Get help and support × ·c,¾,c ENVIRONMENTAL E: environ

aqaorguk

G01204

Get help and supportVisit our website for information guidance support and resources at aqaorguk7447

You can talk directly to the Environmental Science subject team

E environ-scienceaqaorguk

T 01483 477 756

Copyright copy 2017 AQA and its licensors All rights reservedAQA retains the copyright on all its publications including the specifications However schools and colleges registered with AQA are permitted to copy material from this specification for their own internal useAQA Education (AQA) is a registered charity (number 1073334) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales (company number 3644723) Our registered address is AQA Devas Street Manchester M15 6EX

A-LEVELENVIRONMENTALSCIENCE(7447)

SpecificationFor teaching from September 2017 onwardsFor exams in 2019 onwards

Version 10 9 January 2017

(envscalsp7447)

Contents

1 Introduction 511 Why choose AQA for A-level Environmental Science 512 Support and resources to help you teach 5

2 Specification at a glance 721 Subject content 722 Assessments 8

3 Subject content 931 The living environment 932 The physical environment 2833 Energy resources 4434 Pollution 5235 Biological resources 6736 Sustainability 7837 Research methods 84

4 Scheme of assessment 9141 Aims 9142 Assessment objectives 9143 Assessment weightings 92

5 General administration 9351 Entries and codes 9352 Overlaps with other qualifications 9353 Awarding grades and reporting results 9354 Resits and shelf life 9355 Previous learning and prerequisites 9456 Access to assessment diversity and inclusion 9457 Working with AQA for the first time 9458 Private candidates 9559 Use of calculators 95

6 Appendix A Working scientifically 9761 Practical skills for assessment in the written papers 9762 Required practical activities 9863 Methodologies 9964 Sampling techniques 9965 Scientific principles 101

AQA A-level Environmental Science 7447 A-level exams June 2019 onwards Version 10 9 January 2017

Visit aqaorguk7447 for the most up-to-date specification resources support and administration 3

7 Appendix B Maths requirements andexamples 107

8 Appendix C Previous science learning113

Are you using the latest version of this specificationbull You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at

aqaorguk7447bull We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification

4 Visit aqaorguk7447 for the most up-to-date specification resources support and administration

1 Introduction11 Why choose AQA for A-level Environmental ScienceStudents who enjoy a multi-disciplinary approach to learning and have a keen interest in thesustainability of our planet will find this new specification engaging and thought provoking

Wersquove kept much of the popular content that we know you like and key topics include the bio-physical environment energy resources pollution circular economy and sustainability Withopportunities to include real life case studies in your teaching this contemporary qualification hasnever been more relevant

The new assessment structure is clear and straightforward and wersquove used a mixture of questionstyles so that students have the best opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge andunderstanding

Weve ensured that the AS and A-level are fully co-teachable The AS exams include similarquestions to those in the A-level with less difficulty allowing for future growth

This is a great accompaniment to A-levels in geography biology physics and maths and developskey skills including communication teamwork and critical thinking

You can find out about all our Environmental Science qualifications at aqaorgukenvironmentalscience

12 Support and resources to help you teachWersquove worked with experienced teachers to provide you with a range of resources that will helpyou confidently plan teach and prepare for exams

121 Teaching resourcesVisit aqaorguk7447 to see all our teaching resources They include

bull flexible schemes of work to help you plan for course delivery in your own waybull specimen assessment materials that will give your students a clear idea as to what is

expected in the examsbull training courses to help you deliver AQA Environmental Science qualificationsbull subject expertise courses for all teachers from newly qualified teachers who are just getting

started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration

122 Preparing for examsVisit aqaorguk7447 for everything you need to prepare for our exams including

bull past papers mark schemes and examinersrsquo reportsbull specimen papers and mark schemes for new coursesbull example student answers with examiner commentaries

123 Analyse your students results with Enhanced Results Analysis(ERA)Find out which questions were the most challenging how the results compare to previous yearsand where your students need to improve ERA our free online results analysis tool will help yousee where to focus your teaching Register at aqaorgukera

For information about results including maintaining standards over time grade boundaries and ourpost-results services visit aqaorgukresults

124 Keep your skills up-to-date with professional developmentWherever you are in your career therersquos always something new to learn As well as subjectspecific training we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills

bull Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation teaching literacy and meetingOfsted requirements

bull Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses

You can attend a course at venues around the country in your school or online ndash whatever suitsyour needs and availability Find out more at coursesandeventsaqaorguk

125 Help and supportVisit our website for information guidance support and resources at aqaorguk7447

If youd like us to share news and information about this qualification sign up for emails andupdates at aqaorgukkeepinformed-computer-science

Alternatively you can call or email our subject team direct

T 01483 477756

2 Specification at a glanceThis qualification is linear Linear means that students will sit all their exams and submit all theirnon-exam assessment at the end of the course

21 Subject content1 The living environment (page 9)2 The physical environment (page 28)3 Energy resources (page 44)4 Pollution (page 52)5 Biological resources (page 67)6 Sustainability (page 78)7 Research methods (page 84)

Working scientifically opportunities for skills development and independent thinking

At the end of each subject content section there are details of opportunities for students to developscientific skills within the context of that topic

These include

bull skills related to the methodologies and sampling techniques that students must gain throughfirst-hand experience

bull skills related to research methods that can be gained through class-based andor practicalactivities

22 AssessmentsPaper 1

Whats assessed

bull The physical environmentbull Energy resourcesbull Pollutionbull Research methods

Students will be expected to draw on knowledge and understanding of the entire course of studyto show a deeper understanding of the interconnections between topics

How its assessed

bull Written exam 3 hoursbull 120 marksbull 50 of A-level

Questions

A combination of multiple choice short answer and extended writing questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

bull The living environmentbull Biological resourcesbull Sustainabilitybull Research methods

How its assessed

Questions

3 Subject contentThe key scientific principles of the subject should be developed throughout the course usingexamples to illustrate these whenever appropriate

Environmental Science is a holistic subject with many interconnected systems and processes Achange to one process can affect many other processes over different spatial and temporal scales

Consideration of environmental issues and the conclusions reached should be based on reliableevidence-based information and quantitative data

Students must develop an understanding of how human society relies upon natural systems forresources and life support systems

An understanding of these systems should be used to propose changes in society that wouldproduce sustainable lifestyles

The requirements set out in scientific principles (page 101) must be integrated into theoretical andpractical contexts where appropriate

31 The living environmentThe emphasis should be placed on the interaction of living organisms with each other and theirabiotic environment and how an understanding of this can inform decisions that lead tosustainable human activities Students must apply their understanding of these interactions in awide range of contexts throughout this area

311 Conditions for life on Earth

3111 How the main conditions which allowed early life to develop and survive onplanet Earth came aboutStudents should understand how the conditions on planet Earth allowed early life to develop andsurvive

Content Additional information

Atmosphere The mass of Earth and force of gravity retained anatmosphere

The atmosphere provided gaseous resources carbondioxide methane nitrogen

Atmospheric pressure and temperature maintainedliquid water

Insolation A suitable temperature range was controlled byincoming insolation and its behaviour in theatmosphere This was controlled by the surfacealbedo absorption of infrared energy and thepresence of the atmosphere

Position in the solar system Suitable temperatures were maintained by thedistance from the Sun

Orbital behaviour The rotation and tilt of the Earth on its axis and itsorbit around the Sun controlled daily and seasonalvariations in insolation and temperatures

Magnetosphere The magnetosphere provides protection fromradiation the Earthrsquos molten core produced amagnetic field (magnetosphere) that deflects solarradiation

3112 How the presence of life on Earth has brought about environmental changeHow biota have helped to maintain stability

Oxygen production Oxygen was first produced by photosynthetic bacteriathen by algae and plants

Ozone layer Ozone was produced by chemical reactions involvingoxygen and ultraviolet light in the stratosphere

Carbon sequestration Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations werereduced by photoautotrophs

Biogeochemical cycles The processes of biogeochemical cycles are linked byliving organisms preventing the build-up of wasteproducts or shortages of resources

3113 How historical conditions for life were monitored in the past and how thesemethods have been developed over timeStudents should understand how changes in monitoring methods have allowed more accurateestimation of past conditions on Earth

Limitations of early methods bull Lack of ancient historical databull Limited reliability of proxy data for ancient

conditionsbull Limited coordination between researchersbull Lack of sophisticated equipment for accurate

measurementsbull Inability to measure many factorsbull Lack of data collection in many areasbull Reliance on proxy data eg dendrochronology

pollen analysis

Improved methods bull Collection of long-term data setsbull The use of electronic monitoring equipmentbull Gas analysis of ice coresbull Isotope analysis of ice coresbull Improved carriers for monitoring equipment eg

helium balloons aircraft satellites

(See Research methods (page 84))

312 Conservation of biodiversity

3121 The importance of the conservation of biodiversity

31211 Resources and how sustainable habitat management strategies can be used to securefuture supplies

Wood Timber for structural uses

Fibres Plant and animal fibres

Oils Uses of vegetable oils

Fuels Biofuels

New foods Many plant species have the potential for commercialcultivation

31212 Knowledge of how decisions over habitat conservation can be made to protect thosespecies that have not yet been investigated

Biomimetics Students should understand that features of livingorganisms can be copied in the development of newstructures and materials eg

bull vehicle designbull architecturebull structuresbull adhesionbull materialsbull ultrasound diagnosis

New medicines New medicines can be developed from the chemicalsproduced by plants and animals

Physiological research Animal species may be more useful or practical thanhumans for physiological research

Wildlife species as pest control agents Many wildlife species can be used to controlagricultural pests They may be predatorsherbivores parasites or pathogens

Genetic resources New genes to improve crop genetic characteristicsmay be found in the wild relatives of the cultivatedcrops

The importance of Centres of DiversityVavilovcentres for crop wild relatives (CWRs)

31213 Ecosystem services and their interaction with each other

Atmospheric composition The role of living organisms in the regulation of thecomposition of the atmosphere O2 CO2 watervapour

Biogeochemical cycles The importance of living organisms in biogeochemicalcycles

Interspecies relationships Living organisms often provide services that aid thesurvival of other species eg pollination seeddispersal and habitat provision

Soil maintenance Living organisims are important in soil formation anderosion control eg plants detritivores decomposers

3122 How humans influence biodiversity with examples in a range of differentcontext

Direct exploitation Populations of many species have been reduced byover-exploitation for resources or deliberateeradication eg

bull foodbull fashionbull entertainmentbull furniture and ornamentsbull traditional medicinesbull other products

Deliberate eradication Eradication of predators and competitors

Changes in abiotic factors Human activities may change the abiotic features of ahabitat making it more or less suitable for thesurvival of wildlife

bull The changes may be caused by an action orby inactivity eg stopping plagioclimaxmanagement

bull Water availability eg by drainage or floodingbull Light levels eg by forest clearancebull Oxygen availability eg by pollution of water with

organic matterbull Nutrient levels eg fertiliser runoff from

farmlandbull pH eg acid mine drainagebull Temperature eg thermal pollution from power

stations

Changes in biotic factors Changing the population size of one species oftenhas an impact on the population size of otherspecies

bull Introduced speciesbull Loss of inter-species relationships

Habitat destruction Many human activities remove the naturalcommunities of species

bull deforestationbull expansion of farmlandbull urbanisationbull mineral extractionbull flooding by reservoirs

3123 Methods of conserving biodiversity

31231 Setting conservation priorities

Students should understand that the conservation ofbiodiversity requires setting priorities about whichspecies and communities are to be conserved

International Union for Conservation ofNature (IUCN) criteria

The roles of the IUCN

bull coordinating global data on biodiversityconservation

bull increasing understanding of the importance ofbiodiversity

bull deploying nature-based solutions to globalchallenges in climate food and sustainabledevelopment

Students should have knowledge of the criteria usedby the IUCN to identify the species that should beprioritized for conservation These are developedfurther elsewhere in the specification

bull red list categories for threatened speciesbull classification of habitats threats and required

actionsbull evolutionary uniquenessbull endemic speciesbull keystone speciesbull flagship speciesbull threats to survivalbull population dispersal

Evolutionary uniqueness EDGE species (Evolutionary Distinct and GloballyEndangered) are threatened by extinction anddiverged from other taxa long ago so they havegreater genetic differences

Endemic species Species found within a single area especially if thepopulation is small

Keystone species Species whose survival is important for the survival ofmany other species

31232 Legislationprotocols

How legislation and protocols protect species andhabitats by establishing restrictions and managementagreements

Protection of habitats and species The key features of the Wildlife and Countryside Act(1981)

Students should understand the different ways inwhich designated areas protect species and habitatsby restricting activities and establishing managementplans

Designated protected areas in the UK eg

bull Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)bull National Nature Reserve (NNR)bull Special Area of Conservation (SAC)bull Special Protection Area (SPA)bull Natura 2000 sitesbull Ramsar sitesbull Marine Nature Reserve (MNR)bull Local Nature Reserve (LNR)bull Marine Protected Area (MPA)bull Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ)

Trade Controls How the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species (CITES) protects selectedspecies

bull Appendix Ibull Appendix II

Regulation of sustainable exploitation Organisations that aim to exploit living resourcessustainably

bull International Whaling Commission (IWC)bull European Union Common Fisheries Policy (EU

CFP)bull International Tropical Timber Organisation

(ITTO)

31233 Captive breeding and release programmes (CBR)

Ex-situ conservation is needed whenconservation of species in their naturalhabitat is impossible or insufficient toprotect the species

bull Criteria for the selection of species for captivebreeding programmes

bull Difficulties in keeping a captive population

Reasons why keeping species in captivity may bedifficult

Methods of increasing breeding success bull Provision of essential conditions for breedingbull Group dynamicsbull Difficulties in providing required abiotic

conditionsbull Artificial inseminationbull Embryo transfer

Soft and hard release programmes The selection of suitable release sites

Soft release

Hard release

Post-release monitoring

31234 Habitat conservation

In-situ conservation protects communitiesof species not just individual selectedspecies

Habitat creation New habitats may be created as a consequence ofother human activities

New habitats may be created when wildlifeconservation is the main aim

bull New conservation habitats wetlandswoodlands

bull Habitat restoration ndash rewilding

Structural features of habitats may affect the successof conservation programmes

bull habitat areabull habitat shapebull age structurebull ease of colonizationneed for introductionbull biological corridors

Management and conservation of habitats Students should use a range of ecosystems andhabitat areas to analyse their similarities anddifferences especially the controlling ecologicalfeatures and how this can inform conservationstrategies The importance of conservation should berelated to the threats from human activities

Temperate broadleaf woodland

Features

bull regular water supplybull summers not very hotbull winters not very coldbull seasonality

Importance

bull high biodiversitybull resourcesbull climate controlbull soil erosion controlbull recreation

Threats

bull deforestation for other land usesbull fragmentation of remaining

woodlandbull management change

Conservation efforts

bull designated protected areasbull legal protection of ancient woodland

in the UKbull conservation management

Tropical rainforest

Features

bull warmhotbull high rainfallbull high light levelsbull inter-species relationshipsbull low seasonality

Importance

bull high biodiversitybull resourcesbull carbon sequestrationbull hydrological cyclebull soil erosion control

Threats

bull fuelwood collectionbull timber for construction and furniturebull agricultural expansionbull mineral extractionbull reservoirsbull global climate changebull exploitation of individual species

bull establishment of protected areasbull Debt for Nature Swapsbull sustainable exploitation

Tropical coral reefs

Features

bull cnidariansbull nutrition systemsbull high light levelsbull warm stable temperaturesbull low turbiditybull constant salinity

Importance

bull fisheriesbull erosion protectionbull medicinal discoveriesbull climate controlbull tourism

Threats

bull physical damage caused by humanactivites

bull souvenir collectionbull sedimentationbull climate changebull pollutionbull fishingbull introduced species

bull control of damaging activitiesbull establishment of protected areas

Deep-water coral reefs

Features

bull cold and darkbull slow coral growth

Importance

bull researchbull fisheries

Threats

bull trawlingbull oil and gas explorationbull ocean acidification

bull establishment of protected areasbull control of damaging activities

Oceanic islands

Features

bull isolationbull few or no indigenous mammal

predatorsbull endemic species

Importance endemic species

Threats

bull species exploitationbull introduced speciesbull habitat changedestructionbull sea level rise

bull eradication of introduced speciesbull control of developments and visitors

Mangroves

Features

bull tropical climatesbull halophytic treesbull low oxygen availability

Importance

bull coastal erosion protectionbull fisheriesbull timber suppliesbull trap suspended solids

Threats

bull clearance for urban developmentaquaculture

bull coral reef destructionbull pollutionbull global climate change

bull reforestationbull control of damaging activitiesbull establishment of protected areas

Antarctica

Features

bull very low temperaturesbull low precipitationbull high albedobull high levels of marine nutrientsbull large variations in ice coverbull extreme seasonal changes

Importance

bull water storebull ice albedobull carbon sequestrationbull resourcesbull research

Threats

bull global climate changebull ozone depletionbull tourismbull overfishingbull future mineral exploitationbull scientific research

bull The Antarctic Treaty (1959)bull fisheries controlbull waste managementbull tourism control

31235 The importance of ecological monitoring in conservation planning

It is important to identify the speciespresent and features of their populationsin planning conservation strategies

Population dynamics

bull sizebull distributionbull survival ratebull age structure

31236 The development of new technologies for ecological monitoring

Students should understand how new technologies improve the validity of ecological research byallowing the collection of more representative data and new information

New technologies used in ecologicalresearch

bull Satelliteradio trackingbull DNA databases eDNAbull Image recognition including softwarebull Acoustic monitoring sonograms

313 Life processes in the biosphere and conservation planning

3131 How adaptation to the environment affects speciesrsquo habitat requirements andinfluences conservation decision-makingStudents should be able to use examples of habitat management which benefit species that areadapted to particular abiotic and biotic factors The deliberate provision of these conditions mayincrease speciesrsquo survival

Abiotic factors

bull lightbull waterbull nutrientsbull pHbull abiotic habitat provision

Biotic factors

bull foodbull control of predationbull pollinationbull seed dispersalbull biotic habitat provisionbull other inter-species relationships

3132 Terminology to describe the roles of living organisms in their habitats and theirinteractions with the physical environmentStudents should be able to use appropriate terminology to describe the roles of living organisms intheir habitats and their interactions with the physical environment

Ecological terminology bull Speciesbull Taxonbull Ecological nichebull Populationbull Community of speciesbull Ecosystembull Biome

3133 The control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitatsStudents should understand that many wildlife communities have developed in plagioclimaxhabitats maintained by long-term human activities They should understand the processes inecological succession that can inform conservation strategies

Ecological succession bull Colonisation and pioneer speciesbull Seresbull The modification of abiotic conditions by new

colonisersbull Climax communitiesbull Deflected successionbull Secondary successionbull Plagioclimax communities

Methods of maintaining plagioclimaxcommunities

bull grazingbull mowingbull burningbull coppicingbull pollarding

3134 How population control and the management of desired and undesired speciesaffects the conservation of biodiversityStudents should understand the concept of carrying capacity and the influence of density anddensity-independent factors on regulating populations

Management of desirable species

bull release programmesbull habitat management

Control of undesirable species cullingeradication

r- and k- selection strategies and howthey affect the ease with which speciescan be over-exploited

314 Opportunities for skills development and independent thinkingMathematical skillnumber

Opportunities for skills development and independent thinking

MS 02 Students could use an appropriate number of decimal places incalculations eg calculating mean population density from multiplesample sites in a habitat

MS 03 Students could calculate and compare percentage loss eg of rainforests over a given time period of declining populations ofendangered species

Mathematical skillnumber

MS 05 Students should demonstrate their ability to interpret population growthcurves

MS 11 Students could report calculations to an appropriate number ofsignificant figures given raw data quoted to varying numbers ofsignificant figures eg in calculating indices of biodiversity

MS 12 Students could calculate mean population density from multiplequadrats

MS 15 Students could compare and analyse data collected by randomsampling and systematic eg use Simpsonrsquos index of diversity tocompare the biodiversity of habitats with different managementregimes

MS 19 Students could use Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient toanalyse changes in abiotic and biotic factors with distance into ahabitat eg woodland

MS 110 Students should demonstrate their understanding of standarddeviation as a useful measure of dispersion for a given set of data egfor comparison with other data sets with different means such aspopulations of endangered species under different managementregimes

MS 111 Students could calculate percentage error where there areuncertainties in measurement eg estimating total population usingsub-samples in a preliminary study

MS 21 Students could use = lt ltlt gtgt gt when estimating maximumsustainable yield

MS 23 Students could use Simpsonrsquos index of diversity to assess the impactof a new habitat management regime

MS 31 Students could construct a kite diagram of the change in populationdensity of species along a transect

MS 33 Students could plot changes in species abundance with changes inabiotic factors eg temperature water pH

MS 37 Students could measure the gradient of a point on a curve eg rate ofpopulation growth

MS 41 Students could calculate the circumference and area of naturereserves to assess the impact of the edge effect on wildlifeconservation programmes

Working scientifically

Students could plan activities to investigate environmental issues which they could carry out eg

bull population surveys in a habitat to be visitedbull measurement of abiotic factors in a habitat to be visited

Students could plan activities to investigate environmental issues in broader environmentalcontexts where first-hand experience would not be possible eg

bull monitoring the impact of invasive species on indigenous speciesbull monitoring the impact of the local extinction of forest elephants on plant species with animal-

dispersed seedsbull monitoring changes in population size age structure and diversity after an area gains

protected status eg new MCZsbull monitoring the survival and dispersal of animals in captive breeding programmes after

releasebull estimating increases in biomass of tropical forests in response to increases in CO2 levelsbull monitoring changes in water turbidity on coral reefs caused by land use changes eg

deforestationbull monitoring changes in penguin populations in Antarctica using satellite imagerybull monitoring the impact of fishing controls by the EU CFP on fish populationsbull monitoring colonisation and changes in community composition in a recently created habitat

Practical skill number Opportunities for skills development and independent thinking

PS 11 Students could assess the knowledge required to solve anenvironmental problem eg

bull population sizebull population densitybull biomassbull distributionbull movements

PS 12 Students could analyse existing knowledge and data eg

bull changes in species abundancesbull changes in age structurebull current biomass

PS 13 Students could evaluate and explain the contribution that the results ofthe planned study would make to solving the problem eg

bull how changes in abiotic factors may cause changes in woodlandfloor plant survival

bull how a change in population of trees may be caused by the lossof forest elephants

bull how a change in age structure in an MCZ may indicate theeffectiveness of protection

PS 14 Students could plan studies to gain representative reliable data usingthe selected methodologies and sampling techniques below

PS 21 Students could evaluate the methods of previous studies and analysethe reliability of the data produced

PS 22 Students could analyse their method and the results produced toidentify limitations in the method and any inaccuracies in results eg

bull limitations of population estimates from population sub-samplesand the Lincoln Index

bull inaccuracies caused by the use of data that fluctuateunpredictably eg abiotic factors related to weather

PS 23 Students could identify the other variables that could also affect theirresults eg in a study of the effect of light levels on ground flora soilpH temperature humidity wind velocity In a study of increased forestbiomass caused by rising CO2 levels changes in water availabilitytemperature and forest management

PS 24 Students could use a variety of methods to present data

bull construct a table of raw data eg abundances of species found ineach quadrat

bull construct a table of changing abiotic factors along a transectacross a habitat

PS 31 Students could construct line graphs to show changes in data overtime or correlations between variables

PS 32 Students could use data on species richness and abundance tocalculate Simpsonrsquos Index of diversity

PS 33 Students could compare estimates of population size for the samehabitat produced by different groups to consider possible causes ofthe variation

PS 41 The practical skills of using equipment within scientific environmentalstudies are expanded in the selected methodologies and samplingtechniques below

Opportunities to investigate the required methodologies of which students must have first handexperience Further details can be found in Appendix A Working scientifically (page 97)

Methodology skillnumber

Me 1 Students could plan the collection of samples using random samplingEg ground flora in woodland or grasslands

Me 2 Students could plan the collection of samples using systematicsampling eg

bull abiotic factors along a transectbull species abundance or distribution along a transectbull data from moth or bat surveys at regular intervals eg weekly

Me 3 Students could carry out a preliminary study and analyse the results toassess the smallest number of samples that produce reliable resultseg using increasing numbers of quadrats to estimate the totalpopulation Eg estimating total population using mean values from 510 25 50 100 etc quadrats

The reduction in fluctuations in overall mean values will enablestudents to select an appropriate sample number for further studies

Me 4 Students could carry out a preliminary study and analyse the results toassess the smallest sample size that produces reliable results

Eg estimating lichen percentage cover on bark using increasing sizesof sample area The minimum size is that where using larger areasdoes not cause the value to change significantly and reliability toincrease

Me 5 Students could identify appropriate timings for surveys to be carriedout eg

bull moth surveys carried out overnight with standardized conditionsof temperature precipitation wind velocity

bull population surveys related to breeding cyclesbull plant surveys related to periods of emergenceflowering

Me 6 Students could carry out statistical tests to assess the significance ofthe data eg Spearmanrsquos Rank Correlation Coefficient for abundanceof a species and an abiotic factor along a transect

Opportunities to investigate the required sampling techniques of which students must have firsthand experience Further details can be found in Appendix A Working scientifically (page 97)

Sampling technique skillnumber

ST 1 Students could analyse the effect of wind velocity or temperature onthe activity of bats or moths to consider the possible impacts of climatechange

ST 2 Students could compare plant biodiversity in grasslands with differentmowing regimes

ST 5 Students could use a Tuumlllgren funnel to compare the invertebrates inthe leaf litter of two different woodlands

ST 6 Students could use kick sampling to compare invertebrate diversity indifferent streams or areas of the same stream with differentsubstrates

32 The physical environmentThe emphasis should be placed on understanding how anthropogenic activities are inter-connected with physical processes to formulate management strategies and plan sustainableactivities

Supplies of renewable physical resources may be maintained by the control of activities that maycause over-exploitation and by protecting the processes that aid their production

Supplies of non-renewable physical resources may be extended by controlling exploitation anddeveloping improved technologies to harness them

321 The atmosphere

3211 How atmospheric energy processes involving ultra violet (UV) infrared (IR) andvisible light in the stratosphere and troposphere affect life-support systems

Origins and roles of UV and IR in theatmosphere

bull Insolationbull Emissions from the earthbull Thermal stratificationbull Chemical processes

How different wavelengths ofelectromagnetic light behave in theatmosphere

bull transmissionbull absorptionbull conversion to heatbull conversion to chemical energybull reflection

3212 Global climate change how interconnected natural systems causeenvironmental changeStudents should select analyse and evaluate the data available on natural and anthropogenicclimate change

Greenhouse gases The anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gasesresidence times and relative effects CO2 CH4 NOxtropospheric ozone CFCs

Changes in oceans Changes in thermohaline circulation in the NorthAtlantic

Changes in ocean wind and current patterns El Nintildeo

Sea level rise

Changes in the cryosphere Reduced snow cover ndash amount and duration

Glaciers changes in extent and speed of movement

Land ice caps and ice sheets changes in thicknessand movements

Ice shelves changes in the break-up of ice shelvesand the impact on land ice movements

Sea ice changes in thickness and area of sea icecover

Changes in climate processes Precipitation changes

bull amount duration timing and locationbull changes in proportions of rain and snow

Wind pattern changes direction velocity

Difficulties monitoring and predictingclimate change

Students should understand the limitations in theavailable data when attempting to predict futurenatural and anthropogenic climate change Theyshould be able to evaluate the reliability of existinginformation and discuss the methods that are used tofill gaps in current knowledge including remotesensing

Students should be able to discuss the importance ofaccurate representative data in climate modelling

Uncertainty of ecological impacts of climate change

bull changes in species survival caused by changesin abiotic factors

bull changes in species survival caused by changesin biotic factors

bull changes in species distributionbull population fragmentation

Why there is uncertainty over the use of some data indrawing conclusions

bull Lack of historical data atmosphericcomposition temperature weather patterns

bull Limited reliability of proxy databull Lack of understanding of natural processes that

control weather ocean currents and theirinterconnections

bull How understanding is improved by climatemodelling

bull Natural changes and fluctuations that maskchanges caused by anthropogenic actions

bull Time delay between cause and effect

Feedback mechanisms and tipping points Impact of negative feedback mechanisms caused by

bull increased low-level cloud

bull increased photosynthesis

Impact of positive feedback mechanisms

bull melting permafrost

bull ocean acidification

bull reduced albedo

bull melting methane hydrate

bull increased forest and peat fires

bull increased cirrus clouds

bull more rapid decomposition of dead organicmatter in soil

The role of tipping points in climate change

Carbon footprints and sustainabledevelopment

Students should compare the per capita carbonemissions and carbon footprints for different countriesto evaluate different strategies to achieve sustainabledevelopment

How the control of greenhouse gases may helpachieve sustainable lifestyles

3213 Ozone depletionStudents should consider the success of tackling ozone depletion and compare this with otherenvironmental issues

The study of ozone depletion should beused as an example of an environmentalissue where all the stages of scientificinvestigation are present

bull Identification of an environmental issuebull Formulation of a hypothesisbull Collection analysis and evaluation of databull Proposal for solutionsbull Enactment of solutions

Rowland-Molina hypothesis The properties of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) thatlead to stratospheric ozone depletion

bull Persistence of CFCsbull Dissociation by UVbull Reactions of chlorine with ozone

Effects of ozone depletion

Why increased UV(B) reaching the Earthrsquos surfacemay cause problems

bull human healthbull damage to plantsbull damage to marine organisms

Collection analysis and interpretation ofdata an evaluation of data collectionmethods available and the reliability ofdata produced

The collection of data on ozone depletion

bull ground-based data collectionbull aerialsatellite surveysbull variability of results spatial temporal altitude

Why ozone depletion has been greatestover Antarctica

Unusual atmospheric conditions over Antarctica

bull very low temperaturesbull ice crystalsbull stratospheric cloudsbull polar vortex winds

The restoration of the ozone layer Main features of the Montreal Protocol (onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer) (1987)

bull use of alternative processesbull use of alternative materialsbull collection and disposal of CFCs and other

ozone-depleting substances (ODSs)

Evaluation of the effectiveness of themethods used to restore the ozone layercompared with the effectiveness oftackling other atmospheric pollutionproblems

An analysis of the evidence for changes in area ofozone depletion ozone concentrations and UV levels

A comparison with the effectiveness of tacklingclimate change

3214 Opportunities for skills development and independent thinking

MS 02 Students could use standard form when dealing with carbon reservoirmasses and transfer rates

MS 13 Students could plot atmospheric carbon dioxide levels atmospherictemperature and solar output over time represented on a graph

MS 14 Students could consider probability when assessing the variouspossible causes of climate change

MS 110 Students could use standard deviation values to assess thesignificance of fluctuations in ozone levels over Antarctica

MS 111 Students could calculate the percentage difference between estimatedvalues and real outcomes from computer models of global climatechange

MS 22 Students could use and manipulate an equation to estimate carbonsequestration rates

MS 31 Students could construct a flow diagram of carbon reservoirs andtransfer processes in the carbon cycle

MS 34 Students could use data on different scenarios of carbon emissions topredict a graph of atmospheric CO2 concentration

Students could plan activities in a range of environmental contexts related to the atmosphereincluding ones where first-hand experience of practical activities may not be possible

PS 12 Students could analyse the reliability of past data collected on ozonedepletion

PS 14 Students could plan how to collect representative data on changes inflow in the North Atlantic Conveyor

Students could plan how to collect data on UV levels in Antarctica tomonitor the recovery of stratospheric ozone

PS 21 Students could assess the reliability of using proxy data to monitorclimate change

PS 22 Students could assess uncertainties over predictions of sea ice losschanges in atmospheric temperature and sea level rise

PS 31 Students could construct graphs on changes in factors related toclimate change land ice volume sea ice area atmospheric CO2concentration

PS 33 Students could assess degrees of uncertainty of data collected onclimate change and predictions of changes that will occur in the future

Me 2 Students could plan the location of temperature sampling sites andtiming to produce reliable data on climate change

Me 6 Students could assess the variability of data on climate change andozone depletion and the methods that can be used to assessstatistical significance of differences

322 The hydrosphere

3221 The impact of unsustainable exploitation

Students should understand that thenatural hydrological cycle is in a state ofdynamic equilibrium Human activitiesthat alter the rates of processes in thehydrological cycle can lead to changes inresidence times and quantities in thereservoirs of the cycle

Students should be able to use thetechnical terminology related to thehydrological cycle to discussanthropogenic changes and strategiesthat may allow sustainable exploitation

Students should be able to explain howhuman activities change processes in thehydrological cycle

Students should be able to explain theconsequences of changes in thehydrological cycle

3222 Analysis and evaluation of strategies for sustainable management

Students should use examples of waterresources that have been exploitedunsustainably

3223 Ocean currents the importance of thermohaline circulation in distributing heatand regulating climate

Students should discuss the impacts ofchanges in thermohaline circulation onthe climate of countries around the NorthAtlantic including the UK

3224 Increasing sustainability by treating contaminated water

The methods used to remove thefollowing contaminants

bull litterbull suspended solidsbull some metals and odoursbull organic pollutantsbull saltbull pathogens

3225 Increasing sustainability by economical use and the exploitation of new sources

Management of water resources

bull meteringbull low water-use appliancesbull greywater use

Exploitation of new sources

bull rainwater catchmentbull new reservoirsestuary barragesbull unexploited aquifersbull inter-basin transfers

MS 01 Students could convert data and change the units used in transferrates volumes and residence times in the hydrological cycle

MS 04 Students could estimate results to sense check that the calculatedvalues are appopriate such as when calculating residence times indifferent water reservoirs

MS 12 Students could calculate the mean rate of water transfer between twowater reservoirs

MS 13 Students could interpret data relating to aquifer flow rates

MS 16 Students could use data on changing transfer rates to calculatechanges in the mean water content in an aquifer

MS 17 Students could analyse a scatter graph of per capita water use againstmean GDP to suggest reasons for different rates of water use

MS 18 Students could compare storage volumes of natural water reservoirsand transfer rates

MS 31 Students could construct a flow diagram using data on processes andreservoir storage

MS 36 Students could calculate the rate of infiltration through rocks withdifferent permeabilities

Students could plan activities in a range of environmental contexts related to the hydrosphereincluding ones where first hand experience of practical activities may not be possible

PS 12 Students could analyse data on deforestation and precipitation levels

PS 14 Students could plan monitoring programmes for the salinization ofaquifers

PS 21 Students could analyse results of previous studies on catchment areachanges and difficulties in producing representative data

Me 5 Students could plan the timing of studies of fluctuating river andaquifer levels to produce reliable long-term trends

323 Mineral resources

3231 Minerals extracted from the lithosphere

The mineral resources extracted from thelithosphere are non-renewable as theyare reformed too slowly to be replacedwithin timescales that would allow humanuse Long-term use relies on anunderstanding of the scientific methodsthat will increase supplies extend useand find alternatives for those in restrictedsupplies

Students should understand the importance ofresources extracted from the lithosphere on society

bull Metals and metal oresbull Industrial mineralsbull Construction materials

3232 Geological processes that produced localised concentrations of recoverablemineral deposits

Geological processes bull Hydrothermal depositionbull Metamorphic processesbull Proterozoic marine sedimentsbull Physical sedimentsbull Biological sediments

3233 Reserves and resource

The reserves include the amount ofmaterial that can be exploited usingexisting technology under currenteconomic conditions

The resource includes all the material thatcould be exploited technically andeconomically now or in the future

Laskyrsquos principle As the linear purity of a deposit decreases there is alogarithmic increase in the amount of the material thatis included

The ability to exploit low-grade deposits results in alarge increase in the reserves

3234 How a range of exploratory techniques workStudents should understand the methods that are used to discover the localised concentrations ofdeposits produced by geological processes

Exploratory techniques bull Satellite imagerybull Seismic surveysbull Gravimetrybull Magnetometrybull Resistivitybull Trial drilling

3235 Factors affecting mine viability

For a mining operation to be viable awide range of geological and economiccriteria must be met

bull Ore purity and cut-off ore gradebull Chemical formbull Associated geology overburden hydrologybull Economics cut-off ore grade and mining costs

3236 Control of the environmental impacts of mineral exploitation

All mining activities impact on theenvironment but good site managementand post-mining restoration can minimiseproblems

bull Turbid drainage waterbull Spoilbull Leachate neutralisationbull Site managementbull Site restoration

3237 Strategies to secure future mineral supplies

As high-grade deposits become depletedit is important to develop newtechnologies to find and extract newdeposits including low-grade and lessaccessible deposits

Manufactured products should bedesigned to minimise the amount ofmaterial needed and extend the lifetimeof material use

bull Improvements in exploratory techniquesincluding remote sensing

bull Bioleaching with acidophilic bacteriabull Phytominingbull Cradle to Cradle design

Table 1 Recycling

The advantages of recycling bull Conservation of mineral resourcesbull Reduced energy use (of mineral

extraction)bull Reduced mineral extractionprocessing

impactsbull Reduced waste disposal impacts

Difficulties with recycling schemes bull Identification of materialsbull Separation of mixed materialsbull Reduction in qualitybull Increased transport costsimpactsbull Collection difficultiesbull Lack of consumer cooperation

MS 05 Students could estimate the impact of a change in cut-off ore grade onthe abundance of mineral reserves using the exponential trend ofLaskyrsquos principle

MS 11 Students could demonstrate understanding that calculated results canonly be reported to the limits of the least accurate measurement eg inestimating lifetimes of mineral reserves

MS 17 Students could identify trends in mineral use from scatter diagrams ofper capita use and mean GDP

MS 18 Students could estimate the lifespan of reserves of a metal using dataon per capita use population size and current reserves

MS 111 Students could identify the uncertainties of predictions in mineralreserves using trends in population per capita use and improvementsin extraction technology

PS 12 Students could analyse trial core survey data to assess mine viability

PS 32 Analyse metal ion concentration data in a mining area to identify thesources of contamination

Students could plan activities in a range of environmental contextsrelated to the lithosphere including ones where first-hand experienceof practical activities may not be possible

Me 3 Students could plan a grid survey for trial drilling to assess theoptimum distance between drilling sites

324 Biogeochemical cycles

3241 The importance of biogeochemical cycles for living organisms

Many elements have low availability toliving organisms Biogeochemical cyclesinvolve inter-linked processes that allowmaterials to be recycled and repeatedlyre-used

3242 The carbon cycle including human influences

The processes in the carbon cycle thatare affected by human activities

bull Photosynthesisbull Aerobic respirationbull Anaerobic respirationbull Combustionbull CO2 dissolving in the seaexsolving from the

seabull Biomass movementsbull Changes in carbon reservoirsbull Increased atmospheric concentration of CO2bull Less soil dead organic matterbull Increased concentrations of dissolved CO2

carbonic acid hydrogen carbonate ionsbull Increased atmospheric concentration of

methanebull Reduced amount of carbon in plant biomassbull Reduced amount of carbon in fossil fuels

Sustainable management of the carboncycle methods of counteracting humanactivities that alter the natural equilibria ofthe carbon cycle

bull Alternatives to fossil fuel usebull Carbon sequestrationbull Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)bull Matching afforestation to deforestationbull Increasing soil organic matterbull Conservation of peat bogs

3243 The nitrogen cycle including human influences

The processes in the nitrogen cycle thatare affected by human activities

bull The Haber Process fixing nitrogen in ammoniamainly to produce agricultural fertilisers

bull Land drainage increases nitrogen fixation andreduces denitrification

bull The growth of legume crops increases nitrogenfixation in plant proteins

bull Sewage disposal increases nitrate movementsto rivers and the sea together with phosphatescauses eutrophication

bull Combustion processes cause nitrogen andoxygen to react producing oxides of nitrogen

bull Decomposition and ammonification affected byorganic waste disposal policies

Consequences of changes in nitrogenreservoirs

bull eutrophicationbull global climate changebull NOx toxicitybull photochemical smogs

Sustainable management of the nitrogencycle and methods of counteractinghuman activities that alter the naturalequilibria of the nitrogen cycle

Methods of counteracting anthropogenic nitrogenmovements

bull reduced combustion processesbull use of natural nitrogen fixation processes

instead of the Haber processbull management of biological wastesbull methods of reducing soil nitrate leaching

3244 The phosphorus cycle including human influences

The processes in the phosphorus cyclethat are affected by human activities

Phosphorus compounds are mobilised in moresoluble forms for use in agricultural fertilisers

Eutrophication is caused by nutrient enrichment ofwater bodies combined with the effect of nitrates

Sustainable management of thephosphorus cycle and methods ofcounteracting human activities that alterthe natural equilibria of the phosphoruscycle

The lack of abundant reservoirs of phosphates in theatmosphere or hydrosphere is often the limiting factoron biological productivity

bull the use of biological wastes as fertilisersbull breeding of crops that absorb phosphates more

efficientlybull providing suitable conditions for soil mycorrhizal

fungi increases phosphate uptake combustionprocesses

MS 01 Students could convert values and units used in transfer ratesreservoir mass and residence time in the nitrogen cycle

MS 02 Students could convert numbers in standard and ordinary form whenusing masses in biogeochemical cycles

MS 22 Students could use and manipulate equations of nutrient transferrates

MS 31 Students could use data on reservoirs and transfer processes toconstruct a flow diagram of the nitrogen or phosphorus cycle

325 Soils

3251 How human activities affect soil fertility

Activities that control soil conditions andaffect fertility

bull aeration of soil by ploughing anddrainage

bull addition of soil nutrientsbull irrigationbull soil compaction increasing bulk

densitybull pH control

3252 Causes of soil degradation and erosion

Types of soil erosion

bull rain splashbull wind blowbull surface runoff

Natural features that reduce erosion

bull vegetationbull soil organic matterbull high infiltration rate

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)can be used to estimate erosion rates

Human activities that cause soil erosionand degradation

bull ploughing vulnerable soilsbull vegetation removalbull overgrazingbull reducing soil organic matterbull reducing soil biotabull cultivating steep slopesbull soil compaction by machinery or

trampling

The environmental impacts of soilerosion

bull reduced productivitybull sedimentation in rivers and

reservoirsbull downstream floodingbull coastal sedimentationbull increased atmospheric particulatesbull desertificationbull landslides

3253 Soil management strategies to increase sustainability

Methods that can be used to reduce soilerosion

bull long-term cropsbull contour ploughingbull tied ridgingbull terracingbull windbreaksbull multicroppingbull strip croppingbull mulchingbull increasing soil organic matter

MS 03 Students could use data on mass and mass change during heating toestimate the percentage water and organic matter composition of soil

MS 11 Students could demonstrate appropriate numbers of significant figuresin calculations of soil water and organic matter content

MS 24 Students could use the Universal Soil Loss Equation to assess theeffectiveness of soil conservation programmes

MS 32 Students could demonstrate their ability to use data presented in anumber of formats and be able to use these data eg soil erosion ratespresented in graphs tables and formulae

bull the impact of soil texture on soil water contentbull the impact of soil water content on organic matter levelsbull the effect of slope on rain splash soil erosionbull the effect of vegetation cover on rain splash erosionbull the impact of soil compaction on soil water levels

Students could plan activities in a range of broader environmental contexts related to soilsincluding ones where first hand experience of practical activities may not be possible eg the effectof soil erosion on downstream ecosystems

PS 11 Students could plan a strategy to monitor and reduce soil erosionwithin the context of global food supply problems

PS 41 The practical skills of using equipment within scientific studies areexpanded as appropriate in detail in the selected methodologies andsampling techniques below

Me 2 Students could mark out a transect across a field to investigatechanges in edaphic factors down a slope or away from a hedgefieldmargin

Me 3 Students could calculate mean values of selected factor eg watercontent to find the number of samples required to calculate a reliablemean

ST 1 Students could investigate the effect of a hedgerow on the downwindwind velocity in the context of soil erosion

ST 3 Students could compare the water and organic matter contents of soilfrom fields with different long-term management systems

Students could use sedimentation or soil sieves to compare thetextures of soils from areas with different bedrocks

33 Energy resourcesThe importance of energy resources in both past and future developments in society should beanalysed The impact of future energy supply problems should be evaluated

Students should understand how improvements in technology can provide increasing amounts ofenergy from sustainable sources

Quantitative data should be used to compare and evaluate new and existing technologies

331 The importance of energy supplies in the development of society

Agriculture How increased mechanization has increasedproductivity

Fishing How energy has increased catches and madeprocessing easier

Industry How energy allows the extraction and processing ofmaterials

The role of energy in service industries

Water supplies How energy is used to treat water for use and cleanwaste water from industrial or domestic use

Transport The use of energy in transport systems

Domestic life The role of energy in improved material livingstandards

332 The impact of the features of energy resources on their useStudents should understand that each energy resource has its own features which make itapplicable to particular uses Technologies in current use often developed to match them to theavailable energy resources New energy technologies may need additional technologies to be fullyusable eg storage

Features of energy resources bull Abundancebull Energy densitybull Locational constraintsbull Intermittencybull Need for energy conversions to produce point-

of-use energy

Quantitative data should be used to compare differentenergy resources and evaluate the potential forenergy resources in the future

333 The sustainability of current energy resource exploitation

Impact of resource exploitation before theuse of the energy

bull fuel extraction coal mines oilextraction

bull fuel processing coal crude oilbull equipment manufacture all energy

resourcesbull site developmentoperation all

energy resourcesbull transport combustible fuelsbull embodied energy in equipment all

energy resources

Impact as a consequence of use Pollution

bull atmospheric pollution caused by fossil fuelsbull oil pollutionbull radioactive wastebull noise pollution wind powerbull thermal pollution steam turbine power stations

Habitat damage bull Fuel extractionbull Power station and equipment locationbull Ecological impacts of tidal power schemesbull Ecological impacts of HEP schemesbull Pipelines and cables

Depletion of reserves Non-renewable energy resources

334 Strategies to secure future energy suppliesStudents should analyse and evaluate key issues and quantitative data to evaluate the potentialfuture contribution of each energy resource

3341 Evaluation of improved extractionharnessingprocessing technologies relatedto a range of energy technologiesStudents should understand how specific technologies increase the usability of each energyresource

Fossil fuels bull Secondarytertiary recovery of oil directionaldrilling

bull Oil shalesTar sandsbull Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)bull Hydraulic fracturingbull Coal gasificationbull Coal liquifactionbull Methane hydrates from marine sediments

Nuclear power fission and fusion Fission

bull improved uranium extraction techniquesbull plutonium reactorsbull thorium reactors

Fusion as a research technology

bull toroidal reactorsbull laser fusion

Renewable energy technologies Solar power

bull photothermal solar powerbull heat pumpsbull photovoltaic solar powerbull multi-junction photovoltaic cellsbull anti-reflective surfacesbull Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

bull low head turbinesbull helical turbines

Wind power

bull new Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines(HAWT)

bull new Vertical Axis Wind Turbines(VAWT)

bull wind-assisted ships

Wave power new developments in wavepower technology

Biofuels

bull biofuel cropsbull hydrogen from algaebull biofuels from microorganisms

Geothermal power

bull low temperature fluidsbull district heating systems

Tidal power

bull tidal barragesbull tidal lagoonsbull in-stream turbines

Fluctuations in energy supply anddemand and new energy storagesystems

Students should evaluate the importance of energystorage in the use of the available energy resourcesand energy forms

The development of new energy storage methodswill allow more effective peak-shaving to matchfluctuating supplies to fluctuating demand

Causes of fluctuations in energy supply The use of intermittent energy resources

Causes of fluctuations in energy demand bull Weather-related fluctuationsbull Seasonal fluctuationsbull Weekdayweekend fluctuationsbull 24 hr work fluctuationsbull Short-term fluctuations mealtimesTV lsquopickuprsquo

Developments in energy storagetechnologies

bull Peak shaving using Pumped-Storage HEPbull Rechargeable batteriesbull Fuel cellsbull Compressed gasbull Thermal storagebull Vehicle to grid systems (V2G)bull Power to gas systems (P2G)bull The lsquohydrogen economyrsquo

3342 New energy conservation technologies

Improvements in the efficiency of energyuse enable the same activities to becarried out with less energy

33421 Transport energy conservation

Vehicle design for use bull Aerodynamicshydrodynamicsbull Low massbull Tyrewheel designbull Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS)

regenerative brakingbull Use of low embodied energy materialsbull Bulk transport systems

Transport infrastructure and managementsystems

bull Integrated transport systems roadrailcyclebull Active Traffic Management (ATM)Smart

motorways

Vehicle design for end of life bull Use of recyclable materialsbull Easier component identificationbull Easy dismantlingmaterial separation

33422 Building energy conservation

Building design bull Orientationfeatures for passive solar gainsbull Low surface area volume ratiobull High thermal mass materials

Use of materialsconstruction methodswith low embodied energy

bull Low embodied energy materials eg rammedearth limecrete straw

bull Earth-sheltered buildings

Use of materials with low thermalconductivitytransmittance

bull Doubletriple glazingbull Low emissivity glassbull Vacuuminert gas doubletriple glazingbull Wallfloorroof insulation

Energy management technologies bull Occupancy sensorsbull Improved insulationbull Automaticsolar ventilationbull Heat exchangers

Low energy appliances bull Lighting CFL LEDbull lsquoLow-energyrsquo white goods

33423 Industrial energy conservation

Heat management bull Bulk storage of hot fluidsbull Use of heat exchangersbull Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems

Electricity infrastructure management bull High voltage gridbull Peak shavingpumped storage HEPbull The use of ICT to co-ordinate data on electricity

supply and demand and plan supply changesbull Locational factors affecting the development of

new generating infrastructure

MS 01 Students could convert between joules watts kWh and MWh whencarrying out calculations

MS 02 Students could carry out calculations using numbers in standard andordinary form eg when comparing production of different energyresources

MS 03 Students could calculate surface area to volume ratios and relate thisto heat loss

MS 05 Students could use V3 in wind power calculations

MS 12 Students could find the mean of a range of data eg mean poweroutput of a wind farm

MS 13 Students could represent a range of data in a table with clearheadings units and consistent decimal places eg to compare theenergy density production cost carbon intensity and mean load factorfor a range of energy resources

MS 13 Students could interpret data from a variety of graphs eg change inelectricity cost from renewable energy sources industrial output andlevel of financial incentivestax over a number of years

MS 17 Students could construct a scatter graph of per capita energy use andmean GDP

MS 18 Students could calculate national energy use from population andindividual use data

MS22 Students could use and manipulate equations eg energy conversionefficiences

MS 23 Students could use data on wind velocities in the formula used tocalculate kinetic energy avaliable to an aerogenerator

MS 24 Students could calculate the power outputs of HEP stations withdifferent flow rates and head of water

MS 31 Students could construct a Sankey diagram to represent energyresources uses and efficiency for a country

Students could construct a radar diagram to show variations in winddirection

MS 34 Students could predictsketch the shape of a graph with a linearrelationship eg the relationship between isolation and solar paneloutput

MS 37 Students could use a tangent to measure the gradient of a point on acurve eg rate of heat loss through double glazing with varying gaps

MS 41 Students could calcuate the surface area and volume of cylinders orspheres eg to estimate rates of heat loss in energy conservationprogrammes

Students could plan activities to investigate environmental issues related to energy which theycould carry out eg

bull the effect of climatic variability on the use of solar or wind powerbull the cost-effectiveness of increasing thicknesses of thermal insulationbull students could compare the energy input and light output of a range of light bulb types to

investigate efficiency and cost-effectiveness

Students could plan activities in a range of broader environmental contexts related to energyincluding ones where first-hand experience of practical activities may not be possible eg studentscould plan a study to investigate the cost-effectiveness of different double glazing systems

PS 12 Students could analyse historical and current data to suggest howbuilding energy efficiency could be improved most effectively

PS 31 Students could plot and interpret graphs on the energy intensity ofdomestic products to assess improvements in energy efficiency

Me 2 Students could use a grid of sample sites and collect data on windvelocities to select the optimum location for a wind turbine

Me 5 Students could measure insolation levels at a standard time of day toassess the impact of variability on the practicality of solar power

Me 6 Students could use secondary data on wave heights collected overtime and the t-test to select the best site for harnessing wave powerData variability could be assessed using standard deviation

ST 1 Students could measure changes in temperature in thermal stores withdifferent heat capacities

Students could measure variations in wind velocities in selectedlocations or over time

Students could use a light meter and parabolic reflector to investigatethe effect of cloud cover on light intensity and the limitations of CSP incloudy conditions

34 PollutionStudents should understand how the properties of materials and energy forms interact to result inenvironmental change They should apply this knowledge to suggest solutions to minimise currentpollution problems and prevent future problems Students should apply their understanding througha range of different historic and contemporary pollution events

341 The properties of pollutantsStudents should consider how the properties of pollutants affect behaviour in the environment theirharmful impacts and the strategies that can be used to minimise problems

Pollutant properties bull State of matter solidliquidgasbull Energy formbull Densitybull Persistencedegradabilitybull Toxicitybull Reactivitybull Adsorptionbull Solubility in lipidswaterbull Bioaccumulationbull Bomagnificationbull Synergismbull Mutagenic actionbull Carcinogenic actionbull Teratogenic action

342 How environmental features affect the severity of pollutionStudents should use examples to explain how environmental features affect the behaviour ofpollutants and the severity of pollution caused

3421 Factors that affect dispersalStudents should understand the effect of point and diffuse sources on the dispersal andconcentration of pollutants

Air currents

bull velocitybull direction

Water currents

3422 Environmental factors that affect rates of degradationStudents should understand how environmental features can affect the chemical changes topollutants including the changes that convert primary pollutants to secondary pollutants

Temperature The rate of decomposition of sewage

Light The role of light in

bull photochemical smogsbull degradation of pesticides

Oxygen Aerobic decay of organic wastes

pH Neutralisation of acids by basicalkaline rocks

The presence of other chemicals The role of oxidation by ozone in producing secondarypollutants

Temperature inversions The role of temperature inversions in the dispersal ofatmospheric pollutants

The presence of adsorbent materials The adsorption of toxic metal ions on clay particles

343 Strategies to control pollutants based on their properties andfeatures of the environment

3431 Principles of control

Critical Pathway Analysis to predictpollutant mobility and inform monitoringprogrammes

Application to monitoring discharges of pollutantssuch as radioactive materials heavy metals andpersistent organic pollutants eg chlorinated organiccompounds

Critical Group Monitoring to identifymembers of the public most at risk

Application to monitoring the health risks caused bypollutants such as radioactive discharges and heavymetals

Emission location Increased concentrations in valleys enclosed waterbodies

Emission timing Restriction of activities during temperature inversions

3432 Selection of control technologies to reduce production reduce release andmitigate damage causedStudents should consider the following pollutants to identify their properties to analyse theirenvironmental impacts and to plan control strategies

Students should understand the properties of pollutants and environmental features so they cananalyse and evaluate the changes in human activities and strategies that can be used to minimizepollution

34321 SmokePM10 (Particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter)

Sources Incomplete combustion of coal diesel wood cropwaste

Impacts bull Respiratory diseasebull Increased albedo of atmospherebull Smoke smogs during temperature inversions

Controls bull Legislation Clean Air Act (1956)bull Coal treatment heating to remove tarbull Electrostatic precipitatorsbull Cyclone separatorsbull Bag filters

34322 Acid precipitation

Primary and secondary pollutants

bull SOx sulfurous and sulfuric acidsbull NOx nitric acidbull ozone involved in production of

secondary pollutants

Sources bull Combustion of fossil fuelsbull Smelting of sulphide ores

Impacts bull Non-living objects damage to limestonebuildings metal structures

bull Living organismsbull Direct effects of acidsbull Damage to proteinsbull Damage to exoskeletonsbull Respiratory effects in humans

Controls SOx

bull fuel desulfurizationbull Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) wet FGD and

dry FGD

bull catalytic convertersbull urea sprays

Ozone control of NOx reduces ozone formation

34323 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Sources bull Reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in hotcombustion processes

bull NOx release due to fertiliser use

Effects bull Photochemical smogsbull Global climate change

Controls bull Catalytic convertersbull Urea spraysbull Control of fertilizer use

34324 Hydrocarbons

Sources bull Unburnt hydrocarbon fuelsbull Gaseous emissions from fossil fuel exploitationbull Solventsbull Aerosol propellants

Effects bull Greenhouse gasesbull Photochemical smogs

Controls bull Catalytic convertersbull Improved combustion efficiencybull Vapour collection and incinerationbull Activated carbon filters

34325 Carbon monoxide

Source Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons

Effect If inhaled reduced carriage of oxygen byhaemoglobin

Controls bull Catalytic convertersbull Improved combustion efficiency

34326 Thermal pollution

Scientific principles The relationship between temperature and maximumdissolved oxygen level

Source Hot water from steam turbine power stationcondensers

Effect Deoxygenation of water

Control Temperature reduction using cooling towers

34327 Oil pollution

Sources bull Waste lubricating oilbull Ship tank washingbull Ship tanker accidentsbull Other ship accidentsbull Oil refinery spillsbull Pipeline leaksbull Leakage during drilling

Effects bull Toxicitybull Asphyxiationbull Loss of insulationbull Less time to feed youngbull Foodchain effects

Controls bull Recycling of waste oilbull Reduced leakage equipment maintenancebull Bund wallsbull Ship tanker designbull Double hullsbull Twin enginesruddersbull Ship tanker operation

bull inert gas oil tank systemsbull recirculation of washing waterbull improved navigation systems eg GPSbull offshore shipping routesbull oil interceptorsbull oil spill clean-up

bull inflatable boomsbull skimmersbull absorbent materialsbull polymerising materialsbull dispersantsbull steam cleaningbull bioremediation

34328 Pesticides

Examples of different pesticide groupsshould be used to illustrate the mainpollutant properties

bull Toxicitybull Systemiccontact actionbull Specificitybull Persistencebull Liposolubilitybull Bioaccumulationbull Biomagnificationbull Mobilitybull Synergism

Effects bull Direct toxic impacts on non-target speciesbull Toxic impacts after increased concentrationbull Indirect effects food chain impacts loss of inter-

species relationships

Control Restrictions on use of selected pesticides egorganochlorines organophosphates

34329 Nutrient pollution

Inorganic nutrients nitrates and phosphates

Source Nitrates (leachaterunoff) and phosphates (sewageeffluent)

Effect Eutrophication (combined effects of nitrates andphosphates)

Nitrates and human health bull Methaemoglobinaemiablue baby syndromebull Possible human carcinogen

Controls Nitrates

bull use of low solubility fertilisersbull nitrate vulnerable zones

Phosphates iron phosphate precipitation

Organic nutrient pollutants

Sources Organic wastes (sewage manure silage fluidseffluent from processing of wood and paper)

Effect Deoxygenation caused by microbial aerobicdecomposition

Controls The major stages in treatment of organic wastes

bull pre-treatmentbull grit traps screens

bull primary treatmentbull primary sedimentation

bull secondary treatmentbull aerobic bacterial decomposition activated

sludgefilter bedsbull secondary sedimentation

bull tertiary treatmentbull phosphate removalbull bacterial microfilters

bull anaerobic sludge digestion

343210 Acid mine drainage

Sources bull Oxidation of sulfide ores in mine spoilrocksbull Drainage waterleachate

Effects bull Reduced pH ndash acid damagebull Increased solubility and mobilisation of toxic

metals

Control Collection of drainage water and neutralization withlime

343211 Heavy metals

The properties of heavy metals should beanalysed to understand why they havecaused pollution problems and thestrategies used to prevent pollution

Properties bull Neurotoxicitybull Liposolubilitybull Bioaccumulationbull Biomagnification

Controls bull Discontinued uses eg paint petrol additiveslead pipes solder for water pipes lead fishingweights

bull Waste storage at high pH to reduce solubility

Mercury

The effect of chemical form on pollutanttoxicity

bull Elemental mercurybull Inorganic mercurybull Organic mercury

343212 Solid wastes

Students should understand that thetreatment method for solid wastesdepends upon its properties

The methods appropriate for each wastetype should be analysed

Domestic wastes The advantages and disadvantages of the treatmentoptions should be evaluated

bull landfillbull incinerationbull recyclingbull composting

Specialist solid wastes Solid wastes with particular risks should be separatedand treated individually

Radioactive waste The sources and properties of the three wastecategories should be understood to identifyappropriate disposal methods

bull high-level wastebull intermediate-level wastebull low-level waste

The need for sealed storage monitoringencapsulation use of absorbers and cooling shouldbe evaluated for each waste level

Asbestos Secure permanent sealed storage

Cyanide Incineration

343213 Noise

The scientific principles of sound thataffect noise pollution

bull frequency range of human hearingbull logarithmic nature of the dB scalebull volumebull threshold of human hearing

The effects of noise on non-living objects

bull acoustic fatiguebull shock impacts

The effects of noise on living organisms

bull Humansbull hearing damagebull stress ulcers heart diseasebull behavioural changes

Other organisims

bull livestock injuriesbull disturbance of breeding birdsbull reduced feeding success bats

owls dolphinsbull hearing damagebehavioural

changes cetaceans

The sources and control of noise

Students should be able to explain how different control methods can be used to control noise in awide range of situations

Aircraft noise

Sources bull Engine noise especially at high thrustbull Air turbulence

Controls Airport design and location

bull location away from major population centresbull taxi areas away from residential areasbull provision of acoustic insulationbull land-use restrictionsbull baffle moundsacoustic insulation

Aircraft design

bull engine designs to reduce noise emissionsbull aerodynamic surfaces

Airport operation

bull the use of airport take-off and landing noisefootprints in planning mitigation programmes

bull flight paths avoid urban areasbull altitude restrictionsbull constant descent anglebull night flight restrictionsbull noisy aircraft bannedbull fines for excessive noisebull engine test restrictionsbull reduced use of reverse thrusters

Railway noise

Sources and controls bull Wheel vibration ndash track polishing soundabsorbing ballast

bull Engine noise ndash sound absorbing suspensionbull Pantograph turbulence ndash aerodynamic fairingbull Wheel squeal on corners ndash lubrication of

wheelstrackbull Braking squeal ndash use of composite material

brakes

Road traffic noise

Sources and controls bull Wheel vibrationtyre noise ndash sound absorbingroad surface acoustic fences

bull Engine noise ndash acoustic insulationbull Air turbulence ndash improved aerodynamics

Industrial noise

Sources bull Air compressorsbull Pile drivers stamping machinesbull Drillsbull Mine blasting military sonar

Controls bull Worker ear protectionremote operationbull Acoustic insulationmatsbaffle moundsbull Restrictions on timing of operationsbull Alternative procedures eg pressing instead of

stampingbull Drilling instead of pile-driving

Domestic noise

Sources bull Appliances ndash acoustic insulationbull Music ndash volume limiters

343214 Ionising radiation

Uses bull Nuclear weaponsbull Nuclear electricitybull Ship propulsionbull Manufacturing industrybull Healthcarebull Agriculture

Scientific principles bull Half-life and health riskbull Type of radiation and health risk Relative

Biological Effectiveness (RBE)bull Exposure vs contaminationbull Activation productsbull Units Becquerels Grays Sieverts

Effects bull Free radical production DNA damagebull Acute and chronic effectsbull Somatic and gonadic effects

Control of exposure to radioactivematerials

Principles of control bull Exposure should be As Low As ReasonablyAchievable (ALARA)

bull Equipment should be Best AvailableTechnology Not Entailing Excessive Cost(BATNEEC)

bull The use of RiskBenefit analysis

Controls bull Closed sources to prevent contaminationbull Radiation absorbersbull Distance from source the inverse square lawbull Reduced period of exposurebull Worker monitoring at workon leaving work

Radioactive waste management (seespecialist solid wastes)

bull High-level wastebull Intermediate-level wastebull Low-level waste

The principles of environmentalmonitoring

Critical Pathway Analysis (CPA) involves identifyingthe most likely route a material will take based on itsproperties and features of the environment eg

bull wind and water current velocity and directionbull geology and hydrologybull food chain pathways

Environmental sampling

bull atmospheric dustbull soilbull waterbull seaweeds molluscs fishbull milk vegetables meat

Critical Group Monitoring (CGM)

CGM involves identifying those members of the publicwho because of their lifestyles are most at risk Theyare monitored If they are safe everyone else shouldbe safe too

3433 The use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologiesStudents should understand that a wide range of new technologies is available to provide bettercontrol of pollution

Control technologies bull Methods to prevent pollutant releasebull Monitoring impactsbull Treating contaminated areas by leachate

collectionbull Satellite monitoring of oil spillsbull GPS ship tracking to monitor navigation and

reduce accidentsbull Adsorption of heavy metals using polymersbull Phytoremediation of land contaminated with

heavy metalsbull Bioremediation of hydrocarbon spills

MS 03 Students could calculate percentage yields eg in pollution control

MS 05 Students could use a calulator to find and use logarithmic values fornoise levels

MS 14 Students could use the term probability appropriately wheninvestigating casual relationships such as the link between humanhealth problems and urban pollutants

MS 15 Students could analyse data collected using random or systematicsampling eg Simpsons index of diversity to compare the biodiversityof habitats exposed to different pollution types

MS 19 Students could use the chi-squared test to assess the impacts ofdifferent pesticides on non-target insect species

MS 110 Students could calculate the standard deviation of tropospheric ozonelevels in a city

MS 25 Students could convert between the logarithmic dB scale and linearscales of relative sound pressure

MS 31 Students could interpret a 3-D graph of fish mortality at differentconcentrations of a toxic metal and different pHs

MS 32 Students could demonstrate their understanding that data may bepresented in a number of formats and be able to use these data egdissolved oxygen levels expressed numerically as percentagesaturation or mg l-1 and in table or graphical form

MS 33 Students could select an apppropriate format for presenting data barcharts histograms graphs and scatter graphs eg organic matter andoxygen depletion in water

MS 35 Students could read the intercept point from a graph to find thetemperature at which oxygen levels fall too low to support particularaquatic species

MS 36 Students could calculate rates of temperature change with altitude inthe atmosphere in the context of photochemical smogs

Students could plan activities to investigate environmental issues related to pollution which theycould carry out eg

bull students could monitor atmospheric pollution using a lichen biotic index at different distancesdownwind of an urban centre

bull students could monitor water pollution at different locations using an aquatic invertebratebiotic index

bull students could measure the effect of inorganic nutrient concentration on the growth of algae

Students could plan activities in a range of broader environmental contexts related to pollutionincluding ones where first hand experience of practical activities may not be possible eg

bull students could plan a study to collect the information needed for a Critical Pathway Analysisaround a pollutant source

bull students could plan a study to investigate the impact of a new potential pollutant on long-termhuman health

PS 12 Students could assess the information needed to construct a CriticalPathway Analysis

bull wind direction and velocity patternsbull precipitation patternsbull impact of geology on movementsbull impact of hydrology on movementsbull biota

PS 13 Students could identify the properties that may be important inpredicting problems that may be caused by a new industrial waste

Me 2 Students could use a transect to measure noise levels with increasingdistance from a road

Me 5 Students could investigate the effect of sample timing on noise levelsnear a road

Opportunities to investigate the required sampling techniques of which students must have firsthand experience Further details can be found inAppendix A Working scientifically (page 97)

ST 1 Students could measure nitrate and phosphate levels to monitor waterpollution in different locations

ST 2 Students could use an appropriate quadrat to measure percentagecover and species present to monitor atmospheric pollution

ST 6 Students could use pond nets kick sampling or surber samplers tocollect samples for biotic index analysis

35 Biological resourcesStudents must develop an understanding of the challenge posed by the need to provide food andforest resources for a growing human population without damaging the planetrsquos life supportsystems The interaction of the production of biological resources with other areas of the subjectshould be emphasised including with conservation of biodiversity energy resources pollution andthe physical environment

351 AgricultureStudents should understand that agriculture involves the control of food webs to divertphotosynthetic energy into human food This involves the control of abiotic and biotic factors tomaximise production

3511 Agroecosystems

The selection of species

Suitability of the environment

bull temperaturebull light intensity day lengthbull water availabilitybull soil fertilitybull topographybull reliefbull pest problems

Technological factors

bull availability of energybull pesticidesbull machineryequipment

bull irrigationbull transport infrastructure

The biotic factors that affect productivity

Pest control predators competitorspathogens eg insects fungi weedsbacteria

Cultural pest control

bull crop rotationcultivationmanagement

bull barrier cropsbull companion cropsbull predator habitatsbull biological control introduced

predatorspathogensbull sterile male techniquesbull pheromone trapsbull genetic resistance

Pesticides How the properties of pesticides influence theireffectiveness and environmental impacts

bull toxicitybull specificitybull persistencebull solubility in waterlipidsbull mode of action contactsystemic

A comparison of insecticide groups to consider theirrelative advantages and disadvantages

bull organochlorinesbull organophosphatesbull pyrethroidsbull neonicotinoids

Antibiotics

bull as growth promotersbull to prevent infectionbull to treat infections

Pollinators

bull controlled use of pesticides thatharm bees and other pollinators

bull introduction of bee hives toflowering crops

Nutrient supply maintenance of soil biotadetritivores and decomposers

Food chain energy losses

bull control movementbull temperature controlbull species selection different food

conversion ratios (FCRs)

The abiotic factors that affect productivity Abiotic factors controlled in agroecosystems

bull temperaturebull light intensity day lengthbull water availabilitybull nutrient supplybull topographybull reliefbull pHbull carbon dioxidebull soil fertilitybull soil salinity

3512 Manipulation of food species to increase productivity the advantages anddisadvantages of the methods that are available to improve crop and livestock genepools

Genetic manipulation

bull selective breedingbull asexual reproductionvegetative

propogationcloningbull genetic engineering

transgenicsGM

Agricultural energetics

The ways in which agricultural energeticscan be quantified and their applications

bull productivitybull efficiencybull intensiveextensive systemsbull energy subsidies machinery

fertilisers pesticides transportprocessing

bull energy ratios and efficiency acomparison of intensive andextensive systems

Manipulation of food species to increaseproductivity

bull stockingcrop densitybull monocultures advantages and

disadvantages

3513 Environmental impacts of agriculture

Habitat impacts

bull habitat clearancebull wetland drainagebull ploughing of grasslandbull reduced biodiversitybull genetic contaminationbull soil degradation and erosion

Pollution

bull pesticidesbull nutrientsbull GHGs methane carbon dioxide

Changes to the hydrological cycle

bull unsustainable irrigationbull changes in evapotranspiration

3514 Socialeconomicpolitical factors which influence agricultural production

Consumer choice

bull social factorsbull cultural factorsbull religious factorsbull ethical factors

Economic factors

bull subsidiesbull guaranteed pricesbull quotas

Political factors

bull trade controlsbull economic controlsbull subsidiesbull guaranteed pricesbull quotas

3515 Strategies to increase the sustainability of agriculture

Pest control

Reduced use of chemical pesticides

Reduced use of antibiotics

bull weedingbull mulchingbull crop rotationbull barrier cropsbull biological controlbull predator habitatsbull polyculturecompanion crops

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Use of natural processes

bull nitrogen-fixing bacteriabull decompositionbull crop rotation

Increased use of natural processes tosupply nutrients

bull recycling of organic matterbull crop rotationbull permaculturebull growth of legumesbull conservation of soil biota

Energy inputs

bull use of natural processes insteadof artificial fertilisers

bull low tillage techniques

Water management to ensuresustainable supplies

Social impacts the control ofenvironmental impacts on ruralcommunities

MS 13 Students could construct tables on fish population data to drawconclusions on overfishing risks

MS 19 Students could use the Mann-Whitney U test to compare the effect ofpest control methods on crop growth

MS 110 Students could calcuate the standard deviation of a data set eg ofcrop yield for a given nutrient input

MS 21 Students could use symbols in assessing fish populations and fishcatches

MS 22 Students could change the subject of equations when calculatingenergy efficiencies and energy ratios when comparing agriculturalproduction systems

MS 33 Students could select an appropriate format for presenting data onnutrient inputs and yield increase

Students could plan activities in a range of broader environmental contexts related to foodproduction systems including ones where first-hand experience of practical activities may not bepossible eg monitoring how the use of GM fodder may affect energy ratios and food conversionratios

PS 31 Students could plot and interpret graphs on the use of nitrate fertilisersand nitrate levels in aquifers

Opportunities to investigate the required methodologies of which students must have first-handexperience Further details can be found in Appendix A Working scientifically (page 97)

Me 2 Students could plan a survey to assess the impact of livestock on soilcompaction

Me 6 Students could use a t-test to assess the statistical significance of ayield change following the introduction of a new crop variety orfertiliser

Opportunities to investigate the required sampling techniques of which students must have first-hand experience Further details can be found inAppendix A Working scientifically (page 97)

ST 3 Students could measure the soil moisture and organic matter contentof fields with different management regimes

352 Aquatic food production systemsStudents should understand that fishing is the last large-scale human hunting activity Whileaquatic species are renewable resources humans can easily exploit populations above theMaximum Sustainable Yield

Aquaculture allows humans to control productivity of aquatic species but has not yet increasedfood supplies in the way that agriculture has on land

3521 Marine Productivity

The role of nutrients in controllingbiological productivity

Nutrient availability

Variations in light levels photicaphotic zones

A comparison of productivity in openoceans coastal areas areas withupwelling

Students should understand how light and nutrientsupplies control productivity in different areas

3522 Fishing

The advantages and disadvantages ofthe main fishing methods

Catch effectiveness catch selectivity energy inputsenvironmental impacts

bull pelagic trawlingbull demersal trawlingbull purse seiningbull drift nettingbull long liningbull shellfish traps

Environmental impacts of fishing Population decline caused by overfishing

Changed age structure

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Damage to seabed coral reefs seagrass beds

Food web impacts

The methods of estimating fishpopulations and Maximum SustainableYield

The relationship between biomass recruitmentgrowth mortality and catch

Population sampling from the commercial catch

bull catch sizebull catch per unit fishing effortbull mean fish sizebull mean age

Data from research

bull breeding success ndash egglarvae densitysurvival

Methods of reducing environmentalimpacts of fishing

Catch quotas

Net design

bull mesh designbull mesh sizebull escape panelsbull acoustic deterrent devices (lsquodolphin pingersrsquo)

Restricted fishing effort

No-take zonesprotected breeding areas closed-seasons

Minimum catch size

Maximum catch sizeprotected individuals

Captive rearing and release to boost wild populations

Biodegradableradio tracked equipment to reduceghost fishing

3523 Aquaculture

The relative merits of extensive andintensive aquaculture

Productivity energetics and environmental impacts

Principles of aquaculture and theirapplication to extensive and intensivesystems

Species selection

Stock selection

Breedinggenetic control

Disease control

Control of competition

Control of nutrition

Control of abiotic factors

bull temperaturebull dissolved oxygenbull light levelsbull water flow

The extent to which aquaculture canreplace fishing

Food requirements

Trophic level efficiency

Methods of reducing environmentalimpacts of aquaculture

Fish farm location

Control of organic wastes

Lower stocking density

Control escapes

Control of species and methods of collecting food forfish

Reduced use of pesticidesantibiotics

Feeding control

MS 01 Students could convert between different units when estimatingchanges in total biomass mean mass fecundity and growth rateswhen assessing MSY

MS 16 Students could calculate or compare the mean median and mode of aset of data eg of yields of fish farmed under different conditions or fishfrom commerical catches

MS 22 Students could use and manipulate an equation to estimate themaximum sustainable yield of a fish population

353 Forest resourcesTrees are a renewable resource but their slow growth rate and the need for land for other purposeshas caused a significant reduction in global forest area

3531 The resources and life-support services gained from forests

Resources

bull timberbull fuelbull foodbull fibresbull medicines

Ecosystem services

bull atmospheric regulationbull habitat and wildlife refugebull regulation of the hydrological cyclebull climate regulationbull soil conservationbull recreationamenity uses

3532 The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity

The impacts on productivity andbiodiversity of

bull growth of non-indigenous speciesbull single-species plantationsbull close plantingbull simple age structure

3533 Deforestation

The causes of deforestation Exploitation above the MSY

Clearance for alternative land use

The effect of deforestation on resourcesbiodiversity hydrology soil and climate

Loss of resources

bull timber fuel fibres medicinesbull reduced biodiversitybull loss of speciesbull fragmentation of remaining forest areas

Changes to hydrology

bull reduced interception andtranspiration

bull increased runoff

Impact on soil

bull less dead organic matterbull increased soil erosionbull less protection of soil by vegetation

and leaf litterbull reduced root binding

Climate impacts

bull increased albedobull reduced carbon sequestration and

carbon reservoirbull reduced rainfall downwind

Sustainable forest management Mixed species plantations

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

MS 03 Students could use data on percentage forest clearance to estimatechanges in area biomass and carbon storage

MS 04 Students could estimate changes in forest area using satellite images

MS 14 Students could use mean tree mass and tree spacing to estimatebiomass and carbon storage per hectare

MS 19 Students could use the t-test to compare the timber yield of two treespecies

Students could plan activities to investigate environmental issues related to forestry which theycould carry out eg

bull the effect of tree cover on the abiotic factors that affect wildlife in the woodandbull the effect of tree species diversity on the biodiversity of wildlife

Students could plan activities in a range of broader environmental contexts related to forestryincluding ones where first hand experience of practical activities may not be possible eg the use ofaerial survey data to monitor changes in forest area

PS 22 Students could evaluate the methods used to estimate tree biomassand assess potential inaccuracies

PS 23 Students could identify the other variables that may affect a study ofhumidity within a forest

PS 31 Students could construct a graph to show changing abiotic factorsalong a transect into a woodland

Me 5 Students could assess the effect of sample timing on a survey ofabiotic factors in a forest

ST 1 Students could use light meters temperature data loggershumidimeters and anemometers to measure abiotic factors within aforest

ST 3 Students could investigate the impact of different managementsystems or tree types on soil organic matter content

36 SustainabilityThe subject principles that are the focus in all topics should be used to develop a holisticunderstanding of sustainability and the circular economy Examples should be taken fromthroughout the areas of study to gain an understanding of the interconnected nature ofenvironmental problems and solutions to these problems Students should consider sustainabilityon local national and global scales

361 Dynamic equilibriaStudents should understand the role of dynamic equilibria in natural and human systems and howthis understanding may be used to develop sustainable human societies

3611 Negative feedback mechanisms which resist change

Global Climate Change eg

bull increased temperatures causingincreased cloud cover and a higheralbedo

bull increased carbon dioxide levelsleading to greater photosynthesisand carbon sequestration

Hydrological cycle eg increasedevaporation leading to increasedprecipitation

Population regulation eg homeostaticpopulation regulation caused by density-dependent factors

3612 Positive feedback mechanisms which increase change

Global Climate Change Increased temperatures may increase the followingfeatures involved in positive feedback mechanisms

bull melting of permafrostbull ocean acidificationbull decline of albedobull methane hydrate releasesbull forest and peat firesbull formation of cirrus cloudsbull soil decomposition rates

3613 Equilibrium tipping points which lead to new equilibria

Global Climate Change These are natural processes that become self-sustaining due to human activities eg forest firesmethane hydrate releases permafrost melting

3614 Diverse systems are more likely to be resistant to change

High diversity natural systems

bull coral reefs tropical rainforestsbull low diversity human systemsbull agroecosystems

362 EnergyStudents should understand that future energy will be affected by changing availability thedevelopment of new technologies economic factors and environmental concerns

Natural systems are driven by energy in very different ways from anthropogenic systems

The principles of natural systems being driven by renewable low energy-density processes at lowtemperatures should be contrasted with human systems to consider how copying natural systemscould help the development of a sustainable society

3621 Natural processes are driven by renewable energy especially solar power

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Atmospheric circulation

Thermohaline circulation

The use of renewable energy resources in naturalprocesses provides long-term sustainability in contrastto anthropogenic processes reliant on non-renewableenergy resources

3622 Natural processes use low energy-density resources

All the natural processes driven by solarenergy are driven by low energy-densityresources

Natural processes that rely on low energy-densitysolar energy capture the energy at a low energydensity It may be used in natural processes at a lowenergy density or may be converted into other energyforms with a higher energy-density which may beapplied more easily to human activities

3623 Most natural processes occur at low temperatures

bull photosynthesis producescarbohydrates

bull enzymes reduce the activationenergy of reactions

bull nitrogen fixation

Students should compare the natural systems thatuse low temperatures with human systems that usehigh temperatures eg biological fixation of nitrogencompared with the Haber process using fossil fuels

3624 Carbon footprints and sustainable development

The concept of carbon footprintsintroduced in the Physical Environmentshould be re-considered in evaluating thecontribution of mimicking natural energysystems to achieve sustainability

363 Material cyclesThe use of mineral resources should be re-considered to evaluate how an understanding of naturalcyclical processes may increase the sustainability of human systems

3631 Linear human systems lead to resource depletion and waste generation

The use of fossil fuels The reliance on non-renewable energy resourcescannot be sustainable Inefficient use and use whenrenewable resources are available acceleratesdepletion rates

The use of mineral resources Human use of minerals often involves dispersal afteruse or produces mixtures from which separation isdifficult These make recovery and re-use difficult sosustainable exploitation is reduced

3632 Natural processes often link together in sequences that create cycles with thewaste products of one process being the raw materials for other processes

Natural processes use a relatively smallnumber of elements which build intomonomers

These build to produce a wide range ofpolymers eg carbohydrates proteins

Students should consider how the use and re-use ofabundant simple raw materials in natural cyclesresults in sustainability and how this principle may beapplied to human systems

3633 Natural waste products are either non-toxic or do not build up to cause toxicity

The molecules produced by naturalprocesses are biodegradable and can bebroken down to non-toxic products thatare the raw materials for other naturalprocesses

Students should consider how the low toxicity of thewastes of natural systems and the natural processesthat process them minimise environmental problemsand provide sustainable supplies

364 The circular economyThe circular economy should be evaluated as a possible development strategy that engages in abenign way with natural systems These should be considered in terms of the development ofsustainable lifestyles using circular economy principles

Students should reconsider the sustainability of natural processes studied throughout the courseespecially those emphasised in sections Dynamic equilibria (page 78) Energy (page 80)and Material cycles (page 81) to evaluate the ways human society may become sustainable

3641 The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development ofsustainable lifestylesStudents should select examples studied throughout the course to illustrate the possible inclusionof natural principles into the circular economy

Cycling of materials Biogeochemical cycles and recycling

Energy derived from renewable sources Solar and non-solar renewable energy innatural and human systems

Human activities should support ecosystems The inclusion of ecosystem conservation inhuman planning eg agriculture forestryfisheries energy use waste management

Separation of technical and biological materials Separation of biodegradable wastes from othermaterials eg metals to enable reuse

How diverse systems are more resistant tochange

Diverse ecosystems and diverse technicalsystems eg the use of a range of renewableenergy resources

Connected systems where the waste product ofone process is the raw material for anotherprocess

Natural biogeochemical cycles compared withpollution caused by human wastes

Design of products for end of life reuse Design to enable re-use of components ormaterials eg vehicles domestic equipment

Optimum production rather than maximumproduction

Consideration of natural system where over-production supports processes upon which thesystem relies eg plant products which supportpollinators seed dispersal agents and microbessuch as decomposers and mycorrhizal fungiThis can be contrasted with agroecosystemswhich aim for maximum harvested yields

Technologies to design new products andimprove system effectiveness

Improved designs to increase energy usereduce material use and enable dismantling forre-use

Students must evaluate the extent to which theprinciples of the circular economy can beapplied to human activities to developsustainable lifestyles in the following activities

Land uses that support natural ecosystems The inclusion of living organisms into urbanlandscapes to conserve wildlife and improvequality of life

Water supplies Water conservation and catchmentmanagement

Mineral supplies Increasing reserves by exploiting low-gradeores

Waste management Reduced use reuse repurposing recycling

Pollution control A move from post-production treatment to non-release by changes in technology eg frominternal combustion engines to fuel cells

Energy supplies The use of renewable energy resources and thedevelopment of low-temperature manufacturingprocesses

Food production The inclusion of natural processes in nutrientsupply pest control and soil maintenance

3642 Biocapacity and ecological footprints a comparison of the factors controllingthe impact of different ecological footprints on biocapacity

Review of different regions of the worldincluding use of the WWF Living PlanetReport Living Planet Index andecological footprint calculations

Students should consider how the strategies that canbe implemented to achieve sustainability could beused to reduce ecological footprints and maintain orenhance biocapacity in different regions of the world

MS 17 Students could intepret a scatter graph to compare humandevelopment index with the environmental footprint of differentcountries

MS 18 Students could compare per capita national and global data for theuse of a range of resources

MS 25 Students could use logarithmic data when comparing rates of changein human populations

MS 32 Students could use data from graphs to calculate rates of change inhuman populations

MS 34 Students could calculate rates of carbon sequestration from data onchanges in mean tree biomass and forest area

MS 35 Students could interpret computer models on population growth toestimate dates when global population will reach a particular size

MS 36 Students could use data on carbon emissions sequestrationremovalrates and atmospheric CO2 concentrations and estimate futuretemperature change

PS 12 Students could analyse data on fossil fuel use and hydrocarbonreserves to assess future supply problems

PS 14 Students could identify the impacts of fossil fuel use and plan amonitoring programme to assess the impacts of changing torenewable energy resources

PS 31 Students could interpret graphs on population growth resourceconsumption biodiversity loss and pollution emissions within thecontext of sustainable lifestyles

PS 32 Students could analyse data on resource reserves to consider marginsof error and the problems of basing decisions on uncertain data

37 Research methodsResearch methods include details of the methods used to investigate a wide range ofenvironmental issues It is not expected that students will have first hand experience of all of thesealthough where this is possible it will enhance their learning experience The required practicalskills are detailed in Appendix A Working scientifically (page 97) and opportunities for developingthese skills are signposted throughout the subject content

Students must understand the general principles of scientific methodology and be able to applythese to a wide range of environmental situations and techniques

Preliminary studies may be used to ensure the study will produce representative data

Practical activities should be carried out with consideration of their environmental impacts and howthese can be minimised

Students must undertake experimental and investigative activities inlcuding appropriate riskmanagement in a range of environmental contexts They must also know how to safely andcorrectly use a range of practical equipment and materials

Students must carry out practical activities using the best contemporary practices for riskassessment and safe working in the laboratory and during fieldwork

371 Scientific methodologies

Sample location random sampling Importance of the avoidance of bias

Sample location systematic sampling Regular sample intervals

Transects ndash applied to environmental gradients

bull line transectsbull belt transectsbull continuousinterrupted transects

Sample timing To ensure data variability is detected

Selection of time intervals between samples

Sample size Dependent on sample homogeneity

Number of samples Dependent on data variability

To enable analysis of statistical significance

Standardisation of techniques To allow comparisons between different studiesensure consistent reliability

Collection of statistically significant data Experimental design should allow the assessment ofstatistical significance of the data collected

372 Sampling techniques

3721 Standard environmental techniques

Methods

bull quadratsbull quadrat size selection

bull types of quadratbull open frame quadratbull grid quadratbull point quadrat

bull kick samplingbull surber samplersbull colonisation mediabull pitfall trapsbull sweep netsbull beating traysbull light trapsbull Tuumlllgren funnelbull extraction of earthworms from soil

Quantitativecomparativenumericalmeasures

bull abundance scales eg DAFORscales

bull species richnessbull species diversitybull species frequencybull species densitybull percentage coverbull Lincoln Indexbull Simpsonrsquos Index of Biodiversity

Measurement of abiotic factors

bull light intensitybull temperaturebull wind velocitybull humiditybull water turbiditybull water pHbull water ion concentration eg nitratesbull soil analysis

bull texture sedimentation sievingbull pHbull water contentbull organic matter contentbull measurement of bulk densitybull the use of a soil triangle

Students must understand the following features ofeach technique

bull purposeapplication of the methodbull how the method is carried outbull limitations

3722 Fieldwork and laboratory activities

Fieldwork and laboratory activities

These should include but not be limitedto the following

Ecological studies in suitable availablehabitats

bull population sizedensitybull species frequencybull species distributionbull biodiversitybull soil analysis

The effects of climatic variability on theuse of renewable energy resourcesinsolation intensity wind velocity

Factors affecting the rate of heat lossinsulation volume

The use of biotic indices in monitoringpollution lichens aquatic invertebrates

The effect of pH on seed germination

The effect of water turbidity on lightpenetration

The effect of inorganic nutrients on thegrowth of aquatic plantsalgae

Factors affecting noise levels distancefrom source acoustic insulation

The effect of slope and vegetation on rainsplash soil erosion

The effect of trees on microclimates

3723 Specialist techniques

Knowledgeunderstandingapplication ofthe following techniques is required butfirst-hand experience is not

Photography

bull motion sensitive camerasbull databases of physical features may

be used to identify individuals egtiger stripe patterns whalesharkspots whale and dolphin findamage

Marking tags rings collars etc

Auditory monitoring (sounds)sonogramsbirds bats cetaceans

RadioGPSsatellite tracking

Data collected by satellite sensors eg tomonitor habitat change water availabilityrock density ice cover ice thickness

Databases of bloodtissue samplesDNAeDNA

Indirect evidence ndash shows the presenceof the species even if it is not actuallyseen

bull nestsburrowsbull droppings ndash can give information on

diet gender territoriesbull feeding marks eg nuts fruitbull owl pellets ndash also give information

on dietbull tracksfootprintsbull territorial marks eg scratching

MS 03 Students could estimate mean percentage vegetation cover using datafrom a range of quadrats

MS 11 Students could use appropriate numbers of significant figures incalculations of population soil composition and reservoir mass inbiogeochemical cycles

MS 12 Students could calculate mean population densities of ground florafrom quadrat survey data

MS 13 Students could represent a range of variables collected along atransect in a table eg population density cover biodiversity lightlevels humidity

MS 14 Students could assess the probability of a link between changes in anabiotic factor and species distribution

MS 15 The principles of sampling and data collection are fundamental to allthe practical skills

MS 16 + MS 110 Students could calculate mean values wherever multiple samples arecollected and use standard deviation to assess the degree of scatter ofvalues and the significance of difference between means

MS 17 Students could construct and interpret a scatter graph

MS 19 Students could use the t-test to assess the effect of different treeplanting densities on abiotic factors eg humidity wind velocity

MS 111 Students could use a preliminary study to establish an appropriatesample size for a specific level of sample variability

MS 23 Students could use ecological algebraic formulae eg Simpsonrsquos indexof biodiversity or the Lincoln index

MS 31 Students could construct kite diagrams of abundance along a transect

MS 32 Students could use data tables from field studies to construct linegraphs of changing variables along a transect

MS 33 Students could construct a line graph of mean seed germination ratesfor a range of pHs

Where appropriate the research methods included in Section 37 can be incorporated into therequired methodologies and sampling techniques included in Appendix A Working scientifically(page 97) of which students must have first hand experience

The methodologies and sampling techniques of which students must have experience should notbe carried out in isolation They should be set in a clear environmental context as exemplifiedthroughout the other sections of the specification

4 Scheme of assessmentFind past papers and mark schemes and specimen papers for new courses on our website at aqaorgukpastpapers

This specification is designed to be taken over two years

This is a linear qualification In order to achieve the award students must complete allassessments at the end of the course and in the same series

A-level exams and certification for this specification are available for the first time in MayJune2019 and then every MayJune for the life of the specification

All materials are available in English only

Our A-level exams in Environmental Science include questions that allow students to demonstratetheir ability to

bull demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the content developed in one section or topicincluding the associated mathematical and practical skills or

bull apply mathematical and practical skills to areas of content they are not normally developed inor

bull draw together different areas of knowledge and understanding within one answer

A range of question types will be used including those that require extended responses Extendedresponse questions will allow students to demonstrate their ability to construct and develop asustained line of reasoning which is coherent relevant substantiated and logically structuredExtended responses may be in written English extended calculations or a combination of both asappropriate to the question

41 AimsCourses based on this specification must encourage students to

bull develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of environmental scienceand how they relate to each other

bull develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills knowledge and understanding ofthe scientific methods used to investigate the environment

bull develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical mathematical and problemsolving skills related to environmental issues and the sustainable use of resources

bull understand the importance of basing decisions on reliable data which allows evidence-basedanalysis of environmental issues

bull develop interest in and enthusiasm for the subject including developing an interest in furtherstudy and careers associated with the subject

bull understand how society makes decisions about environmental issues and how thesecontribute to the success of the economy and society

42 Assessment objectivesAssessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all A-level EnvironmentalScience specifications and all exam boards

The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives

bull AO1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas processes techniquesand procedures including in relation to natural processessystems and environmental issues

bull AO2 Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas processes techniques andprocedures including in relation to natural processessystems and environmental issues

bull AO3 Analyse interpret and evaluate scientific information ideas and evidence including inrelation to environmental issues to make judgements and draw conclusions

421 Assessment objective weightings for A-level EnvironmentalScienceAssessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings

(approx )Overall weighting (approx)

Paper 1 Paper 2

AO1 17ndash19 14ndash16 30ndash35

Overall weighting of components 50 50 100

10 of the overall assessment of A-level Environmental Science will contain mathematical skillsequivalent to Level 2 or above

At least 15 of the overall assessment of A-level Environmental Science will assess knowledgeskills and understanding in relation to practical work

43 Assessment weightingsThe marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the componentsStudentsrsquo final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each componentGrade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark The scaling and total scaled marks areshown in the table below

Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Total scaled mark 240

5 General administrationYou can find information about all aspects of administration as well as all the forms you need at aqaorgukexamsadmin

51 Entries and codesYou only need to make one entry for each qualification ndash this will cover all the question papersnon-exam assessment and certification

Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department forEducation (DfE) which indicates its subject area

If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code further and higher educationproviders are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualificationsPlease check this before your students start their course

Qualification title AQA entry code DfE discount code

AQA Advanced Level GCE in Environmental Science 7447 1750

This specification complies with

bull Ofqual General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualificationsbull Ofqual GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEsbull Ofqual GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subjectbull all other relevant regulatory documents

The Ofqual qualification accreditation number (QAN) is 60309787

52 Overlaps with other qualificationsThere is overlapping content in the AS and A-level Environmental Science specifications Thishelps you teach the AS and A-level together

53 Awarding grades and reporting resultsThe A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale A A B C D and E

Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)and will not receive a qualification certificate

54 Resits and shelf lifeStudents can resit the qualification as many times as they wish within the shelf life of thequalification

55 Previous learning and prerequisitesThere are no previous learning requirements Any requirements for entry to a course based on thisspecification are at the discretion of schools and colleges

However we recommend that students should have the skills and knowledge associated with atleast GCSE Combined Science or equivalent (see Appendix C Previous science learning (page113))

56 Access to assessment diversity and inclusionGeneral qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations andfurther study Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences

The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required presentany possible difficulty to any students whatever their ethnic background religion sex agedisability or sexuality Tests of specific competences were only included if they were important tothe subject

As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of theJCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments General and Vocationalqualifications We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students whomay require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment This document is published at jcqorguk

Students with disabilities and special needsWere required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen anydisadvantage that affects a disabled student

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help themaccess the assessments as long as the competences being tested arent changed Accessarrangements must be agreed before the assessment For example a Braille paper would be areasonable adjustment for a Braille reader

To arrange access arrangements or reasonable adjustments you can apply using the onlineservice at aqaorgukeaqa

Special considerationWe can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of theassessment through no fault of their own ndash for example a temporary illness injury or seriousproblem such as family bereavement We can only do this after the assessment

Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqaorgukeaqa

For more information and advice visit aqaorgukaccess or email accessarrangementsqueriesaqaorguk

57 Working with AQA for the first timeIf your school or college hasnt previously offered our specifications you need to register as anAQA centre Find out how at aqaorgukbecomeacentre

58 Private candidatesThis specification is available to private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA approved school or collegebut is not enrolled as a student there

A private candidate may be self-taught home schooled or have private tuition either with a tutor orthrough a distance learning organisation They must be based in the UK

If you have any queries as a private candidate you can

bull speak to the exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your examsbull visit our website at aqaorgukprivatecandidatesbull email privatecandidatesaqaorguk

59 Use of calculatorsStudents may use a calculator in the exam They must ensure that their calculator meets therequirements as set out in the JCQ Instructions for conducting examinations These instructionsmake it clear what the requirements are for calculators (what they must be) and what they are not(what they must not be) The instructions are regularly updated and can be found at jcqorguk

6 Appendix A WorkingscientificallyScientific research is a fundamental part of Environmental Science and good research skills areneeded to collect representative data so that reliable conclusions can be formulated

Students must be given the opportunity to carry out investigativepractical activities which cover thefollowing requirements These activities should be carried out within clear environmental contextsOpportunities for developing the required practical skills are signposted within the subject contentOpportunities should also be taken to incorporate the required mathematical skills

Students must undertake fieldwork which meets the minimum requirement of 4 days of fieldworkfor A-level If a mixture of fieldwork and laboratory-based activities is chosen then the equivalentminimum requirement would be 2 days of fieldwork plus 12 laboratory-based activities

Schools and colleges are required to provide a practical work statement that confirms each studenthas been given the opportunity to fulfil this requirement Schools and colleges must provide thepractical work statement by 15 May in the year of entry Any failure to provide this statement in atimely manner will be treated as malpractice or maladministration (under Ofquals GeneralCondition A8 (Malpractice and maladministration))

Assessment of the knowledge and understanding of the practical skills in the A-level specificationwill be by written exams only Overall at least 15 of the marks for A-level Environmental Sciencequalification will require the assessment of practical skills

Students must undertake experimental and investigative activities including appropriate riskmanagement in a range of environmental contexts They must also know how to safely andcorrectly use a range of practical equipment and materials

Investigativepractical activities undertaken throughout the course should enable students todevelop the following skills

61 Practical skills for assessment in the written papersTable 2 Independent thinking

Practical skill number Description of skill

PS 11 solve problems set in practical contexts

PS 12 analyse and evaluate existing scientific knowledge

PS 13 apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

PS 14 plan scientific investigations and apply investigative approaches andmethods to practical work

Table 3 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

PS 21 comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods

PS 22 evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurementuncertainties and errors

PS 23 identify variables including those that must be controlled

PS 24 collect and present information and data in a scientific way

Table 4 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a practical context

PS 31 plot and interpret graphs

PS 32 process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills asexemplified in the mathematical requirements

PS 33 consider margins of error accuracy and precision of data

Table 5 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill number Decription of skill

PS 41 Know and understand how to use experimental and practicalinstruments equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledgeand understanding included in the specification including

bull using appropriate apparatusinstruments to record quantitativemeasurements (for example temperature length and pH)

bull using appropriate apparatusinstruments and methodologies tomeasure abiotic and biotic factors (for example light intensityhumidity population size)

bull sampling techniques (for example pitfall traps Tuumlllgren funnelsoil texture analysis water turbidity light traps)

These skills can be developed through the following methodologies and sampling techniques andopportunities are signposted throughout the subject content

62 Required practical activitiesStudents must develop a knowledge and understanding of all the scientific methodologies andsampling techniques included in Research methods (page 84)

In addition to this they must have first-hand experience of the methodologies Me1 Me2 Me3Me4 Me5 Me6 and all the practical sampling techniques included in ST1 ST2 ST3 ST4 ST5and ST6 These can be carried out through a range of practical activities based in the laboratory orduring fieldwork This practical work will build upon the knowledge and understanding gained from Research methods (page 84)

63 MethodologiesThese are the underlying principles which are essential in the planning of good scientific researchIt is important that students understand how to plan environmental studies as well as how to carryout the specific techniques

Students should have an understanding of all the methodologies covered in Research methods(page 84) which would always be included in the planning of any environmental study In additionsuitable opportunities must be provided to allow students to investigate all of these methodologiesin detail Me1 Me2 Me3 Me4 Me5 and Me6 Students should develop an understanding of howthese methodologies enable the planning of better scientific research so they can evaluate theirimpact on the reliability of the data collected

To gain the greatest education benefit from these activities the investigations should be plannedwithin an environmental context where the results would inform environmental decision-making egthe effect of abiotic factors on plant distribution in a nature reserve the control of invasive plantspecies the effect of field cultivation on river water or nutrient concentration or the effect ofdifferent farming techniques on soil organic matter content

It is important that students understand that the methodologies for which they develop skills can beapplied to any environmental research project including those in locations they cannot visit andthose which require equipment which they do not have It is still possible to apply their planningskills in these theoretical contexts This will help them develop their knowledge throughout thespecification within the context of independent thinking and scientific research

Table 6 Planning for representative data

Description of skill

Me 1 Sample location ndash random sampling where there is no directionaldifference in sample results or there is no environmental gradient

Me 2 Sample location ndash systematic sampling where there is anenvironmental gradient or fixed sample intervals are appropriate

Me 3 Number of samples ndash an assessment of the number of samplesneeded as influenced by the variability between samples

Me 4 Sample size ndash an assessment of how large each sample should be asinfluenced by the homogeneity of the subject matter

Me 5 Sample timing ndash when a temporal variable may affect the reliability ofresults eg weather-related seasonal or diurnal changes

Me 6 Standard deviation ndash an analysis of the variability of results bycalculating the Standard Deviations of mean values

An assessment of the statistical significance of results by selectingand carrying out an appropriate statistical test

64 Sampling techniquesThese are the techniques that should be carried out to develop a knowledge and understanding ofthe practical methods used to collect representative reliable data about the environment

The first-hand experience of practical techniques should build on the theory of the use of all of thetechniques as covered in Research methods (page 84)

Students should gain first-hand experience of the sampling techniques included in ST1 ST2 ST3ST4 ST5 and ST6 The techniques should be carried out within environmental context thathighlight how the data gained can be used to reach conclusions that inform future decision making

Table 7 Sampling techniques

ST 1 Measurement of abiotic factors

bull Light intensitybull Temperaturebull Wind velocitybull Humiditybull Water turbiditybull Water ion concentration eg nitrates phosphatesbull pH

ST 2 The use of quadrats to measure biotic factors

Population size species richness species distribution biodiversity

bull Selection of suitable quadrat sizebull Types of quadrat

bull Open frame quadratbull Grid quadratbull Point quadrat

ST 3 Measurement of edaphic factors

Soil texture

bull Sedimentationbull Soil sievesbull Soil triangle

Soil water content

Soil organic matter content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

ST 4 The use of methods to measure biotic factors related to animaltaxa on the soil surface and in soil

bull Pitfall trapsbull Tuumlllgren funnelbull Extraction of earthworms from soil

ST 5 The use of methods to measure biotic factors related to animaltaxa on foliage and flying animals

bull Light trapsbull Sweep netsbull Beating traysbull Bat detector

ST 6 The use of aquatic sampling methods to measure biotic factors

bull Pond netbull Kick samplingbull Surber samplersbull Colonisation media

There is no prescribed list of compulsory investigations that must be carried out Centres andteachers must choose appropriate practical activities that allow students to gain first-handexperience of the required methodologies and sampling techniques

It is anticipated that the time devoted to practical activities would equate to two full days offieldwork or one day of fieldwork plus six sessions of laboratory-based activities

Practical activities should be carried out with the consideration of their environmental impacts andhow these can be minimised All activities should be planned and carried out to ensure the safetyof the students and other people

65 Scientific principlesThroughout the course students must be given opportunities to develop the following skills andknowledge

651 Use theories models and ideas to develop scientific explanationsof environmental processesStudents must be given opportunities to use theories models and ideas to develop scientificexplanations of environmental processes

Suitable opportunities for this include

bull the control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitats Students shouldunderstand the processes in ecological succession that can inform conservation strategies

bull global climate change how interconnected natural systems cause environmental changebull the processes in the carbon cycle that are affected by human activitiesbull the processes in the nitrogen cycle that are affected by human activitiesbull factors that affect (pollutant) dispersalbull marine productivity The role of nutrients in controlling biological productivity

652 Use knowledge and understanding to pose questions definescientific problems present scientific arguments and scientific ideasrelated to the environmentStudents must be given opportunities to use knowledge and understanding to pose questionsdefine scientific problems present scientific arguments and scientific ideas related to theenvironment

bull setting conservation priorities Students could evaluate the information available to decidewhich taxa and habitats should be conserved

bull difficulties monitoring and predicting climate changebull ozone depletion Collection analysis and interpretation of data an evaluation of data

collection methods available and the reliability of data producedbull reserves and resource Students could consider how data from exploration and the

development of new exploratory and extraction techniques affect estimates of mineralreserves

bull strategies to secure future energy supplies Students should analyse and evaluate key issuesand quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each resource

bull developments in energy storage technologies Students could analyse the impact of newstorage technologies on the use of renewable energy resources

bull Critical Pathway Analysis Students could consider how an understanding of environmentalpollutant pathways and the information that must be collected can help prevent pollutionproblems

bull Critical Group Monitoring Students could analyse the information needed to predict themembers of the public most at risk of pollution impacts

bull the extent to which aquaculture can replace fishing

653 Use of appropriate methodology including information andcommunication technology (ICT) to answer scientific questions andsolve scientific problemsStudents must be given opportunities to use ICT to access environmental information and dataand to manipulate data

Suitable opportunities for the use of ICT include

bull data on IUCN Red List speciesbull interactive maps on protected areasbull IWC catch quotasbull current atmospheric CO2 levelsbull tracking satellites that monitor the cryospherebull climate modellingbull carbon footprint calculationsbull tracking satellites that research mineral depositsbull current data on wind velocities and windfarm outputbull current data on wave height and directionbull locations of current and planned renewable energy locationsbull changes in electricity supply and sourcesbull monitoring atmospheric pollution in selected locations

bull monitoring noise levels around airportsbull monitoring road traffic noisebull research methods

bull use of statistical analysis softwarebull tracking wildlife

654 Undertake experimental and investigative activities includingappropriate risk management in a range of environmental contextsStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to undertake experimental andinvestigative activities including appropriate risk management in a range of environmentalcontexts

bull research methodsbull sampling techniques

655 Analyse and interpret quantitative and qualitative data toprovide evidence recognising correlations and causal relationshipsStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to analyse and interpret quantitativeand qualitative data to provide evidence recognising correlations and causal relationships

bull the importance of ecological monitoring in conservation planningbull ozone depletion collection analysis and interpretation of data an evaluation of data

collection methods available and the reliability of data producedbull evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layerbull reserves and resourcebull Laskyrsquos principlebull the Universal Soil Loss Equation Students could use data to estimate soil erosion rates in

different agricultural scenariosbull features of energy resources Quantitative data should be used to compare different energy

resources and evaluate the potential for energy resources in the futurebull strategies to secure future energy supplies Students should analyse and evaluate key issues

and quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each energy resourcesbull the methods of estimating fish populations and Maximum Sustainable Yield The relationship

between biomass recruitment growth mortality and catchbull research methods

656 Evaluate methodology evidence and data and resolve conflictingevidence to make judgements and reach conclusions and develop andrefine practical design and proceduresStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to

bull evaluate methodology evidence and data and resolve conflicting evidence tobull make judgements and reach conclusionsbull develop and refine practical design and procedures

bull regulation of sustainable exploitation Students could analyse data on populations andexploitation rates to assess the effectiveness of the strategies

bull management and conservation of habitats Students could evaluate secondary data toassess the effectiveness of habitat conservation methods

bull how population control and the management of desired and undesired species affectsthe conservation of biodiversity

bull difficulties monitoring and predicting climate changebull ozone depletion collection analysis and interpretation of data an evaluation of data

collection methods available and the reliability of data producedbull the hydrosphere analysis and evaluation of strategies for sustainable managementbull strategies to secure future energy supplies Students could analyse and evaluate key

issues and quantitative data to evaluate potential future contribution of each energyresource

bull ionising radiation the use of riskbenefit analysisbull strategies to increase the sustainability of agriculture Permaculture use of natural

processes integrated pest controlbull research methods and working scientifically Students could apply their knowledge of

scientific methodologies and sampling techniques to plan studies to collect more dataand to critically analyse methods of data collection in scenarios throughout thespecification

657 Know that scientific knowledge and understanding of theenvironment develops over timeStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to develop and understand thatscientific knowledge and understanding of the environment develops over time

bull management and conservation of habitatsbull changes in concentrations of greenhouse gases and the impact of global climate changebull changes in ozone depletionbull changes in mineral reservesbull strategies to secure future mineral suppliesbull strategies to secure future energy suppliesbull developments in energy storage technologiesbull new energy conservation technologiesbull the use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologiesbull strategies to increase the sustainability of agriculture

658 Communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways usingappropriate terminologyStudents should understand and use the subject technical terminology used throughout thespecification

659 Consider applications and implications of environmental scienceand evaluate their associated benefits and risksStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider applications andimplications of environmental science and evaluate their associated benefits and risks

bull the importance of the conservation of biodiversitybull the advantages and disadvantages of the methods used in sustainable management of the

carbon cyclebull strategies to secure future energy suppliesbull selection and control technologies to reduce production reduce release and mitigate

damage causedbull the benefits and costs of pollution control including ALARA and BATNEECbull manipulations of food speciesbull the circular economy

6510 Consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans otherorganisms and the environmentStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider ethical issues in thetreatment of humans other organisms and the environment

bull human influence on biodiversitybull regulation of sustainable exploitationbull management and conservation of habitatsbull global climate changebull the impact of unsustainable exploitation of the hydrospherebull the environmental impacts of soil erosionbull the sustainability of current energy resource exploitationbull environmental impacts of fishingbull sustainability

6511 Evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating newknowledge and ensuring integrityStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider the way that peer reviewwithin the scientific community is used to validate new knowledge and ensure its integrity

bull species population monitoring forbull IUCN Red List species categorisationbull CITES trade control categorisationbull setting quotas for IWC EU CFP and ITTObull monitoring rates of tropical rainforest lossbull monitoring rates of coral reef bleaching

bull difficulties monitoring and predicting climate change Students should understand thelimitations in the available data when attempting to predict future natural and anthropogenic

climate change They should be able to evaluate the reliability of existing information anddiscuss the methods that are used to fill gaps in current knowledge including remote sensing

bull the Rowland-Molina hypothesisbull monitoring ozone depletionbull evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layerbull analysis and evaluation of the strategies for sustainable management of the hydrospherebull strategies to secure future mineral suppliesbull strategies to secure future energy suppliesbull riskbenefit analysis for the uses of ionising radiationbull comparison of the advantagesdisadvantages of the use of different pesticide groupsbull manipulation of food species particularly GM cropsbull the extent to which aquaculture can replace fishing

6512 Evaluate the ways in which society uses science to informdecision makingStudents must be given opportunities throughout the course to evaluate the ways in which societyuses science to inform decision making

bull categorisation of species for CITES appendicesbull management and conservation of habitatsbull the importance of ecological monitoring in conservation planningbull the control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitats Students should

understand the processes in ecological succession that can inform conservation strategiesbull how population control and the management of desired and undesired species affects the

conservation of biodiversity Students should understand r- and k- selection strategies andhow these affect the ease with which species can be over-exploited

bull evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layerbull impact of unsustainable exploitation of the hydrosphere Students should be able to use the

technical terminology related to the hydrological cycle to discuss anthropogenic changes andstrategies that may allow sustainable exploitation

bull strategies to secure future energy supplies Students should analyse and evaluate key issuesand quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each energy resource

bull selection and control technologies Students should understand the properties of pollutantsand environmental features so they can analyse and evaluate the changes in humanactivities and strategies that can be used to minimise pollution

bull the use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologiesbull the methods of estimating fish populations and Maximum Sustainable Yieldbull methods of reducing environmental impacts of fishing

bull catch quotasbull no-take zonesbull minimum and maximum catch size

bull the application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainablelifestyles

7 Appendix B Mathsrequirements and examplesIn order to be able to develop their skills knowledge and understanding in Environmental Sciencestudents need to have been taught and to have acquired competence in the appropriate areas ofmathematics as indicated in the table of coverage below

Overall at least 10 of the marks in assessments for Environmental Science will require the use ofmathematical skills These skills will be applied in the context of environmental science and will beat least the standard of higher tier GCSE mathematics

The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teachingor could be assessed

This list of examples is not exhaustive These skills could be developed or assessed in other areasof specification content Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplifiedthroughout this specification

Table 8 Arithmetic and numerical computation

Mathematicalskillnumber

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in thecontext of A-level Environmental Science(examples are not limited to those givenbelow)

MS 01 Recognise and make use ofappropriate units in calculations

Students should demonstrate their ability to

bull convert between units such as length andvolume eg calculating surface areavolume ratios in energy conservation

bull select appropriate units and values for acalculation eg estimating water andorganic matter content of soils

MS 02 Recognise and use expressions indecimal and standard form

bull use an appropriate number of decimalplaces in calculations eg calculatingmean population density from multiplesample sites in a habitat

bull carry out calculations using numbers instandard and ordinary form eg whencomparing production of different energyresources

bull convert between numbers in standard andordinary form eg when using masses inbiogeochemical cycles

MS 03 Use ratios fractions and percentages Students should demonstrate their ability to

bull calculate percentage yields eg inpollution control

bull calculate surface area to volume ratiosand relate this to heat loss

bull calculate and compare percentage losseg of rain forests over a given time periodor of declining populations of endangeredspecies

MS 04 Estimate results Students should demonstrate their ability toestimate results to sense check that thecalculated values are appropriate such aswhen calculating residence times in differentwater reservoirs

MS 05 Use calculators to find and use powerexponential and logarithmic functions

bull interpret population growth curvesbull compare noise values quoted in decibel

Table 9 Handling data

MS 11 Use an appropriate number ofsignificant figures

bull report calculations to an appropriatenumber of significant figures given rawdata quoted to varying numbers ofsignificant figures eg in calculatingindices of biodiversity

bull understand that calculated results canonly be reported to the limits of the leastaccurate measurement eg in estimatinglifetimes of mineral reserves

MS 12 Find arithmetic means Students should demonstrate their ability to findthe mean of a range of data eg mean poweroutput of a wind farm

MS 13 Construct and interpret frequencytables and diagrams bar charts andhistograms

bull represent a range of data in a table withclear headings units and consistentdecimal places eg to compare the energydensity production cost carbon intensityand mean load factor for a range ofenergy resources

bull interpret data from a variety of tables egdata relating to aquifer flow rates

bull plot a range of data in an appropriateformat eg atmospheric carbon dioxidelevels atmospheric temperature and solaroutput over time represented on a graph

bull interpret data from a variety of graphs egchange in electricity cost from renewableenergy sources industrial output and levelof financial incentivestax over a numberof years

MS 14 Understand simple probability Students should demonstrate their ability to usethe term probability appropriately wheninvestigating causal relationships such as thelink between human health problems and urbanpollutants

MS 15 Understand the principles of samplingas applied to scientific data

bull analyse random data collected by anappropriate means eg use Simpsonrsquosindex of diversity to compare thebiodiversity of habitats exposed todifferent pollution types or managementregimes

bull analyse systematic data along a transectto monitor impacts of pollution withincreasing distance from a coppersmelter

MS16 Understand the terms mean medianand mode

Students should demonstrate their ability tocalculate or compare the mean median andmode of a set of data eg of yields of fishfarmed under different conditions or fish fromcommercial catches

MS 17 Use a scatter diagram to identify acorrelation between two variables

Students should demonstrate their ability tointerpret a scatter graph eg to compare humandevelopment index with environmental footprintof different countries

MS 18 Make order of magnitude calculations Students should demonstrate their ability to

bull compare storage volumes of natural waterreservoirs and transfer rates

bull calculate national energy use frompopulation and individual use data

MS 19 Select and use a statistical test Students should demonstrate their ability toselect and use

bull the chi-squared t test (goodness of fit andassociation)

bull the Studentrsquos t-testbull Spearmanrsquos rankbull Mann-Whitney U test

Understand measures of dispersionincluding standard deviation andrange

bull calculate the standard deviation eg ofcrop yield for a given nutrient input

bull understand why standard deviation is auseful measure of dispersion for a givenset of data eg for comparison with otherdata sets with different means such aspopulations of endangered species underdifferent management regimes

Identify uncertainties inmeasurements and use simpletechniques to determine uncertaintywhen data are combined

Students should demonstrate their ability tocalculate percentage error where there areuncertainties in measurement eg estimatingtotal population using sub-samples in apreliminary study

Table 10 Algebra

MS 21 Understand and use the symbols = ltltlt gtgt gt and ~

No exemplification required

MS 22 Change the subject of an equation Students should demonstrate their ability to useand manipulate equations eg nutrient transferrates energy conversion efficiencies and fishmaximum sustainable yields

MS 23 Substitute numerical values intoalgebraic equations using appropriateunits for physical quantities

bull use a given equation eg Simpsonrsquos indexof diversity

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

to assess the impact of a new habitatmanagement regime

MS 24 Solve algebraic equations Students should demonstrate their ability tosolve equations in an environmental context egcalculations using the universal soil lossequation to assess the effectiveness of soilconservation programmes

MS 25 Use logarithms in relation to quantitiesthat range over several orders ofmagnitude

Students should demonstrate their ability to usea logarithmic scale in the context eg of noisepollution levels

Table 11 Graphs

MS 31 Understand data presented in avariety of graphical forms

Students should demonstrate their ability tointerpret data in a range of graphical formsincluding line graphs which may involvelogarithmic scales bar charts stacked barcharts histograms kite diagrams pie graphsscatter graphs 3-dimensional graphs flowdiagrams Sankey diagrams and circular (radar)diagrams to enable a wide variety of data to beanalysed

MS 32 Translate information betweengraphical numerical and algebraicforms

Students should demonstrate their ability tounderstand that data may be presented in anumber of formats and be able to use thesedata eg dissolved oxygen levels soil erosionrates

MS 33 Plot two variables from experimentalor other data

Students should demonstrate their ability toselect an appropriate format for presentingdata bar charts histograms graphs andscattergraphs eg organic matter and oxygendepletion nutrient inputs and yield increase

MS 34 Understand that y = m x + crepresents a linear relationship

Students should demonstrate their ability topredictsketch the shape of a graph with a linearrelationship whether with a positive or negativecorrelation eg the relationship betweeninsolation and solar panel output

MS 35 Determine the intercept of a graph Students should demonstrate their ability toread an intercept point from a graph eg thetemperature at which oxygen levels fall too lowto support particular aquatic species

MS 36 Calculate rate of change from a graphshowing a linear relationship

Students should demonstrate their ability tocalculate a rate from a graph eg rate ofinfiltration through rocks with differentpermeabilities

MS 37 Draw and use the slope of a tangentto a curve as a measure of rate ofchange

Students should demonstrate their ability to usethis method to measure the gradient of a pointon a curve eg rate of heat loss through doubleglazing with varying gaps

Table 12 Geometry and trigonometry

MS 41 Calculate the circumferences surfaceareas and volumes of regular andirregular shapes

bull calculate the circumference and area ofnature reserves to assess the impact ofthe edge effect on wildlife conservationprogrammes

bull calculate the surface area and volume ofcylinders or spheres eg to estimate ratesof heat loss in energy conservationprogrammes

8 Appendix C Previous sciencelearningTo develop skills and knowledge in A-level Environmental Science students should have the skillsand knowledge associated with at least GCSE Combined Science or equivalent While anunderstanding of all GCSE Combined Science or equivalent topics is advantageous there are anumber of topics that have particular applications in A-level Environmental Science

The following table illustrates the GCSE Combined Science topics that have particular applicationsin the development of skills and knowledge in A-level Environmental Science

GCSE Combined Science topic Application in A-level Environmental Science

Osmosis Hydrosphere unsustainable exploitation

Levels of organisation within an ecosystem Conservation of biodiversity

Life processes in the biosphere andconservation planning

The principle of material cycling Biogeochemical cycles

Sustainability

Biodiversity Conservation of biodiversity

Sustainability

The genome The importance of the conservation ofbiodiversity

bull genetic resourcesbull captive breeding and release

programmes

Agriculture genetic manipulation

Variation and evolution The importance of the conservation ofbiodiversity

programmes

Selective breeding and gene technology The importance of the conservation ofbiodiversity

programmes

Chemical symbols formulae and equationsincluding reaction stoichiometry and masses ofreactants and products

Global climate change

Ozone depletion

Biogeochemical cycles

Energy

Pollution

Chemistry of acids Pollution

bull acid precipitationbull acid mine drainagebull heavy metals

Electrolysis Energy

bull fuel cellsbull the hydrogen economy

Exothermic and endothermic reactions Energy

Sustainability

Carbon compounds Energy

Sustainability

Life cycle assessment and recycling Mineral resources

Sustainability

Fractional distillation of crude oil and cracking Energy fossil fuels

Different methods of extracting and purifyingmetals

Mineral resources

Sustainability

The composition and evolution of the Earthrsquosatmosphere since its formation

Atmosphere

Carbon dioxide and methane as greenhousegases

Atmosphere

Sustainability carbon footprints

Common atmospheric pollutants and theirsources

Pollution

The Earthrsquos water resources and obtainingpotable water

The hydrosphere

Conservation dissipation and national Energy

Atomic structure Energy nuclear power

Pollution ionising radiation

T 01483 477756

aqaorgukCopyright copy 2018 AQA and its licensors All rights reservedAQA retains the copyright on all its publications including the specifications However schools and colleges registered with AQA arepermitted to copy material from this specification for their own internal useAQA Education (AQA) is a registered charity (number 1073334) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales(company number 3644723) Our registered address is AQA Devas Street Manchester M15 6EX

Contents

Visit for the most up-to-date specification resources support and administration 3

Are you using the latest version of this specificationbull You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at bull We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification

4 Visit for the most up-to-date specification resources support and administration

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

bull physical damage caused by humanactivities

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

MS22 Students could use and manipulate equations eg energy conversionefficiency

MS 23 Students could use data on wind velocities in the formula used tocalculate kinetic energy available to an aerogenerator

MS 41 Students could calculate the surface area and volume of cylinders orspheres eg to estimate rates of heat loss in energy conservationprogrammes

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

propagationcloningbull genetic engineering

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

Get help and supportVisit our website for information guidance support and resources at

T 01483 477756

Contents

1 Introduction

11 Why choose AQA for A-level Environmental Science

12 Support and resources to help you teach

121 Teaching resources

122 Preparing for exams

123 Analyse your students results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

124 Keep your skills up-to-date with professional development

125 Help and support

2 Specification at a glance

21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content

31 The living environment


3111 How the main conditions which allowed early life to develop and survive on planet Earth came about

3112 How the presence of life on Earth has brought about environmental change

3113 How historical conditions for life were monitored in the past and how these methods have been developed over time



31211 Resources and how sustainable habitat management strategies can be used to secure future supplies

31212 Knowledge of how decisions over habitat conservation can be made to protect those species that have not yet been investigated


3122 How humans influence biodiversity with examples in a range of different context









3131 How adaptation to the environment affects speciesrsquo habitat requirements and influences conservation decision-making

3132 Terminology to describe the roles of living organisms in their habitats and their interactions with the physical environment

3133 The control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitats

3134 How population control and the management of desired and undesired species affects the conservation of biodiversity


32 The physical environment

321 The atmosphere

3211 How atmospheric energy processes involving ultra violet (UV) infrared (IR) and visible light in the stratosphere and troposphere affect life-support systems

3212 Global climate change how interconnected natural systems cause environmental change

3213 Ozone depletion


322 The hydrosphere



3223 Ocean currents the importance of thermohaline circulation in distributing heat and regulating climate






3232 Geological processes that produced localised concentrations of recoverable mineral deposits


3234 How a range of exploratory techniques work











325 Soils





33 Energy resources


332 The impact of the features of energy resources on their use


334 Strategies to secure future energy supplies

3341 Evaluation of improved extractionharnessingprocessing technologies related to a range of energy technologies






34 Pollution

341 The properties of pollutants

342 How environmental features affect the severity of pollution

3421 Factors that affect dispersal

3422 Environmental factors that affect rates of degradation

343 Strategies to control pollutants based on their properties and features of the environment


3432 Selection of control technologies to reduce production reduce release and mitigate damage caused




34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise


3433 The use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologies


35 Biological resources

351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems

3512 Manipulation of food species to increase productivity the advantages and disadvantages of the methods that are available to improve crop and livestock gene pools





352 Aquatic food production systems


3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture


353 Forest resources



3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability

361 Dynamic equilibria





362 Energy





363 Material cycles


3632 Natural processes often link together in sequences that create cycles with the waste products of one process being the raw materials for other processes


364 The circular economy

3641 The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles

3642 Biocapacity and ecological footprints a comparison of the factors controlling the impact of different ecological footprints on biocapacity


37 Research methods







4 Scheme of assessment

41 Aims

42 Assessment objectives

421 Assessment objective weightings for A-level Environmental Science

43 Assessment weightings

5 General administration

51 Entries and codes

52 Overlaps with other qualifications

53 Awarding grades and reporting results

54 Resits and shelf life

55 Previous learning and prerequisites

56 Access to assessment diversity and inclusion

Students with disabilities and special needs

Special consideration

57 Working with AQA for the first time

58 Private candidates

59 Use of calculators

6 Appendix A Working scientifically

61 Practical skills for assessment in the written papers

62 Required practical activities

63 Methodologies


65 Scientific principles

651 Use theories models and ideas to develop scientific explanations of environmental processes

652 Use knowledge and understanding to pose questions define scientific problems present scientific arguments and scientific ideas related to the environment

653 Use of appropriate methodology including information and communication technology (ICT) to answer scientific questions and solve scientific problems

654 Undertake experimental and investigative activities including appropriate risk management in a range of environmental contexts

655 Analyse and interpret quantitative and qualitative data to provide evidence recognising correlations and causal relationships

656 Evaluate methodology evidence and data and resolve conflicting evidence to make judgements and reach conclusions and develop and refine practical design and procedures

657 Know that scientific knowledge and understanding of the environment develops over time

658 Communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology

659 Consider applications and implications of environmental science and evaluate their associated benefits and risks

6510 Consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans other organisms and the environment

6511 Evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring integrity

6512 Evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making

7 Appendix B Maths requirements and examples

8 Appendix C Previous science learning

AQA-7447-SP-2017_oldPDF

Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies

















Contents

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies


















Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies

















T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies


















Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies

















T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies


















Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies

















T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

T 01483 477756

These include

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

Paper 2

Whats assessed

How its assessed

Questions

pollen analysis

Fuels Biofuels

stations

(ITTO)

Soft release

Hard release

Features

Importance

Threats

Tropical rainforest

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Features

Importance

Threats

Oceanic islands

Features

Threats

Mangroves

Features

Importance

Threats

Antarctica

Features

Importance

Threats

Population dynamics

Abiotic factors

Biotic factors

321 The atmosphere

Sea level rise

bull reduced albedo

322 The hydrosphere

Table 1 Recycling

325 Soils

trampling

of-use energy

energy resources

Wind power

Biofuels

Geothermal power

Tidal power

motorways

Air currents

Water currents

Controls SOx

dry FGD

34324 Hydrocarbons

34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides

Controls Nitrates

metals

343211 Heavy metals

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise

Other organisims

changes cetaceans

Aircraft noise

Aircraft design

Airport operation

Railway noise

brakes

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise

3511 Agroecosystems

Antibiotics

Pollinators

transgenicsGM

disadvantages

Habitat impacts

Pollution

Consumer choice

Economic factors

Political factors

Pest control

Integrated control

Nutrient supplies

Energy inputs

3522 Fishing

By-catch

Ghost fishing

Food web impacts

Data from research

Catch quotas

Net design

Minimum catch size

3523 Aquaculture

Species selection

Stock selection

Disease control

Food requirements

Fish farm location

Control escapes

Feeding control

Resources

Ecosystem services

3533 Deforestation

Loss of resources

Impact on soil

Climate impacts

Indigenous species

Mixed age structure

Selective logging

Hydrological cycle

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Methods

Photography

Paper 1 Paper 2

Paper 1 120 x 1 120

Paper 2 120 x 1 120

Soil texture

Soil water content

Soil pH

Soil bulk density

Table 10 Algebra

D =N (N ndash 1)

Σ n (n ndash1)

Table 11 Graphs

Sustainability

programmes

Ozone depletion

Energy

Pollution

Electrolysis Energy

Sustainability

Mineral resources

Sustainability

Atmosphere

Pollution

The hydrosphere

T 01483 477756

Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies


















Contents

1 Introduction









21 Subject content

22 Assessments

3 Subject content


























321 The atmosphere





322 The hydrosphere






















325 Soils





33 Energy resources











34 Pollution











34324 Hydrocarbons



34327 Oil pollution

34328 Pesticides





343211 Heavy metals

Lead

Mercury

343212 Solid wastes

343213 Noise


Aircraft noise

Railway noise

Road traffic noise

Industrial noise

Domestic noise





351 Agriculture

3511 Agroecosystems








3522 Fishing

3523 Aquaculture





3533 Deforestation


36 Sustainability






362 Energy





363 Material cycles








37 Research methods








41 Aims



















63 Methodologies

















Documents

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