those ecosystem services that provide external benefits or benefits to people besides the landowner or land user. Because of this, we do not consider the value of timber and forest products provision or recreation. We do consider the value of the other six ecosystem services listed above. Create a landscape classification system based on forest characteristics The value of ecosystem services provided by a particular acre of forestland depends on the quantity and quality of the ecosystem functions and services provided, and the magnitude, preferences, and demographic characteristics of the population receiving those services, typically the nearby population. For large scale valuation projects such as this one, it is not possible to consider each parcel of forestland separately. Instead, we develop a landscape classification system that identifies forestlands that are likely to have similar per-acre values of ecosystem services. We then estimate the value of an average acre of forests in each unique category and apply this value to all acres in that category. We considered seven different forest characteristics expected to create differences in the flow and/or value of ecosystem services: forest type, riparian status, rare species abundance, scenic visibility, public land buffer, development class, and geographic region. Some of these characteristics affect the quantity or quality of ecosystem services provided. For example, an acre of forestland in a riparian area has a much greater impact on water quality and quantity

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than an acre of non-riparian forest. The per-acre value of riparian forests will be higher because of this difference in the underlying ecosystem functions. Other characteristics primarily affect the value of the service provided. For example, an acre of forestland in an urban area will have a greater aesthetic value than one in a rural area simply because more people are around to see it. Based on our application of these seven characteristics, there are 864 possible combinations of characteristics that might describe Georgia’s private forests. These characteristics describe much of the important variation in ecosystem service flow and value. In applying this classification scheme, we move from an intractable problem (trying to evaluate each of the 22 million acres of private forests separately) to a complex, but manageable one. For a given combination of forest characteristics (eg. mixed forests in North Georgia, riparian, high wildlife, non-roadside, non-public buffer, and urban), we assume each acre of forest with those characteristics produces an identical flow of ecosystem service value. However, forests with different characteristics can have different per-acre values. This is an improvement over most previous studies of this type that allow for just a few different types of forests (and often consider all forest acres as identical). Not all forest characteristics are equally represented by Georgia’s private forests. For example, there are no private forests in Georgia that are characterized as riparian, with low species abundance, are visible from a highway, buffer public land, and are in an urban area of South Georgia. Of the 864 potential classifications of forests, 65 include no private forestland in Georgia, and an additional 547 classifications describe fewer than 1000 acres each. In contrast, over 12% of all forests in Georgia fall in a single classification (rural, south Georgia, evergreen, not riparian, not roadside, not public buffer, low wildlife). Use the best available data to estimate average per-acre values We take a two-pronged approach to estimating per-acre ecosystem service values. We developed a stated choice survey to collect original data to estimate aesthetic and non-use values of our study area. Relative to other ecosystem services, these values are most dependent on the tastes and preferences of the local population and therefore the most problematic for value transfer. For the other five ecosystem services of interest we relied on value transfer methods. For the value transfer component, we considered each ecosystem service individually. We began with a preliminary estimate of the per-acre value based on the values reported in a similar study in New Jersey (Liu et al. 2010). We then carefully considered the sources used to generate that value. We removed some source estimates, reevaluated others to better apply to Georgia, and considered other original studies that might be included. From this process, we estimate the average per-acre value of each service by forest characteristics and also identify areas of much needed research. A Summary of ecosystem service values for value transfer. Ecosystem Service $/acre/year in 2009 US$ Gas and climate regulation $28 - $381 Water regulation and supply $0 - $8,196 Soil formation No data available Pollination $0 - $184 Habitat/refugia $0 - $251

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To estimate aesthetic and non-use values, we conducted a mail survey of the general population of Georgia during summer and fall 2010. The survey contained background information on forests and ecosystem services and asked respondents about their familiarity with Georgia’s forests, recreation activities, general questions about the environment, preferences for public regulation of forested land, and sociodemographic characteristics. In addition, each respondent was asked four questions as part of the stated choice experiment. In these questions, the respondent was invited to participate in a hypothetical referendum. They were told that a referendum was up for vote that would affect the future of Georgia’s private forests. They were presented with two alternative futures in each question. By varying the attributes of the alternatives, we are able to estimate an individual’s marginal willingness to pay (WTP) for an increase in different types of forestland. When aggregated to the population of Georgia, the aesthetic and non-use value of additional forested acres ranges from $52/year to $4,642/year depending on the characteristics and location of the land. We found that respondents expressed positive values for forest land across the state, but not surprisingly had higher values for forestland in their area. Also, respondents were willing to pay a premium to protect forests important for wildlife and water. In addition to the questions related to the choice experiment, the survey gathered data on respondents’ experiences with forestland in Georgia, general attitudes about forests and the forest industry, and basic demographic data. Respondents from different regions have different rates of forest ownership and different rates of participation in different forest-related recreation. A majority of respondents reported that the beauty of the landscape in their area has changed over the years due to tree cutting and have concerns or apprehensions about the way forests in Georgia are being managed. Only 45% of respondents agreed with the statement “I trust Georgia’s forest owners to maintain healthy forests in the long term.” When asked if they agree that there are enough checks and balances in place to ensure responsible forest management in Georgia, 24% of respondents agreed, 45% were neutral, and 27% disagreed. Only 28% of respondents felt that private forest owners have the right to do as they please with their forests regardless of what it does to the environment. 58% said private property rights should be limited if necessary to protect the environment but 68% said that the landowner should be paid for any economic loss accrued when prevented from cutting on his land because of government regulations. Just over half of respondents would support programs that provided incentives for forest landowners to voluntarily comply with environmental regulations. Calculate the total ecosystem service value Based on our analysis, we estimate that the total value of these six ecosystem services provided by Georgia’s 22 million acres of private forests is over $37.6 billion per year. Per-acre values range from $264 to $13,442 depending on the forest characteristics. Higher per acre values generally come from forested wetlands or riparian forests in urban areas while lower per acre values come from non-wetland forests in rural areas. This represents a lower bound of the public value of private forests for several reasons. The value of some ecosystem services, such as erosion control and ground water recharge could not be explicitly included in our final estimates because there was not enough information available to estimate their value or because the benefits occur on a relatively small scale and could not be incorporated at the state-level. Other

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technical aspects of the analysis were conducted in a way to insure a conservative estimate. It is so important to remember that we estimate only one component of the Total Economic Value of private forests in Georgia. We estimate the indirect use and non-use values of the forests. These are components of value that do not require ownership of or access to the land. Two significant components of the total value that are not included are the value of timber and forest products and recreation. Other research has estimated the impacts of these industries on Georgia’s economy. Because economic impacts and economic benefits are different things, we cannot add these values together. Economic impacts consider the revenue generated from market activity and trace this revenue through the economy. Economic benefits are the difference between what consumers would be willing to pay for something and what they have to pay. However, when considered together, this body of research provides an overall view of the importance of forestland to the people of Georgia.

Water Quality

In an effort to minimize erosion and stream sedimentation from forestry practices, the Georgia Forestry Commission (GFC) has an agreement with the Georgia Department of Natural Resources Environmental Protection Division (EPD) to educate the forest community and promote the use of forestry Best Management Practices (BMPs).

Under the same agreement with EPD and through an understanding with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Army Corps of Engineers, the GFC also investigates and mediates forestry water quality and wetland complaints. The agreement also requires the GFC to monitor BMP implementation.

Georgia has 44,056 miles of perennial streams (approximately 4,000 miles of which are designated as mountain trout waters), 23,906 miles of intermittent streams and 603 miles of ditches and canals for a total of 68,565 stream miles. The state also has 425,382 acres of public lakes and reservoirs, 4.8 million acres of wetlands (nine percent tidally affected), 854 square miles of estuaries and 100 miles of coastline. This document emphasizes the protection of the state's water resources, when conducting forestry operations, through Best Management Practices (BMPs) in controlling or minimizing soil erosion and stream sedimentation. BMPs are the most appropriate or applicable practices to attain a silvicultural goal while protecting the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the state’s waters. By using proper forest management and sound conservation practices including BMPs, forests can continue to provide benefits for future generations. Failure to follow BMPs may result in civil and criminal fines and penalties. To prevent any potential water quality problems, it is in the best interest of everyone involved in silvicultural operations to properly plan and supervise their operations. By consistently following BMPs, problems can be avoided or corrected as soon as possible. The planning process should help identify sensitive areas and applicable BMPs to be used during timber sales, road construction, stream crossings, harvesting, site preparation, reforestation, and herbicide applications. The planning process should help identify terms and conditions of a written contract for any forestry practice. While BMPs do not specifically require written plans,

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it is generally a sound practice to maintain written records of any forest management activity on the land. Plans should include: perennial and intermittent streams, ephemeral areas, lakes, ponds, wetlands, steep slopes, highly erosive or hydric soils, active gully systems, and logistics of each activity. Water quality protection begins with recognizing watercourses and water bodies. According to the federal Clean Water Act, “waters of the U.S.” include lakes, rivers, perennial and intermittent streams, wetlands, sloughs or natural ponds. Georgia law (OCGA 12-7-3.13) defines “waters of the state” to mean all rivers, streams, creeks, branches, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, drainage systems, springs, wells, and other bodies of surface or subsurface water, natural or artificial, lying within or forming part of the boundaries of the state that are not entirely confined and retained completely upon the property of a single individual, partnership or corporation.    

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8. Forestry and the Georgia Economy For more detailed information and data concerning forestry in Georgia search for this document:

Harper, R. A. 2012. Georgia, 2011—forest inventory and analysis factsheet. e-Science Update SRS–053. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 5 p.

Of Georgia's 36.8 million acres of total land area, 66% is forested, the sixth largest percentage among all the states, and twice the national average. Georgia has 23.8 million acres of privately owned forest land, more than any other state. Individuals own 72% of the state's commercial forest land. More than 650,000 Georgians own a combined 72% of the state's commercially forested land. Forestry makes one of the largest contributions to the state's economy...approximately $25 billion. The Georgia forest economy generates 118,000 jobs; employed directly and in industries supporting forest products manufacturing. Timber is Georgia's highest valued agricultural product and one in which it leads the nation. More than eleven percent of Georgia's forest products are sold to foreign markets. In 1988, Georgia set a world record for tree planting...603,000 regenerated acres. More than 42% of Georgia's timberland consists of hardwoods such as oak, maple and sweetgum. Georgia is home to more than 2,500 Tree Farms that total nearly three million acres. Georgia was the first state in the nation to license foresters. Today, the state has more than 1,100 licensed foresters. An estimated 94% of Georgia's commercial forest acreage is in compliance with Best Management Practices (BMPs), which are voluntary guidelines that ensure water and soil quality are protected during forestry operations. An estimated 44 Georgia counties are ranked as critically dependent, very dependent or moderately dependent on the forest products industry in terms of employment.

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Glossary

Abscission layer – the layer of cells that forms at the base of a leaf petiole where it is attached to the twig. Occurs when the veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf gradually close off.

Alternate - leaves that are staggered or not placed directly across from each other on the twig.

Anthers - sac-like component of a flower where pollen grains are produced. The anthers open to release pollen.

Anthocyanins - pigments in plants responsible for pink and purple colors.

Bark - outward covering of the tree.

Base - where the point at which the leaf is joined to the stem.

Broadleaf - A tree with leaves that are flat and thin and generally shed annually.

Calyx - the outermost whorl of sepals whose job is to protect a developing flower. It is usually green and is what we would recognize as the outside covering of a bud.

Cambium – the layer of cells that divides into the xylem (inside) and phloem (outside).

Carotenoids - pigments in plants responsible for yellow and orange colors.

Carpel - the female part of the center whorl of a flower. Also known as the pistil.

Chlorophyll - the green pigment in plants that absorbs energy from sunlight necessary for photosynthesis.

Chloroplast - the organelle in the cytoplasm of plant cells where chlorophyll is stored.

Compound - a leaf whose blade is divided into distinct leaflets.

Conifers - cone-bearing trees where the seeds are present in cones or catkins.

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Corolla - the whorl of petals of a flower.

Deciduous - shedding all leaves annually.

Evergreen - trees with needles or leaves that remain alive and on the tree through the winter and into the next growing season.

Fertilization - joining of a sperm to an egg cell, and results in creating an embryo which then develops into a tree seedling.

Filaments - thread-like structures that support the anthers out from the flower base.

Heartwood - the inner part of the wood; also called duramen.

Lamina - the wide part of the leaf; also called the leaf blade.

Leaflet - one of the subdivisions of a compound leaf.

Opposite - 2 or 3 leaves that are directly across from each other on the same twig.

Ovary - The inner part of carpel or pistil where eggs are borne.

Palmate - having leaflets radiating out from a central point.

Peduncle - the flower stem.

Petals - outer part of a flower; protects the inside parts of a flower.

Petiole - thin section of leafstalk joining the base of the leaf to the lamina; generally is cylindrical or semicircular in form. Also called the stalk.

Phloem - a protective layer made up of tiny tubes that transport the sugars from the leaves to the rest of the tree.

Photosynthesis - the process by which plants make sugar from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.

Pinnate - having leaflets on both sides of a common axis.

Pistil - Female part of a flower; also known as the carpel.

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Pollination - the movement of pollen from a stamen to a pistil by pollinators (birds or insects).

Provascular tissue - bundles of cells in young tree shoots that differentiate into xylem, phloem, or vascular cambium.

Root hairs - threadlike roots that absorb water and minerals from the soil

Roots - anchors the tree to the soil and absorbs water and soil minerals.

Sapwood - the outermost living part of a woody stem; also called alburnum.

Senescence - death of a leaf triggered by an increase in the enzymes that promote the breakdown of plant cells. Begins when day become shorter and temperatures are cooler.

Sepals - the separate parts of the flower calyx that is the outside covering of a bud.

Simple - a single leaf blade with a bud at the base of the leafstem.

Stamen - the male part of a flower that makes pollen.

Stigma - The sticky surface of a flower pistil on which pollen adheres during pollination.

Stomata - openings in a leaf through which gases and water enter or leave.

Style - extending from the center of a flower, it supports the stigma where pollen adheres during pollination.

Tannins - pigments in plants responsible for brown colors.

Xylem - the main part of the tree trunk made up of tiny tubes which transport water and minerals from the roots up the trunk and branches to the leaves.