Current General Knowledge: Nov-Dec 2008ABBREVIATIONSNATRIP: National Automotive Testing and R & D Infrastructure Project.

AWARDSSocial Entrepreneur Award, 2008: Arbind Singh, Executive Director, Nidan, is the winner. In India, the Social Entrepreneur Year of the Award is an initiative of The Nand and Jeet Khemka Foundation and The Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship, in collaboration with the UNDP. Indira Gandhi Peace Prize, 2008: Mohammad El Baradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has been chosen for the 2008 Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development, for his impassioned opposition to the use of nuclear energy for military purposes and his steadfast espousal of the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, sustained over many years. He has led the IAEA in carving out an independent approach free from bias and reflective of a wider balanced perspective in tune with today’s world, it said. IAAF Awards, 2008: Sprinter Usain Bolt of Jamaica and Pole Vaulter Yelena Isinbayeva of Russia have won the IAAF World Athlete of the Year awards. Bolt is the first man to win the three Olympic events in a single Games, since Carl Lewis in 1984. Yelena Isinbayeva successfully defended her Olympic title and remained undefeated in outdoor competitions in 2008. UN Human Rights Award, 2008: Slain former Pakistani Premier Benazir Bhutto has been posthumously awarded the United Nations Human Rights award.  Chandrayaan-1 wins global award: Chandrayaan-1, the unmanned mission sent by India for exploration of moon, has won a prestigious international cooperation award given by the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG). The ILEWG is a public forum sponsored by the world’s space agencies to support international cooperation towards formulating a world strategy for the exploration and utilization of the moon. BOOKSImagining India—Ideas for the new century: This book is written by Nandan Nilekani, co-chairman of Infosys. He has received for the book the biggest advance ever paid to a non-fiction writer in India. Penguin has bought the publication rights of the book. Secret Life of Words, The: British writer Henry Hitching’s book is on how the English language came to be. It has won for its author the prestigious John Llewellyn Rhys Prize, given for the best work of

literature (fiction, non-fiction, poetry, drama) by a UK or Commonwealth writer aged 35 or under. DEFENCEShaurya missile test-fired successfully: India successfully test-fired a medium-range, surface to surface missile on November 12, 2008. The new Shourya (Valour) missile has a range of 600 km and the high manoeuvrability of the missile makes it less vulnerable to available anti-missile defence systems. Ezhimala Naval Academy: The prestigious Ezhimala Naval Academy in Kannur district in Kerala will be commissioned in January 2009. All the training and academic programmes of the Indian Navy will be shifted to the new academy, perhaps the biggest in Asia, once it becomes fully operational. The academy can at a time train 750 cadets.  OILOVL makes second strike in Egypt: In marked contrast to the performance of its parent Oil and Natural Gas Corporation at home, the flagship explorer’s overseas arm ONGC Videsh has struck oil for the second time in an offshore block in Egypt. This is the latest in a string of success the company has scored on foreign soil. The latest discovery was made off the North Ramadan concession in the Gulf of Suez in partnership with Cairo-based explorer IPR Red Sea Inc. The find in well North Ramadan-2 (NR-2), the second oil discovery in the block, is located on a separate block north of the first oil discovery NR-IA, which produced about 3,000 barrels of oil per day and 15 million cubic feet per day of gas during the testing phase.OVL holds 70% in the North Ramadan concession, while IPR has the remaining 30%. The North Ramadan concession is 290 sq km in size and is surrounded by some of Egypt’s most prolific producing oil fields in the Gulf of Suez. PERSONSSingh, Vishwanath Pratap: Former Indian Prime Minister who dethroned Rajiv Gandhi to form, in 1989, India’s second non-Congress coalition government and later tried social engineering through reservations that changed the country’s political course irreversibly, died on November 27, 2008. He was 77. He had shot to fame in the mid- 1980s when he was Finance Minister in the government headed by Rajiv Gandhi. His major achievement, however, was the implementation of the Mandal Commission’s recommendations that ensured reservation to students from backward communities in education and public sector jobs. An erudite man with a fondness for poetry and painting, he wasn’t the same force after he quit as Prime Minister.  PLACESHosur: Located near Bangalore this place will host the first aircraft Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India. 

Gulf of Aden, The: Located off the Somalian coast, it has become a hotbed of sea piracy. The Gulf is an important waterway as it is the only gateway to the Suez Canal that, in turn, is the only waterway for ships travelling between Asian and European countries. The 950 km stretch, straddled by Yemen on the north and Somalia on the south, is now being patrolled by a multinational and anti-terror naval task force, comprising warships from the US, Britain, Germany and other countries. PROJECTSNATRIP plan: National Automotive Testing and R & D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP) would invest Rs 1,718 crore for setting up auto testing facilities at seven locations across the country by 2011. NATRIP, a joint venture between the central government and the country’s auto industry to create a state of the art testing, validation and R&D infrastructure, would set up its centres at Manesar, Chennai, Indore, Silchar, Rae Bareilly, Pune and Ahmednagar. RESEARCHRains can help predict cholera: Maybe the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) brief will be enlarged beyond forecasting the weather to predicting cholera outbreaks. That’s because a team of scientists from India, Bangladesh and the US has found a strong link between the outbreak of the disease, rainfall anomalies and sea surface temperatures. The study has been conducted jointly by Kolkata-based National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICED), the University of Maryland and the International Centre for Diarrhoeal disease research, Dhaka. It has linked the outbreak of the disease to the level of chlorophyll-a, a pigment found mainly in plants that influences the population growth of a class of fresh water and sea water-dwelling organisms called copepods, which host vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera. Cholera is transmitted to humans through food or water that is contaminated with the bacterium. The result is severe diarrhea that may lead to dehydration, even death, if not treated promptly. In their report, the scientists have also formulated an equation that relates the number of cholera cases, sea surface temperatures, rainfall and chlorophyll-a levels in water sources in a region. ISRO develops hydrogen fuel to power buses: India’s space scientists have developed hydrogen fuel cells to power an automobile bus by leveraging their know-how of the home-grown cryogenic technology for rockets. The two-year effort has yielded positive results and the scientists are now readying for the fuel cells to be fitted into a bus. ISRO and Tata Motors had signed an MoU in 2006, to design and develop an automobile bus using hydrogen as a fuel through fuel cell route. 

103 years later, Einstein proven right: It’s taken more than a century, but Einstein’s celebrated formula e = mc2 has finally been corroborated, thanks to a heroic computational effort by French, German and Hungarian physicists. A brainpower consortium led by Laurent Lellouch of France’s Centre for Theoretical Physics, using some of the world’s mightiest supercomputers, have set down the calculations for estimating the mass of protons and neutrons, the particles at the nucleus of atoms. According to the conventional model of particle physics, protons and neutrons comprise smaller particles known as quarks, which in turn are bound by gluons. The odd thing is that the mass of gluons is zero and the mass of quarks is only 5%. Where therefore is the missing 95%? The answer, according to the study, comes from the energy from the movements and interactions of quarks and gluons. In other words, energy and mass are equivalent, as Einstein proposed in his special theory of relativity in 1905. The e=mc2 formula shows that mass can be converted into energy, and energy can be converted into mass. By showing how much energy would be released if a certain amount of mass were to be converted into energy, the equation has been used many times, most famously as the inspirational basis for building atomic weapons. Spare 10,000 hours to be a genius: Researchers in Germany have found that genius is one per cent inspiration and 99 per cent perspiration, and one has to practice just 10,000 hours to reach the top in their chosen discipline. And, according to them, talent and luck are important, but it’s practice that makes the difference between being good and being brilliant. The researchers at the Berlin’s Academy of Music came to the conclusion after looking at a group of violin students who started playing at around the age of five, practicing for two or three hours a week. As they grew older, the amount of practice increased. And, by the age of 20, the elite performers had each totalled 10,000 hours of practice, while the merely good students had accrued 8,000. SPACE RESEARCHIndia hits the moon: The unmanned Chandrayaan-1, India’s first-ever mission for scientific exploration of the moon, achieved a significant milestone on November 14, 2008, when the Moon Impact Probe (MIP) ejected by the spacecraft successfully hit the lunar surface at 8.31 pm, after a 25 minutes descent. The MIP was dropped on the polar region of the moon by the Chandrayaan 1 from a height of 100 km.

 About 30 kg, the box shaped MIP spun during the fall and hit the lunar surface with a thud. The lunar debris, thrown up as a result of the impact made by the MIP on the surface of the moon, would be analysed for the possible traces of water. The video camera aboard the MIP worked without giving any hitch and filmed the descent of the probe on the lunar surface. The C-band radar altimeter inside the MIP measured the altitude and provided vital information for future landing missions. The MIP also carried a mass spectrometer for giving inputs about the constituents of the extremely thin lunar atmosphere. MIP had been named Aditya and had the Indian flag painted on all four sides. Hubble captures first photos of planet outside solar system: The US space agency’s 18-year-old Hubble telescope has captured for the first time visible light snapshot of a planet circling another star outside our solar system. Estimated to be about three times Jupiter’s mass, the planet orbits the bright southern star Formalhaut, located 25 light years away in the constellation Piscis Australis or the Southern Fish.  In 2004, the coronagraph in the high resolution camera on Hubble’s advanced camera for surveys produced the first-ever resolved visible light image of the region around Formalhaut. It clearly showed a ring of proto-planetary debris, approximately 21.5 billion miles across and having a sharp inner edge. This large debris disk is similar to the Kuiper Belt, which encircles the solar system and contains a range of icy bodies from dust grains to objects the size of dwarf planets, such as Pluto. Endeavour docks with space station: Space shuttle Endeavour and its crew of seven astronauts successfully docked with the International Space Station on November 17, 2008, beginning a home improvement mission to double the living space on the orbiting complex. Endeavour was launched on a 15-day mission to expand the living quarters of the orbiting space station and equip it with a new oven, a refrigerator  and a new toilet. NASA tests first deep space internet: US space agency NASA has successfully tested the first deep space communications network modelled on the Internet. NASA engineers used a special software called Disruption-tolerant Networking or DTN to transmit images to and from a NASA science spacecraft located about 30 million km from earth. MISCELLANEOUSThe mouse has just turned 40: One computer device could be called as being most in touch with humans, the mouse, which celebrated its 40th birthday on December 1, 2008. The first computer mouse was a little wooden box with a single red button on top and a wire hanging from the back, because of which it was likened to a rodent. And while computers have transformed from big white boxes to cool flat screens and laptops, the mouse has stayed the same. Its designer, Douglas Engelbart, is not a rich man as he never got any royalties because the patent expired before the mouse became a must have.

Current General Knowledge: Dec 2008-Jan 2009ABBREVIATIONSEIR: Equipment Identity Register (EIR).IMEI: International Mobile Equipment Identity.NIA: National Investigation Agency. AWARDSInternational Jurists Award, 2008: Veteran lawyer Ram Jethmalani, a former Law Minister, has been bestowed with the International Honour for Jurisprudence along with Canadian Chief Justice Beverley Mclachlin (Administration of justice), Law Society of England and Wales (Bar affairs), United Nations office on drugs and crime (Law enforcement), Dr Peter Mutha-rika (Legal education), and Rohit Kochhar (Corporate laws and Legal entrepreneurship). PURSE Award, 2008: Panjab University has been awarded the Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (PURSE) award based on its performance in research. The award includes a grant of Rs 10 crore per annum for the next three years. BOOKSRespected Memsahibs: A unique anthology of 19 women who lived and worked in India between World War-I and independence in 1947 has been produced at the University of Cambridge. Compiled by Mary Thatcher, the anthology draws on the letters, memoirs and narratives of the 19 women. DEFENCEIndia signs plane deal with Boeing: India has signed a $ 2.1 billion (Rs 10,164 crore) deal with US aerospace giant Boeing Co. to buy maritime surveillance aircraft for the Indian Navy. The agreement to buy eight P-81 long range reconnaissance aircraft marks India’s biggest military aircraft deal with the US. The largest buyer of armaments among emerging nations, India plans to spend $ 30 billion until 2012 to modernize its 1.23 million strong military, the world’s fourth largest. DRDO develops stealth parachutes: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed a new stealth-parachute, capable of para-dropping soldiers at three times the normal height at which they are presently being dropped. The parachute will help the troopers to jump from a height of 30,000 feet as compared to the current jump height of 10,000 feet and will also help to avoid detection from the enemy as the sound of aircraft at this height would be inaudible. The new system comes equipped with lightweight oxygen cylinders to avoid suffocation, as at these heights oxygen becomes scarce. The new parachutes also sport directional gadgets that will keep the para-jumper abreast of his landing directions.

 DISCOVERYThe earth’s magnetic field has got a big hole: Recent satellite observations have found the largest breach yet seen in the magnetic field that protects earth from most of the sun’s violent blasts. The discovery was made by Themis, a fleet of five small satellites from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Scientists have long known that the earth’s magnetic field, which guards against severe space weather, is similar to a drafty old house that lets in violent eruptions of charged particles from the sun. Such a breach can cause brilliant auroras or disrupt satellite and ground communications. Observations from Themis show the earth’s magnetic field occasionally deve-lops two cracks, allowing solar wind, a stream of charged particles spewing from the sun at 1.6 million kph, to penetrate the earth’s upper atmosphere. Scientists initially believed the greatest solar breach occurred when the earth’s and sun’s magnetic fields are pointed in opposite directions. But data from Themis found that 20 times more solar wind passed into the earth’s protective shield when the magnetic fields were aligned. The Themis results could have bearing on how scientists predict the severity of solar storms and their effects on power grids, airline and military communications and satellite signals.  ENVIRONMENTWorld’s first energy market in India: India will have the world’s first market for trading in energy savings. Under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, the power ministry has prepared the blueprint for trading in energy by industrial plants that save energy beyond the target set for them. Under the plan, formulated by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency, the government will set mandatory targets to be achieved by each large industrial unit and plant in energy intensive sectors, which include cement, aluminium, steel, power, textiles, fertilizers, railways, paper and pulp industries. Named the Perform, Achieve and Trade or PAT scheme, energy reduction targets would be set in terms of the specific energy consumption for each plant individually, to ensure that there are no blanket benchmarks that create an uneven turf for different sizes and type of players. While the methodology for ascertaining the energy consumption in each identified sector has been finalized, it will take a year to ascertain the target for each large unit. Once the targets are set by end of 2009, the industry will be given three years to achieve them. Those units that surpass their targets will be tradable on the existing power

exchanges in the country. Companies that fail to meet the targets set for them will have to buy these certificates under an open market mechanism. If the failed units do not meet their target either by achieving energy savings or by buying the energy certificates, they would be penalized by the government under the energy conservation act. Under the plan, BEE will accredit private agencies to audit the actual energy consumed by the industrial units and retain the powers to carry out random checks.

2008 is tenth warmest year, ever: A report released on behalf of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) says that 2008 is the tenth warmest year ever, with the average global temperature at 14.3 degree C. The 10 warmest years on records since 1850 have occurred since 1997. Global temperatures between 2000 and 2008 have been almost 0.2 degree C warmer than the average for the decade 1990 to 1999. In 2008 global average was 0.31 degree C above the 1961-90 average. In the northern hemisphere in 2008, the mean temperature was 0.51 degree C above average (eighth warmest) and in the southern hemisphere it was 0.11 degree C above average (twentieth warmest).

N-ENERGYFirst Uranium imports in three decades: India will receive its first uranium imports in three decades from countries such as France and Canada by April 2009, ending the isolation from nuclear commerce that ensued from its first atomic test. The imports are expected to boost power capacity at the 17 reactors of India by at least 17%, or 700MW. The reactors are now operating at 46% of their capacity because of a shortage of uranium, the fuel that powers them. The uranium imports are meant for the Rajasthan units of Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd, or NPCIL, who’s Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS) located at Rawatbhata in Kota district has a total capacity of 740 MW. India, which has an installed nuclear power capacity of 4,120 MW, plans to boost it by almost five times by 2020 as it tries to close the gap between galloping energy demand and deficient supply. The country’s installed power generation capacity is around 145,000 MW. But a significant portion of this capacity is idling because of scarcity of fuels such as coal, gas and uranium. Coal-based generation accounts for 76,000 MW, while the country’s gas-based capacity is 14,600 MW, which is operating at 52% efficiency. India’s estimated uranium reserves are sufficient to generate only 10,000 MW. The quality of the domestic uranium ore is also low (0.1% uranium content against global standards of 12-14%).  Uranium mining in India is insignificant and in most parts of the

country is resisted by local people on health grounds, leaving little scope for stepping up production.  PERSONSHasina, Sheikh: She has been elected as the Prime Minister of Bangladesh in the country’s first election since 2001. Born in 1947, Hasina is the daughter of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Bangladesh’s independence leader and first head of State. She and her younger sister, Sheikh Rehana, were in Europe when Sheikh Mujibur Rehman was assassinated and survived, later taking political asylum in India. She returned to Bangladesh in 1981 and inherited the leadership of her father’s Awami League party, returning the party to power after 21 years. Since then she has traded power with Khaleda Zia in a rivalry that has been blamed for much of the corruption and mismanagement that have plagued Bangladesh. PLACESBurj Dubai: Iconic skyscraper Burj Dubai has become the world’s tallest structure after reaching a record height of 780 metres and crossing 160 stories in the process. The tower achieved the distinction of being the world’s tallest structure surpassing the KVLY-TV mast (628.8 metres) in North Dakota, US. The high-rise is already taller than Taipei 101 in Taiwan, which at 508 metres and has held the tallest building in the world title since it opened in 2004. Burj Dubai has also surpassed the 31-year-old record of CN Tower, which at 553.33 metres and has been the world’s tallest free-standing structure on land since 1976.

Gaza: The Gaza Strip is a silver of towns, villages and farmland at the southeast end of the Mediterranean, 45 km long and 10 km wide. It is wedged between Israel to the north and east, and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula to the south. Gaza city has been continuously inhabited for more than 3,000 years and was a crossroads of ancient civilizations. It is believed to be the burial place of the Prophet Mohammad’s great grandfather. Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the 1967 war and started settling Israelis there. It, however, pulled Jewish settlers and soldiers out of the territory in September 2005. In June 2006 Israel conducted large-scale ground operations after militants tunnelled across the Gaza border and captured an Israeli soldier, who is still being held. A year later, Hamas Islamists took control of the Gaza Strip after routing President Mahmoud Abbas’s Fatah forces. Subsequently, Israel tightened the closure of its borders with Gaza, curbing fuel supplies and limiting movement of people. Under an Egyptian-brokered ceasefire, Hamas agreed to halt rocket fire in return for Israel easing the blockade. Hamas, however, declared the end of the truce on December 18, 2008 and in retaliation of rocket fire on Israeli positions by militants in Gaza, Israel again invaded Gaza on December 27, 2008. The war resulted in more than 800 people getting killed in first week itself.

 PROJECTSWorld’s longest causeway: The world’s longest marine causeway, a $ 3 billion project which will link Bahrain and Qatar, will come up by 2013. The over 40 km twin carriageway, running across 22 km of viaducts over the sea and 18 km of embankments, will reduce travel time by car between the Gulf countries by about four hours. Travel time from Qatar to Bahrain by car is expected to be reduced from four-and-a-half hour to around 30 minutes. The causeway will also provide a connection for future high-speed freight and passenger rail lines between the countries. SPACE RESEARCHNASA robots mark five years on Mars: NASA’s Mars Rovers Spirit and Opportunity marked their fifth anniversary on the red planet in January 2009, where they have endured harsh conditions and revealed a deluge of information. The twin robots, which landed on Mars, three weeks apart in January 2004, were initially expected to have just 90-day missions, but have since sent back a quarter-million images, toured mountains and craters and survived violent storms. The rovers have sent back to earth some 36 gigabytes of data, have greatly advanced NASA’s understanding Mars’ geology, including peeks into its wet and habitable past. Analysts say the wealth of information will keep scientists busy for years as they further unravel the vast banks of data. Since 2004 the machines have covered 21 km of Mars’ red rock desert, driving inch by inch to avoid chasms and rocky obstacles, picking up samples and snapping images to beam back to earth. After moon odyssey, it’s ‘mission sun’ for ISRO: Scientists at ISRO are in an advance stage of designing a spacecraft, named Aditya, to study the outermost region of the Sun, called corona. Aditya is the first space-based Solar Coronagraph intended to study corona and would be the first attempt by the Indian scientific community to unravel the mysteries associated with coronal heating, coronal mass ejections and the associated space weather processes and study of these would provide important information on the solar activity conditions. MISCELLANEOUSIndia’s first electronic waste recycling company: Ecoreco is India’s first fully compliant electronic waste recycling company. You can now dispose all your electrical and electronic waste with the help of Ecoreco. The company also offers India’s first mobile shredding facility for data destruction. Ecoreco provides: Nationwide collection of e-waste; Safe and secure destruction of confidential data; Equipment refurbishment and resale; Disassembly and de-manufacturing; Hazardous substance disposal by designated facility.

CURRENT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE: JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2009 AWARDSAshok Chakra, 2009: Major Sandeep Unnikrishnan and Havaldar Gajender Singh Bisht (NSG): Immortalised NSG during the 26/11 Mumbai attacks. Colonel Jojan Thomas (Jat Regiment): Killed in an encounter with terrorists in J&K. Havaldar Bahadur Singh Bohra (Special Forces): Killed in an encounter with terrorists in J&K. ATS Chief Hemant Karkare: Senior- most Police officer was killed during 26/11. Police Officer Ashok Kamte and Vijay Salaskar: Both were killed along with Karkare during 26/11. Assistant Sub-inspector Tukaram Omble: Took five bullets to ensure Ajmal Kasab was taken alive. Delhi Police Inspector M.C. Sharma: Died in Batla House encounter with Indian Mujahideen terrorists. Meghalaya police officer R.P. Diengdoh: Killed in operations against militants. Assistant Commandant Pramod Kumar Satapathy: Laid down his life fighting Naxals in Orissa. The Mumbai anti-terrorist operation got six Ashok Chakra winners, probably for the first time after Independence for a single operation. Ashok Chakra is awarded for most conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent valour or self-sacrifice other than in the face of the enemy. Republic Day Awards, 2009: Padma Vibhushan: Atomic Energy Commission  chairman Anil Kakodkar, environmentalist Sunderlal Bahugna, Missionaries of Charity’s sister Nirmala, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Chief G. Madhvan Nair are among 10 people awarded. Padma Bhushan: has been awarded to 30 people, including Olympic gold medallist Abhinav Bindra, technocrat Sam Pitroda, journalist Shekhar Gupta and Lt Gen Satish Nambiar.  Actors Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Akshay Kumar, cricketers M.S. Dhoni and Harbhajan Singh, world billiards champion Pankaj Advani and former Hockey player Balbir Singh Khullar are among the 93 who have been given the Padma Shri awards. Economic Times Awards for Corporate Excellence, 2009: Business leader of the year: A.M. Naik, Chairman, L&T. Company of the Year: Tata Steel. Businesswoman of the year: Shikha Sharma, MD, ICICI PRU Life Insurance. Entrepreneur of the Year: Dilip Shanghvi, Chairman, Sun Pharma. Emerging Company of the Year: Welspun Gujarat Stahl Rohren. Global Indian: Arun Sarin, Former CEO, Vodafone. Business Reformer: Kamal Nath, Union Commerce Minister. Policy Change Agent: E. Shreedharan, MD Delhi Metro. Corporate Citizen of the Year: Anil Reddy, Chairman, Dr Reddy’s Lab. Lifetime Achievement Award: Ashok Ganguly, former Chairman, HLL (Now HUL). Corporate Citizen Special Award: The Oberoi Employees and the Taj Employees.

 Golden Globe awards, 2009: Best Actor: Colin Farrell won the Best Actor award for his performance in the film In Bruges. Best Supporting Actor: Australian actor Heath Ledger. He was honoured posthumously for his portrayal of the villainous Joker in Batman sequel “The Dark Knight”. He became the second actor to win the award posthumous after Peter Finch, who had won the Best Actor award for his film Network in 1976. Best Actress: Kate Winslet, for her performances in Revolutionary Road. Best Supporting Actress:  Kate Winslet for her performance in “The Reader”. Best Animated Film: Wall-E. Best Foreign film: Israeli film Waltz With Bashir. Cecil B DeMille award for lifetime achievement: Director Steven Spielberg. Best film drama: Slumdog Millionaire. Best Director: Danny Boyle for Slumdog Millionaire. Best screenwriter: Simon Beaufoy for Slumdog Millionaire. Best Musical Score: A.R. Rahman for Slumdog Millionaire. Golden Peacock Award, 2009: Telecom operator Idea Cellular has bagged the prestigious Golden Peacock Award for its product My Gang at the 19th World Congress on Total Quality held in Mumbai. My Gang is the first community user group on prepaid, targeted at youth for creating and sharing identities in the cyber and mobile space and was declared the most innovative product. DEFENCEINS Shikra: First Chopper base for Navy: The Indian Navy has formally commissioned its first helicopter base INS Shikra at Mumbai. The Indian Navy’s existing helicopter base, Kunjali II has been commissioned as the INS Shikra. While everything remains the same operationally, the change in status provides greater administrative flexibility as well as the creation of the Air Station’s own identity.  The base has been home to the Indian Navy’s rotary wing assets for 40+ years and every helicopter pilot has served here at one point or another. Air operations from this base commenced in 1964 with the setting up of a small Helicopter Maintenance Unit, as a base support facility at INS Kunjali. On April 3, 1972, INAS 321 ‘Angels’ was established at Kunjali and regular Chetak Operations commenced. The station continued to operate newer helicopters which were being inducted with the growth of the Indian Navy. The copter base will be able to provide security services to important defence and civilian installations on the Western Coast. NUCLEAR ENERGYIndia, French firm sign pact for six N-reactors: In the first commercial deal after acquiring a clean waiver from NSG in 2008, to carry out nuclear commerce, India, in January 2009, signed an MoU with French company Areva for supply of as many as six new-generation Evolutionary Power Reactors (EPRs). As per the deal signed by Areva and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL), Areva will supply two EPRs of 1,650 mw each for nuclear plants the French company will build at Jaitapur in Maharashtra. The order can be updated to six

later. The EPRs, which are designed to phase out old reactors all over the world, are currently under construction only in France, Finland and China. Four independent cooling systems for safety and lead-proof design are some of the features which separate the EPRs from the older reactors. PERSONSRaju, Radha Vinod Raju: The Union  government has named Radha Vinod Raju, an officer of the Indian Police Service, or IPS, as head of the newly set up National Investigation Agency, or NIA, an omnibus agency to fight terror, on the lines of US Federal Bureau of Investigation. Raju, who belongs to the 1975 batch of IPS, was a key member of the police team that investigated the 1991 assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.  PLACESGyotue monastery:The 17th Karmapa, Oxygen Trinley Dorje, next only to the Dalai Lama as a Tibetan Buddhist leader, has finally found a permanent home in India. The Gyotue monastery has offered to build a residence for the 24-year-old Karmapa at Sidhbari village, 7 km from Dharamsala. Known as the Black hat Lama, he was recognized as the reincarnate of 16th Karmapa, Rangzun Rigpe Dorje, by the Dalai Lama. He defected from China with five men and his elder sister in January 5, 2000, and reached Dharamsala.

Jaipur: As many as 116 world famous authors, 20 interviewers and 30 performing artistes participated in the Literature Festival, the largest of its kind in Asia, that was held in Jaipur in January 2009.

Rai Bareily: The third rail coach factory has started operations here. Coaches of India’s own bullet train would be manufactured at this Rs 1,685 crore facility.

PROJECTSTilaiya project for RPower: Anil Ambani Group firm Reliance Power has bagged its third 4,000 mw Ultra Mega Power Project, at Tilaiya, in Jharkhand. The project entails an investment of Rs 16,000-18,000 crore and will have a debt-equity ratio of 70 : 30. Tilaiya is the fourth UMPP to be awarded to a developer. Earlier, two UMPPs bagged by Reliance Power are those of Sasan and Krishnapatnam. Tata Power got the Mundra UMPP.

SPACE RESEARCHIran launches first home- built satellite: On February 3, 2009, Iran, engaged in a standoff with the West over its controversial nuclear programme, launched its first indigenous satellite, named Omid, using its own Safir-2 rocket, a move that could cause concern in the international community. The launch of the satellite coincided with 30th anniversary of the Islamic Revolution. The satellite is aimed at determining orbital measurements and will calculate Earth 15 times in every 24 hours. Iran has pursued a space programme for several years. In October 2005, a Russian-made

Iranian satellite named Sina-I was put into orbit with help of a Russian rocket.

Current General Knowledge: February-March 2009 ABBREVIATIONSMSME: Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises.CAMPA: Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Agency.API: Application Programming Interface. AWARDSSaraswati Samman, 2008: Lakshmi Nandan Bora, Assamese writer, has been honoured with the award for his masterpiece novel, Kayakalpa. The novel covers a wide range of canvas, ranging from modern technology and science to ancient thoughts and philosophy of great saints of India. A scientist by education and profession, Bora has turned out to be one of the foremost literary figures in Assam. He has as many as 56 books to his credit. BCCI Cricket Awards: C.K. Nayudu lifetime achievement award: G.R. Viswanath. Polly Umrigar award for Best Cricketer on International Stage: Virender Sehwag. Madhavrao Scindia award: Cheteshwar Pujara (batsman); Sudeep Tyagi (bowler). M.A. Chidambaram Trophy: Ankit Bawane, Maharashtra (Under-15); Mandeep Singh, Punjab (Under-17); Bhuv-neshwar Kumar, UP (Under 19); Rahul Dewan, Delhi(Under-11). Best woman cricketer: Mithali Raj. Best Junior Woman Cricketer: M.D. Thirushkamini. Special awards: Maharashtra, for best overall performance in the 2007-08 season.Grammy Awards, 2009: Album of the Year:  Raising Sand. Record of the Year: Please Read the Letter. Best new artist: Adele. Best female pop vocal performance: Chasing Pavements, Adele. Best Male Pop Vocal Performance: Say, John Mayer. Best R and B Album: Jennifer Hudson, Best Pop vocal album: Rockferry Duffy. Best Contemporary World Music Album: Global Drum Project, Mickey Hart, Zakir Hussein, Sikiru Adepoju and Gio-vanni Hidalgo.  This was not the first Grammy for the 57-year-old tabla maestro Zakir Hussein. He had pocketed in 1992, Planet Drum, an album co-created and produced with Mickey Hart, that was awarded the first-ever Grammy for the best world music album. Filmfare Awards, 54th: Best Actor: Hrithik Roshan, Jodha Akbar. Best Actress: Priyanka Chopra, ‘Fashion’. Best Actor in Supporting Role (Male): Arjun Rampal, Rock On!. Best Actor in Supporting Role (Female): Kangana Ranaut, ‘Fashion’. Best Dialogue: Mano Rishi, Oye Lucky! Lucky Oye!. Best Screenplay: Yogendra Joshi and Bhupendra, Mumbai Meri Jaan. Best Story: Abhishek Kapoor, Rock On!. Best Music Director: A.R. Rahman, Jaane tu…. Best Lyrics: Javed Akhtar for Jashn-e-Bahara (Jodha Akbar). Best Playback Singer (Male): Sukhwinder Singh for Haule Haule (Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi). Best Playback Singer (Female): Shreya Ghoshal for Teri ore…

(Singh is King). Best Sensational Debut (Male): Farhan Akhtar and Imraan Khan. Best Sensational Debut (Female): Asin Thottumkal, Ghajini. R.D. Burman Upcoming Talent: Benny Dayal, Ghajini. Lifetime Achievement award: Bhanu Athaiya and Om Puri. Pinki wakes up a village: When American filmmaker Megan Mylan profusely thanked her heroine Pinki Kumari after winning the best documentary award at the star-studded Oscar award ceremony at Los Angles, a non-descriptive Rampur Dabohi village in the Naxal-affected Mirzapur district of the State suddenly came into the limelight. Smile Pinki is a 39-minute poignant documentary based on the life of a nine-year-old resident of this village cleft lipped Pinki whose life undergoes a change for the better after she undergoes corrective surgery. The village, about 300 km from the State capital, has none of the frills associated with glamour. Having a population of just 2,343 lacks in even basic facilities like electricity and water. Oscar awards, 2009: Best Actor: Sean Penn for Milk. Best actress: Kate Winslet for ‘The Reader’. Best Supporting Actor: Heath Ledger for The Dark Knight. Best Supporting Actress; Penélope Cruz for Vicky Cristina Barcelona. Best picture: Slumdog Millionaire. Best Director: Danny Boyle (Slumdog Millionaire). Best Original Score: A.R. Rahman (Slumdog Millionaire).  Best Original Song: A.R. Rahman and Sampooran Singh Gulzar for Jai Ho (Slumdog Millionaire). Best screenplay based on material previously produced or published: Simon Beaufoy (Slumdog Millionaire). Best Cinematography: Anthony Dod Mantle (Slumdog Millionaire). Best Editing: Chris Dickens (Slumdog Millionaire). Best Sound: Resul Pookutty, Ian Tapp and Richard Pryke (Slumdog Millionaire). Best foreign film: Departures, Japan. Best Original Screenplay: Dustin Lance Black, Milk. Best documentary feature: Man or Wire. Best Animated Feature Film: Wall-E. Best short documentary: Smile Pinki by Megan Mylan. Tyler award, 2009: US Indian scientist, Veerbhadran (Ram) Ramanathan, professor of atmospheric and climate sciences in the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the university of California, San Diego, shares the award for environmental achievement with Prof Richard Alley, professor of geosciences at Penn State University, for finding warning signs of climate change in the upper atmosphere and in the deepest ice sheets. BOOKSKayakalp: This novel has been written by Lakshmi Nandan Bora, winner of the Saraswati Samman, 2008. Published in 2002, the novel covers a wide range of canvas, ranging from modern technology and science to ancient thoughts and philo-sophy of great saints of India.

CONFERENCEIndian Labour Conference: The 42nd session of the Indian Labour Conference (ILC)

was held in New Delhi in February 2009 and focused on unemployment as the country gets pummeled by an economic slowdown in an election year.

DISCOVERYOldest human footprints found in Kenya: Anthropologists have uncovered ancient fossil footprints in Kenya dating back 1.5 million years, the oldest evidence yet that our ancestors walked like present day humans. The footprints were discovered in two sedimentary layers near Ileret in northern Kenya and revealed an essentially modern human-like foot anatomy. The impressions came from the Homo ergaster, or early Homo erectus, the first hominid whose longer legs and shorter arms corresponded to the body proportions of the modern homo sapiens, the study’s authors said. The footprints provided information on the soft tissue form and structure that are not usually available in fossilized bones. In all specimens the big toe was parallel to the other toes unlike apes, whose big toes are separated to help grasping tree branches. The Ileret footprints also show a pronounced arch and short toes that are human-like and are usually associated with the ability to walk on two feet. 2000-year-old Shiva shrine found: Believed to be among the oldest brick shrines in India, Lucknow University’s department of ancient Indian history and archaeology has unearthed a 2000-year-old Shiva temple as part of its excavation project in Uttar Pradesh’s Unnao district. It’s actually a complex comprising five temples. While four temples belong to the Kushana period (1st-3rd century AD or 2,000 years ago), it appears that the primary temple was constructed during the Sunga period (2nd century BC to 1st century AD or 2,200 years ago). The temple site is a mound in Sanchankot in Unnao.  EXPEDITIONAround the world in nine months: Come August, 2009, and India will have its first solo navigator, cruising across the world aboard an indigenously-built yacht Forty one-year-old Commodore Dilip Donde of the Indian Navy, will soon be the first Indian attempting to sail alone across the world in a span of nine months. The sleek blue and white Yacht, Mhadei, is named after the ancient name of Goa’s famed river Mondovi, where it was built. At 17 m in length with a 21 m long mast and six sails, Mhadei is made of Redfeder wood core fibre glass. Cmdr. Dilip has already given three years to preparing for this expedition, training under Sir Robin Knox Johnston, the first person to complete a solo circumnavigation in 1968-69. To complete the world tour, Mhadei will have to pass continents of Australia, Africa and America while at the same time avoiding any canals. Enroute, the expedition will make

four stops at Fremantle in Australia, Christchurch in New Zealand, Cape Town, Africa and Port Stanley in Canada. Aptly titled Project Sagar Parikrama, the entire assignment has cost Indian Navy nearly rupees seven crore and has taken nearly three years for the project to take shape, right from conceptualization to allocating and now the final execution. For the navy, apart from putting Indian on the world map, this expedition is about attracting more youth to join the uniform. OILOil India makes deepest hydrocarbon discovery: State-run Oil India Ltd (OIL) has made a signi-ficant oil discovery in upper Assam, the deepest commercial hydrocarbon strike in the country. The discovery was made at the depth of at least 5,610 m. A number of prospective oil and gas bearing sands, with a total net hydrocarbon pay of about 50 m, were encountered in the discovery well Mechaki-2. The well was tested to have a production potential of at least 1,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day. This significant discovery has opened up adjoining neighbourhood for further exploration of deep- seated by hydrocarbon prospects by Oil.PERSONSRahman, Allah Rakha: He has become the first Indian music director to win an Oscar award. He won the award for his music in the film Slumdog Millionaire.  He was born on January 6, 1967, and was named Dilip Kumar. His father R.K. Sekhar was a music director and mother Kasturi (later Kareema Begum), a homemaker. His father died when he was nine and family had to hire out his instruments to make ends meet. Later, the entire family converted to Islam. Drawn to music from an early age, Rahman could play many instruments and had many gurus. He started composing advertisement jingles in 1986, the memorable ones being for Titan and Leo Coffee. A tune he composed for a leading telecom company has become the world’s most downloaded piece of music, clocking 60 million hits. Roja’s release in 1992 made him a star. Mani Ratnam gave him this break, and Rahman became famous overnight. Soon enough, the rest of the world took note. Ram Gopal Varma invited him to score for Rangeela, Subhash Ghai for Taal, Ashutosh Gowarikar for Lagaan, Shekhar Kapur  for Elizabeth II and Andrew Lloyd Webber for Bombay Dreams. Whether it’s the album Vande Mataram or the musical Bombay Dreams or his work with the stage adaptation of Lord of the Rings, his brand of world music has reached out across cultures.PLACESRupnagar: The prestigious Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) is being set-up in this town of Punjab. Another IIT in north India is being set up in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh.

 Swat Valley: Swat is a valley and an administrative district in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan, located 160 km from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. The capital of Swat is Saidu Sharif, but the main town in the Swat valley is Mingora. It was a princely State in the NWFP until it was dissolved in 1969. With high mountains, green meadows, and clear lakes, it is a place of great natural beauty that used to be popular with tourists as “the Switzerland of Pakistan”. In December 2008 most of the area was captured by the Taliban insurgency. Islamist militant leader Maulana Fazlullah and his group Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi have banned education for girls and have bombed or torched “more than 170 schools along with other government-owned buildings. In February 2009, Pakistani government went into an agreement with the Taliban to agree on imposing Sharia law in the area in return for militants agreeing to maintain peace in the area. The takeover of Pakistan’s Swat Valley is a reminder to India and the rest of the world of the strength of the jihadis. It also demonstrates to India that Pakistan is unwilling or unable to deal with the Taliban operating in Swat and many parts of the north-west frontier. Phuket: South East Asian leaders will meet with their counterparts from six other Asian nations in this city of Thailand, on April 10-12, 2009, to battle fallout from the global financial crisis.PROJECTSRajpura Thermal Plant: The Punjab government has cleared the setting up of the 1,320 mw Rajpura thermal power project. The project will be built by Lanco Infratech. At present, the total power generation capacity in the State is 6,609 MW, against the peak demand of 7,428 MW. The project is expected to meet the shortfall in three years time. Tata JV, JSPL bag coal-to-liquid projects: The Union government is understood to have awarded a coal block each to Tata Sons-Sasol joint venture, and another one to Jindal Steel and Power for converting coal to liquid petroleum, entailing an investment of $18 billion. The two projects would result in production of 1,60,000 barrels of crude oil a day.  JSPL said the project will need 30 million tones of washed coal to produce 80,000 barrels of crude a day and the wastes produce from the project would be used for generating 1,350 MW of electricity. SPACE RESEARCHSatellites collide over Siberia: In February 209, two big communications satellites collided in the first-ever crash of two intact spacecraft in orbit, shooting out a pair of massive debris clouds and posing a slight risk to the international space station. The collision involved an Iridium commercial satellite, which was launched in 1997, and a Russian satellite launched in 1993 and believed to be non-functioning. The Russian satellite had gone out of control. 

There have been four other cases in which space objects have collided accidentally in orbit, NASA said. But those were considered minor and involved parts of spent rockets or small satellites. Before the accident there were 9,831 pieces of manmade debris orbiting Earth. The items, at least 4 inches (10 centimeters) in size, are being tracked by the US Space Surveillance Network, which is operated by the military. Litter in orbit has increased in recent years, in part because of the deliberate breakups of old satellites. It’s gotten so bad that orbital debris is now the biggest threat to a space shuttle in flight, surpassing the dangers of liftoff and return to earth.  China’s lunar probe lands on moon: On March 1, 2009, China’s lunar mission, Chang’e-1, landed its first satellite on the moon. It represented the first step in the Chinese ambition to land robotic explorers on the moon before 2020. With the landing, the satellite ended its 16-month mission. Chang’e-1 was launched into space on October 24, 2007, and sent the first full map of the moon’s surface back to China one month later.MISCELLANEOUSBhuvan—ISRO’s answer to Google earth: There will soon be a local variant of Google Earth, the iconic and controversial service from internet search company Google Inc., that allows ordinary people to take a close look at most parts of the world on their computer screens, using satellite images and maps. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is planning to launch a similar Web-based service that will allow users to check everything from the exact location of the new restaurant where they have booked a table for the evening to the state of flood-ravaged villages in Bihar. The new mapping service will be called Bhuvan, which is the Sanskrit word for earth.The Indian space agency will use images taken at least a year ago by its seven remote-sensing satellites in orbit around the earth, including Cartosat-1 and Cartosat-2. These satellites shoot images as small as a car on the street, to build a three-dimensional map of the world. Details such as roads and soil patterns on the maps would be available only for the Indian region, however. Bhuvan, which uses high-resolution images, will comply with India’s remote sensing data policy, which does not allow online mapping services to show sensitive locations such as military and nuclear installations. Unlike Google Earth, the Bhuvan application will not be downloadable and will not allow users to host content. Salaries to rise slowest in six year: Salaries in India will see the lowest increase in six years as slowdown impacts business and demand for people, according to a survey released by Hewitt Associates, part of Illinois-based human resource consultant Hewitt Associates LIc. Pay packets grew by 13.3% and 15.1% in 2008 and 2007, respectively. Hewitt said it surveyed 480 companies in India between December 2008 and January 2009. The

downturn has hit all economies across the globe and those that had dependent economic ties with the US are the ones most affected. Interestingly, staff at the junior manager, professional and supervisor levels are expected to receive the highest increase for the ninth year in a row, the report said. Junior employees are expected to see their pay increase by 8.8%, while top management executives can expect to take home a raise of 7.4%. Consumer goods, telecom and consumer durables firms are projecting higher raises. Sectors witnessing lowest pay hikes include entertainment, communications and publishing industries, which are dependent upon other industries for advertising revenues. Many Indian languages endangered: With 196 of its languages listed as endangered, India a nation with great linguistic diversity, tops the UNESCO’s list of countries having maximum number of dialects on the verge of extinction. India is closely followed by the US, which stands to lose 192 language and Indonesia where 147 are in peril. The facts were revealed in the latest Atlas of World’s language in danger of disappearing, on the eve of International Mother Language Day on February 22. The Atlas classifies 2500 of the 6000 languages spoken worldwide as endangered. It adds that nearly 200 languages have fewer than 10 speakers and 178 others have between 10 and 50 speakers.Fiscal Deficit: The difference between total revenue and total expenditure of the government is termed as fiscal deficit. It is an indication of the total borrowings needed by the government. While calculating the total revenue, borrowings are not included. Generally, fiscal deficit takes place due to either revenue deficit or a major hike in capital expenditure. A deficit is usually financed through borrowing from either the Central Bank of the country or raising money from capital markets by issuing different instruments like treasury bills and bonds. A mismatch in the expected revenue and expenditure can result in revenue deficit. Revenue deficit arises when the government’s actual net receipts is lower than the projected receipts. A revenue deficit does not mean actual loss of revenue.

Current General Knowledge: March-April 2009ABBREVIATIONSGOCE: Gravity field and steady state Ocean Circulation Explorer.IW: Information Warfare.

AWARDSHoover Medal, 2008: Former President Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam has been chosen to receive the prestigious 2008 Hoover Medal for outstanding public service. He has been recognized for making state-of-the-art healthcare available to the common man at affordable prices, bringing quality medical care to rural areas by establishing a link between doctors and technocrats, using spin-offs of defence technology to create state-of-the-art medical equipment, and launching telemedicine projects connecting remote hospitals to super-speciality hospitals.

Stockholm Water Prize, 2009: Bindeshwar Pathak, an Indian doctor who developed cheap toilets to improve sanitation in poor communities has been honoured with the award. He will receive the $ 150,000 cash award and a symbolic glass sculpture. The Stockholm International Water Institute said Pathak’s achievements constitute one of the most amazing examples of how one person can impact the well-being of millions. Pathak founded the Sulabh International Social Service Organisation in India in 1970 and recently started operations in Bhutan and Afghanistan.

Mother Teresa Award, 2009: Tamil Nadu Governor and former Punjab Chief Minister Surjit Singh Barnala has been selected for the Mother Teresa Lifetime achievement award 2009 for his contribution in the field of social work and admi-nistration. Hillary Clinton, Sheikh Hasina, Girija Prasad Koirala, late Rajiv Gandhi, Jyothi Basu, Hema Malini and Rajesh Khanna are among the earlier recipients of the award.

COMMITTEESRaghavan panel report on ragging: States have been ignoring the Raghavan committee recommendations that were accepted by the Supreme Court in 2007. The major recommendation of the committee was that Central regulatory bodies should take ragging situation as an important factor in accreditation of education institutions. The committee had also recommended anti-ragging cells should have been established at Central, State and college level and toll-free helpline should be provided for ragging victims. Strong law against ragging with responsibility to prove not guilty lying on the perpetrator was also recommended.The committee had also suggested that NCERT and SCERT school books should include chapter on ragging, and psychological counselling on anti-ragging and human rights should be conducted at higher secondary level.

DEFENCEInterceptor Missile tested: On March 6, 2009, India’s Missile Defence Programme took a leap forward as scientists demonstrated the capacity to intercept an enemy missiles in mid-air and destroy it. The third test in the continuing programme was conducted off the wheeler island in Orissa.As part of the test, an enemy missile was destroyed at a height of 75 km above the earth. With this India joins a select band of nations, such as the USA, Russia and Israel, who have similar capabilities.The latest test was against a moving missile. This provides a credible defence against long-range missiles owned by Pakistan having range between 400 and 2,000 km and the

Chinese arsenal that varies from a range of 300 km to 2,800 km. Countering an incoming missile is one of the biggest challenges in modern-day warfare. To mimic the incoming enemy’s ballistic missile trajectory, a Dhanush missile was launched from a ship about 100 km off the coast of Orissa. This missile achieved a height of 120 km. The interceptor missile sensed the enemy missile and was fired from a mobile launcher located on Wheeler island.

Phalcons to give IAF early bird advantage: After several technical and other hiccups, IAF will finally get its most potent force-multiplier, the desperately awaited Phalcon AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control Systems), from Israel in May 2009. The Phalcon AWACS will bolster IAFs capabilities to detect troop build-up or aircraft movements deep inside Pakistan, much further than ground-based radars, while flying well within Indian air-space. An AWACS flying over Amritsar, for instance, will be able to detect and track a Pakistani F-16 fighter jet as soon as it takes off from its Sargodha airbase. AWACS are primarily used for detection of incoming hostile cruise missiles and aircraft from hundreds of km away in all-weather conditions, as well as directing air defence fighters during combat operations against enemy jets.

DISCOVERYIndian scientists find UV-resistant bacteria: Indian scientists have discovered three new bacteria, about 40 km above the surface of the earth, which can resist ultra-violet radiation, a finding that could throw light on the origin of life on the planet. These three types of bacteria that do not match any species on earth were found in samples collected through a balloon sent up to the stratosphere in April 2005. This layer of earth’s atmosphere receives heavy ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to almost all life on earth and typically kills bacteria.The balloon sent up to the stra-tosphere was the second effort by India after a maiden venture in 2001. It contained probes that collected air samples at different heights ranging from 20 km to 41 km above the earth’s surface.The experiment was conducted by a team led by Jayant Narlikar, founder director of the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Bangalore.The current belief is that ultra-violet radiation inhibits growth of any living system. Based on the origin of life theory, some of these organisms may be coming from an extraterrestrial source, or it could be mutants that have emanated from the various earthly processes. Though the experiment does not conclusively establish the extraterrestrial origin of microorganisms, it does provide positive encouragement to continue the work in a quest to explore the origin of life.The three bacteria have been named Janibacter hoylei after astrophysicist Fred Hoyle, who promoted the theory that life evolved in space; Bacillus isronensis that recognizes the contribution of India’s space agency in the balloon experiments that led to its discovery; and Bacillus aryabhata after India’s ancient astronomer who postulated that the earth revolves around the sun.

ENVIRONMENT

New greenhouse gases: Scientists have identified two new greenhouse gases, one emitted by the electronic industry and the other used in pest control, which are rapidly accumulating in the atmosphere. Climate scientist Dr Paul Fraser of CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research has reported the measurements of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) and sulfuryl fluoride (SO2F2), the two new gases. They say countries should consider including these gases for control in the revision of the Kyoto Protocol.

OILRIL’s KG basin commences production: Reliance Industries Ltd has announced the commencement of gas production from one of the world’s largest gas discoveries that took place in 2002 in the Krishna- Godavari (KG) basin in the Bay of Bengal. With this, India is expected to save $ 9 billion in annual energy import expenditure.Gas production from Reliance’s $ 8.8 billion KG-D6 deepwater gas project, of which $ 5.4 billion has already been invested, is expected to transform India’s energy landscape by doubling the current level of indigenous gas production by 2010.At $ 4.2 per million British thermal unit, the KG-D6 gas is 25 per cent cheaper than the fuel produced by UK’s BG-operated Panna/Mukta and Tapti fields in the Western Offshore and 20 per cent cheaper than Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) imported on long-term contracts.The KG-D6 gas is also expected to substantially reduce India’s dependence on energy imports and bring down subsidy levels in the fertilizer, transportation and other sectors.Besides doubling the nation’s domestic gas production, the KG-D6 gas would substitute costly naphtha or imported LNG as fuel at power and fertilizer plants. The gas would also boost power supply from idle power plants starved of fuel and produce cheaper urea for agriculture. By 2010, output from D6 will be increased to 80 mmscmd, doubling India’s gas production capability.Gas from the KG D6 deepwater block will be piped to an onshore facility at Gadimoga, a small village in the East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, before it is deli-vered to the consumers. Reliance operates D6 with a 90% stake, with Canada’s Niko Resources holding the remaining 10%.

PERSONSChawla, Navin: He has been appointed as the Chief Election Commissioner of India. An Indian Administrative Service officer of the 1969 batch, he will hold charge till July 29, 2010. He was appointed Election Commissioner on May 13, 2005. Navin Chawla has had a controversial past. The Chief Election Commissioner N. Gopalaswami, on January 31, 2009, had sent his recommendation regarding removal of Election Commissioner Navin Chawla to the President of India. The CEC had alleged that Chawla had discharged his duties as Election Commissioner in a partisan manner, seeking to further the interests of “one party”. The CEC recommendation was, however, rejected by the Union government.

Naik, Pradeep Vasant: Air Marshal Pradeep Vasant Naik has been appointed as the next chief of Indian Air Force. Born on July 22, 1949, he was commissioned into the IAF in 1969 and has 3,085 hours of fighter flying under his belt. A veteran of the 1971 Indo-Pak war, he has also served as the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Allahabad-based

Central Air Command. He is a fellow of the National Defence College, New Delhi, College of Defence Management, Secundrabad and Defence Services Staff College, Wellington. The courses attended by him include flying instructor course, jungle and snow survival and junior commanders’ course.

PLACESIstanbul: Government ministers from 120 countries, scientists and campaigners met in Istanbul from March 16-22, 2009, to discuss how to avert a global water crisis and ease tensions between States fighting over rivers, lakes and glaciers.

L’Aquila: More than 250 persons were killed in a devastating earthquake that rocked central Italy in first week of April 2009, around the ancient town of L’Aquila. An estimated 50,000 people were left homeless. The US geological survey reported the strength of the quake at 6.3 saying it was centred 95 km northeast of Rome, at a depth of 10 km.

London: World leaders gather-ed here on April 2, 2009 for the G-20 Summit to discuss the ongoing economic crisis and to find solution to the economic woes of developing countries.

Rome: Labour Ministers from the G-8 nations and six other major economies gathered here in March 2009 for talks on the human dimension of the financial crisis sweeping the planet. The three-day Group of 14 meeting brought together the G8 leading industrial powers with the emerging giants China, India and Brazil, as well as Mexico, South Africa and Egypt.

South Africa: Indian Premier League (IPL) has chosen South Africa for hosting the second edition of the highly popular Twenty20 cricket tournament from April 18, 2009. The tournament had to be shifted from India due to clash of dates with General Elections being held in India at the same time.

PROJECTSKrishnapatnam Port: The developer and operator of an all-weather, deep-water port in Andhra Pradesh, Krishnapatnam Port Co Ltd (KPCL) is constructing the port in three phases at Krishnapatnam in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh. The first phase, built at a cost of Rs 1,400 crore, had commenced operations in July 2008. The first phase of KPCL’s port project has a cargo handling capacity of 25 million tonnes a year. The  second phase of expansion will take up total berths in the port to 12 from four now, where the company plans to reserve at least six berths for handling coal, leaving the rest for general bulk and container cargo.

Mughal road project: The prestigious Mughal road project, which will connect Kashmir valley with the rest of India, is expected to be completed by March 2011. The estimated cost of the project, undertaken under the Prime Minister’s Reconstruction Programme (PMRP), was Rs 225 crores in 2006. This has been revised to Rs 639.85 crore now. So

far, at least 6 culverts are ready, while work on 43 culverts and two bridges is going on.

RESEARCHPolypill passes first major test: A single pill that contains five life saving drugs to combat bad cholesterol, high blood pressure and clotting at one go, has come closer to reality after passing its first big test. Scientists have announced that polypill, a once-a-day pill that combines cholesterol-lowering statin, aspirin and three BP-lowering drugs was as effective as drugs taken separately, with no greater side effects. The study tested polypill on 2,053 Indians aged 48-80 years who did not have heart disease but had a single risk factor like raised BP, diabetes, obesity or smoking. It concluded that if the pill was given to this population, it would reduce risk of heart disease by 62% and stroke by 48%.

Green chewing gum launched: The world’s first biodegradable chewing gum, which is completely environment-friendly, has been introduced in supermarkets all over Britain. Chicza Rainforest Gum, as it is called, is manufactured in Mexico by Consorcio Chiclero, which is a consortium of 56 co-operatives employing some 2,000 chicleros (gum farmers) and their families.The workers extract natural gum from the sap of the chicle tree, which is then used to make the pro-duct. Unlike conventional chewing gum, which contains petrochemicals, the organic chewing gum does not stick to clothing or pavements. Once disposed of, it will crumble to dust in about six weeks, dissolving harmlessly in water or being absorbed into the soil.

Big step for creating artificial life: US scientists said they have taken an important step toward making an artificial life form by making a ribosome that makes the proteins that carry out key business for all form of life.Messenger RNA carries DNA’s genetic instructions to a cell’s ribosome, which then cooks up the desired protein. Every living organism from bacteria to humans uses a ribosome, and they are all strikingly similar. It is not quite artificial life, but an important step in that direction, said George Church, a professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School, who directed the research with a single graduate student.Normal ribosomes make some drugs slowly, and others can’t be made at all. However, a man-made, or reconstituted, ribosome may be programmable to make all kinds of molecules.

SPACE RESEARCHGOCE—Eye in space to disclose earth’s secrets: A European satellite, GOCE (Gravity field and steady state Ocean Circulation Explorer), launched in March 2009, is to show scientists the inner workings of earth, from the movements of ocean currents to the location of oil deposits. Its data will enable scientists to detect the flows of molten rock that underlie the movements of tectonic plates and cause earthquakes. The GOCE probe will measure tiny anomalies in earth’s gravity, caused by anything from mountain ranges to subterranean lava flows or ocean trenches.Scientists have long known that the earth’s gravity varies all over its surface and that measuring those changes could give insights into the planet’s inner workings. However, designing an instrument capable of measuring them, which would also survive the rigours

of blast-off, has until now proved impossible. GOCE will yield details of the Earth’s gravity field to an accuracy and resolution that is simply unobtainable by existing terrestrial and space techniques. For geologists, perhaps the most exciting prospect is of being able to peer deep below the earth’s crust.

MISCELLANEOUSImages from moon to go online: US space agency NASA has entered into a collaboration with software giant Microsoft Corp to develop a new technology that will make planetary images and data accessible worldwide through Internet. The joint venture will work to develop a new technology to make NASA’s content, including high-resolution images and data from Mars and the moon, available on worldwide telescope, Microsoft’s online virtual telescope.Under the agreement, NASA’s Ames Research Centre in Moffett Field, California, will process and host more than 100 terabytes of data, enough to fill 20,000 DVDs. Worldwide Telescope will also incorporate the data and feature images sent from NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The tool will also have images from a camera aboard NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, scheduled to be launched in May 2009.

NSE free float-based indices to change market-cap weightage: When the National Stock Exchange (NSE) calculates its bench mark indices using the free float metho-dology from June 2009, the market capitalisation (M-cap) weightage of key companies and sectors would undergo major changes. Sectors with high institutional holding and companies having a large number of shares available for trading would gain from the move. The NSE currently uses full m-cap weightage methodology for computing its key indices.Free float m-cap takes into consideration only those shares which are readily available for trading in the market. It usually excludes promoters’ holding, government holding, strategic holding and locked in shares that normally do not come to the market for trading.

G-20: G-20 or the Group of Twenty is a forum of Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of the biggest industrialised and deve-loping economies to discuss key issues in the global economy. The G-20 countries account for 90% of global GDP, 80% of world trade and two-thirds of the world’s population.The Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 raised fears of a global economic meltdown and world leaders became acutely aware of the lack of a platform where key emerging market countries and the G-7 industrialised nations could discuss the status of the global economy and measures for its improvement. The G-20 was born in 1999 as a result of this recognition.Although the group has 19 of the world’s largest economies as its members, it has no formal criteria for membership. Apart from the G-7 industrialised nations, it includes emerging economies like India, China, Russia, Brazil, South Africa, Mexico, South Korea, Argentina, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Australia. The 20th member is the European Union, which is represented by whichever country holds the EU Presidency. The IMF and the World

Bank also attend G-20 meetings. The chairmanship rotates every year. Britain is in the chair for 2009.

Current General Knowledge: June 2009ABBREVIATIONSQIB: Qualified Institutional Buyer.QIP: Qualified Institutional Placement.UIDAI: Unique Identification Authority of India.

AWARDSIIFA Awards 2009Lifetime Achievement Award: Rajesh Khanna.Best Director: Ashutosh Gowariker for ‘Jodhaa Akbar’, Best Actor: Hrithik Roshan, for ‘Jodhaa Akbar’, Best Actress: Priyanka Chopra, for her role in ‘Fashion’.Best Supporting Actor: Arjun Rampal, for his role of a rock-star in ‘Rock On’.Best Supporting Actress: Kangana Ranaut, for her role of a supermodel in ‘Fashion’. Best Actor in Negative Role: Akshay Khanna, for his role in the sleek thriller ‘Race’.Best Newcomer (Male): Farhan Akhtar Best Newcomer (Female): Asin Thottumkal.Best Costume Design: Neeta Lulla, for ‘Jodhaa Akbar’.Best editing: Ballu Saluja.Best art direction: Nitin Chandrakant Desai for ‘Jodha Akbar.Best Editing: Resul Pokkutty, for ‘Ghajini’.Best cinematography: Jason West for ‘Rock On’.Best choreography: Farah Khan for hit the song ‘desi girl’ in ‘Dostana’.

Renewable Energy Award of the United NationsBindeshwar Pathak, Sulabh International founder, has been given the prestigious award for developing low cost toilet technology to produce energy out of human waste. Modelled on the Nobel Prize, this annual awards ceremony draws attention to future energy issues that constitute some of the most urgent challenges facing the world’s leaders today. These awards recognise the achievements of individuals and institutions in response to the crisis of climate change and sustainable global energy resources.

Man Booker Prize, 2009Acclaimed Canadian short story writer Alice Munro has received the trophy, along with the award worth £60,000. The 77-year-old author is the third person to win the prestigious award, which is given every two years. The award recognises a living author for his/her contribution to literature and to highlight the author's creativity and development on a global scale.

DEFENCEIndigenous N-sub ready for trialOver 25 years after India started building an indigenous nuclear-powered submarine, subtly named Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), the warship is now ready for testing. Notably, the project is running at least a decade behind schedule.

Having a fleet of nuclear subs is a critical aspect of controlling the Indian Ocean region where China is also flexing its muscles. A nuclear submarine can remain submerged for up to two weeks and is noiseless. On the other hand, diesel powered submarines—that India already has in its fleet—have to re-surface every 48 hours.

If India is successful, it would join a league of select nations like the US, UK, France, Russia and China that have their own nuclear-powered submarine. Many components of the reactor, like the steam generator and the control rod mechanism, have been fabricated in the country even though some Russian help had been taken.

The biggest challenge was miniaturising a nuclear reactor to fit it into the submarine, which is said to be of 5,000 tonne displacement. The submarine is also to have a ballistic missile firing capability. The reactor for the ATV was developed indigenously by Indian scientists.

The only nuclear submarine India ever operated was the former Soviet Union’s Charlie-I class sub that the Indian Navy leased to gain operational experience with nuclear powered submarines. Separately, the Indian Navy is hopeful that Russia's Akula class nuclear-powered submarine “Nerpa” will be handed over to India before the end of 2009.

DISCOVERYScientists discover superatomScientists from Virginia Commonwealth University, along with collaborators at the Harish-Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad, and Naval Research Laboratory in the US, have discovered a 'magnetic superatom' which could shrink the size of many electronic devices like computers, make them faster and pack more storage space.

The magnetic superatom—a stable cluster of atoms that can mimic different elements of the periodic table—may also have potential biomedical applications such as sensing, imaging and drug delivery.

The newly discovered cluster, consisting of one vanadium and eight cesium atoms, acts like a tiny magnet that can mimic a single manganese atom in magnetic strength, while preferentially allowing electrons of specific spin orientation to flow through the surrounding shell of cesium atoms.

The researchers believe that the superatom can have significant impact in the area of molecular electronics and spintronics in which attempts are made to use conducting properties of small molecules to design electronic devices.

The researchers have proposed that by combining gold and manganese, one can make other superatoms that have magnetic moment but will not conduct electricity. These superatoms may have potential application in healthcare.

ENVIRONMENTLahaul-Spiti to get cold desert biosphere reserveThe Lahaul-Spiti and Leh-Ladakh areas are set to be on the world’s network of biosphere reserves based on the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme. The cold desert biosphere will extend from the Pin Valley National Park in Lahaul-Spiti to the Hemis National Park in Ladakh. The Man and Biosphere Committee (MBC) of the Ministry of Environment of Forests (MOEF) is giving “final touches” to the project.

The Ramser site of Tsomoriri, wetlands of Tsokar and Pangong Tso in Ladakh and Chandertal wetland in Lahaul attract thousands of tourists and migratory birds every year. The Ramser site is the country’s only breeding ground for the rare bar-headed geese and the black-necked crane.

The idea behind the cold desert biosphere project is to protect wildlife, plants and local communities from the onslaught of mass tourism and environmental degradation. This biosphere is source to Spiti and Pin, tributaries of the Sutlej, Chandrabhaga, Chenab, and Indus rivers.

It will be first cold desert biosphere in the Indian Himalayan region spanning over 97, 665 sq km area. The two national parks, wetlands and the protected areas would form the core zone while other areas would form the buffer zones of the cold desert biosphere. OILONGC scores a hat-trick of oil and gas discoveriesIndia’s biggest oil explorer ONGC has struck oil and gas in three new blocks. One of the finds is most significant in decades and holding the promise of significantly narrowing the energy-starved India’s demand-supply gap in the natural gas sector.

The gas find at Krishna Godavari (KG) basin off the Andhra coast could prove similar to the Reliance Industries’ D-6 block, which, at its peak, is expected to double India’s current natural gas output. The other two discoveries included an oil find at the Charada-3 offshore block in Cambay basin and an oil and gas find at Matar in Vadodara district, both in Gujarat.

PERSONSKumar, MeiraShe has become the first woman Speaker of Lok Sabha. An interesting coincidence is that both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha now have presiding officers formerly belonging to Indian Foreign Service (IFS). Meira Kumar is the second Bihari to occupy the Speaker’s post. The first to become Speaker from Bihar was Baliram Bhagat, who occupied the chair for a brief period of 14 months, from January 1976 to March 1977.

Born in 1945, Ms Kumar is second of the two children of former Defence Minister of India Jagjivan Ram. The soft-spoken five time MP could well be said to have grown up in the corridors of power. Her father became the youngest minister in the Jawaharlal Nehru’s provisional government in 1946. From then on till 1978, Mr Ram served virtually uninterrupted in one capacity or another in successive governments.

Ms Kumar’s formal politics came in 1985, barely a year before her father passed away. She became yet another successful professional, who had the added advantage of family involvement, to join politics after Rajiv Gandhi assumed the office of Prime Minister. Her first venture electoral venture was in Bijnore in Uttar Pradesh, from where she was elected to the eighth Lok Sabha. However, it proved to be beginner’s luck, Ms Kumar lost the next two elections. In 1996, she contested from the Karol Bagh Parliamentary Constituency in Delhi, which she won. Ms Kumar retained the seat in the twelfth Lok Sabha. Once again, in 1999, she was voted out. For her next electoral venture in 2004, Ms Kumar chose to return to Sasaram, a seat her father had held for nearly three decades. She won the elections and was made Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment.

Tanvir, HabibWorld-renowned theatre personality, he died on June 8, 2009. Born in Raipur (now in Chhattisgarh), Tanvir was educated in the Aligarh and Nagpur Universities. Along with Sahir Ludhianavi, Kaifi Azmi, Ali Sardar Jafri, Balraj Sahni and Sadat Hasan Manto he was a part of a galaxy of extremely talented and equally committed artistes. He helped found Indian People’s Theatre (IPTA).

He produced outstanding dramas in Chhattisgarhi dialect and his “Naya Theatre” tapped the talent of ordinary people—rickshaw-pullers, panwallahs and small shopkeepers. Whether it be “Mitti ki gadi”, “Charandas Chor” or “Agra bazaar”—his theatre productions almost always carried a message.

Michael JacksonThe King of pop, who first enraptured audiences as a child star and eventually moon-walked his way into hearts of millions around the world, died on June 26, 2009. He was 50. Born in 1958, Jackson made his musical debut with four of his older brothers in the “Jackson Five” before embarking on a solo career. His 1982 album Thriller—which included the hits “Beat It”, “Billie Jean” and “Thriller”—is still the best-selling album of all time, with more than 26 million copies sold.

In 1994, Jackson married Lisa Marie-Presley, daughter of another music icon Elvis Presley. The marriage lasted less than two years. Jackson later married Debbie Rowe, a 37-year-old nurse he met while undergoing plastic surgery in 1997. They had two children—Prince Michael and Paris Michael Katherine—before divorcing in 1999. Jackson had a third child, Prince Michael II, whose mother’s name has never been made public.

Jackson leaves behind a complex legacy. A multimillion-dollar grossing star, he donated

a significant portion of his fortune to charities and noble causes. But in recent years, the megastar found himself down on his luck—first plagued by child molestation lawsuits and then financial trouble.

Even as his appearance altered dramatically over the years, Jackson consistently denied undergoing plastic surgery. Rev Al Sharpton, a civil rights activist, described Jackson as a “historic figure”, saying: “Michael Jackson made culture accept a person of colour way before Tiger Woods, way before Oprah Winfrey, way before Barack Obama.”

PLACESHyderabadHyderabad is all set to host country’s first-ever helicopter manufacturing unit. The Andhra Pradesh government has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Tata group for manufacturing helicopters at the aerospace special economic zone near the international airport at Shamshabad.  US-based Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation is shifting its Japan unit to Hyderabad, through a tie up with Tata Motors. The project involves an investment of Rs 1,000 crore and the operations will commence by 2010.

LalgarhLocated 180 km from Kolkata, since last one year Lalgarh had been simmering as the red lava of Maoist rage flowing out of this West Midnapore town. The ruling Left Front’s oppression and dispossession left this tribal area as the most undeveloped area of West Bengal, leading to the Maoists exploiting the situation and virtually converting the area into a powder keg. In June 2009, Maoists went on a bloody rampage, bodies piled up, CPM leaders were massacred in their homes, and even Kolkata was held hostage for a day by armed Maoist-backed tribals before the alarming situation forced the West Bengal government to wake-up and take concrete steps to counter the naxalite violence and take virtual control over the area.

MacauIIFA 2009 Film awards ceremony was held here.

PalampurThe World Council for Corporate Governance organised the Global Convention on Climate Security at Palampur, near Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh, in June 2009. Experts from around the world pondered on why the climate crunch is more catastrophic than credit crunch. Another major topic was: “how climate change can prove as an opportunity for creating employment.

TezpurThe Air Force station at Tezpur in north Assam now host Sukhoi-30 elite combat aircraft of the Indian Air Force (IAF). This is the third Sukhoi-30 aircraft hub in the country and the first one in the North East. The airfield in Tezpur was constructed by the British Royal Indian Air Force during the Second World War in 1942 and subsequently developed into a full-fledged air force base in 1959. It was upgraded recently to make it suitable to host new generation combat aircraft. Tezpur air base is very important from

the strategic point of view as it lies surrounded by China, Bhutan, Tibet, Myanmar and Bangladesh on different directions. It is about 150 km away (aerial distance) from the frontier with China in Arunachal Pradesh.

TriesteThis town in Italy hosted an international meet on Afghanistan and Pakistan in last week of June 2009. India, along with other key global powers and regional players were invited to discuss the terrorism problem affecting the Afghanistan-Pakistan region. The meeting was held on the sidelines of the G-8 Foreign Ministers’ meeting.

YekaterinburgFormerly Sverdlovsk, it is a major city in the central part of Russia, the administrative center of Sverdlovsk Oblast. Situated on the eastern side of the Ural mountain range, it is the main industrial and cultural center of the Urals Federal District. The annual summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and the first meeting of BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) leaders were held here in June 2009.

PROJECTSProject Saraswati—ONGC digs water in TharAfter successfully having drilled ‘black gold’ in several locations around the world, the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has now dug out water in the parched desert area of Rajasthan. ONGC has achieved the rare feat in Thar desert by using its expertise in geological studies and drilling capabilities under its ‘ONGC Project Saraswati’.

Initiated in 2007 as part of its corporate social responsibility, the pilot project led the ONGC drillers and geologists to find underground water aquifer that has now started providing 76,000 litres of water per hour. The site, ‘Saraswati-1’, is located around seven km away from Jaisalmer (on the Dabla road) and the bore had to be dug 554 metres deep.

ONGC took a cue from the Libyan experience where during deep oil drilling in the 1950s, water was found under a desert. Notably, four major underground basins have been located during exploratory drilling for oil in Libya, which contain fresh water at a depth ranging between 800-2,500 metres. This has led to a gigantic irrigation project there, which is now known as Libya’s Great Man-Made River Project.

In the second phase, the ONGC has plans to extend the project to other areas of Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat.

Unique Identification Card ProjectThe Rs 150,000 crore biometric Unique Identification Card project is now on track with the Union government appointing the co-founder of Infosys, Nanadan Nilekani as the head of the project. The project will put India in the club of about 56 countries around the world, which have some form of national identity cards. These include most of continental Europe (not UK), China, Brazil, Japan, Iran, Israel and Indonesia.

The card has been designed by the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, which

captured the essence of India, drawing inspiration from various motifs and rangoli patterns. It also has the colours of Indian textiles and essence of Indian ethos.

The Smart Card will have details like name, date of birth, sex, finger print and a chip which will contain all necessary personal data of the card-holder. The process of issuing this card has begun in coastal areas of the country in accordance with the National Population Register.

The first step in issuing ID cards is building a complete computerized record of all citizens above the age of 18. It needs to be computerized so that it is accessible and it can be updated constantly. The task is being done by the Registrar General of India (RGI) under the Home Ministry, because they have the requisite experience. The RGI carries out the census every decade. In fact, this database is going to be generated along with the next Census, slated for 2011. It will be called the National Population Register.

The technical challenge is to create a tamper-proof smart card, which can function in Indian conditions. Sophisticated software called SCOSTA will be used for creating the cards. The cards would contain as many as 16 pieces of personal information. This information will be stored in microchips embedded in the card and it will be accessible only to authorized users, like police officials. Apart from carrying personal details like photo, age, address and fingerprints, the MNIC will contain a National Identity Number, which will be unique to the individual.

The other challenge is to computerize the civil registration system across the country so that all births and deaths are entered into the population register.

SPACE RESEARCHTraces of ancient lake on MarsUS researchers have uncovered traces of an ancient lake on Mars boosting hopes of discovering evidence that billions of years ago the Red planet hosted life. The lake, which dates back some 3.4 billion years, appears to have covered as much as 207 sq kilometres and was up to 500 metres deep. The identification of the shorelines and accompanying geological evidence has allowed researchers to calculate the size and volume of the lake. Analysis of the images has shown the water carved out the canyon in which it was found, which then opened out into a valley, depositing sediment which formed a delta.

History of Andhra Pradesh

The study of history reveals that major portion of the southern India (Dakshina Padham) was extended by Andhra region. Several dynasties ruled over this part of the country.

Historically the earliest mention of the Andhras appeared in the Aitareya Brahmana (B.C.800).

It was called Dakshina Padh during those days. Historians felt that Andhras, Pulindas, Sabaras, and many other sects lived in Dakshina Padh. But it is only in the Mauryan age that one gets historical evidence of the Andhras as a political power in the southeastern Deccan. Megasthenese, who visited the Court of Chandragupta Maurya (B.C.322--297), mentioned that Andhra country had 30 fortified towns and an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. Buddhist books reveal that Andhras established their kingdoms on the Godavari belt at that time. Asoka referred in his 13th rock edict that Andhras were his subordinates.

Ancient Period

Satavahanas

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history of the Andhras, as a continuous account of political and cultural events, commences with the rise of the Satavahanas as a political power. According to Matsya Purana there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They ruled over the Andhradesa including Deccan for about 400 years from the 2nd century B.C. to beyond the 2nd century A.D. Satavahanas were also called Salivahanas and Satakarnis. In the 3rd century B.C., Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, unified the various Andhra principalities into one kingdom and became its ruler (271 B.C. -- 248 B.C.). Dharanikota near Amaravati in Guntur district was the first capital of Simukha, but later he shifted his capital to Pratishtana (Paithan in Aurangabad district).

Satakarni II, the sixth ruler of the dynasty (184 B.C.) was an able ruler who extended his kingdom to the west by conquering Malwa. According to inscriptional evidence, he extended the boundaries of his realm far into central India across the Vindhyas, perhaps up to the river Ganges. He ruled for a long period of 56 years. The long reign of Satakarni II was followed successively by eight rulers of whom none can be credited with any notable achievement. It was the accession of Pulumavi I that brought renewed strength and glory to their kingdom. He struck down the last of the Kanva rulers, Susarman, in 28 B.C. and occupied Magadha. The Satavahanas thus assumed an all-India significance as imperial rulers in succession to the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear to have been driven, by the Sakas, out of Maharashtra back to their home land in Andhra. The only silver lining in that murky atmosphere was the excellent literary work, Gathasaptasati, of Hala, the 17th Satavahana king.

It was during the time of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the 23rd ruler of this dynasty, who ascended the throne in A.D.62, their kingdom made a sharp recovery of the lost territories from the western Kshatrapas. A Nasik record describes him as the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas. His kingdom included the territories of Asika, Assaka, Mulaka, Saurashtra, Kukura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti, and the mountainous regions of Vindhya, Achavata, Pariyatra, Sahya, Kanhagiri, Siritana, Malaya, Mahendra, Sata and Chakora, and extended as far as seas on either side. Though some of the mountains mentioned in the inscription cannot be identified at present, it is clear that Gautamiputra's kingdom covered not only the peninsular India, but also the southern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. He passed away in A.D.86, and his successors witnessed the dismemberment of their far flung empire. Pulumavi II succeeded Gautamiputra and ruled for 28 years. In spite of serious efforts put forth by him to safeguard the frontiers of his vast empire, the closing years of his reign witnessed the decline of the Satavahana authority. Yajnasri Satakarni's accession to the throne in A.D.128 brought matters to a crisis. He came into conflict with the Saka Satrap, Rudradamana, and suffered defeat, and consequently, lost all his western possessions. However, he continued to rule till A.D.157 over a truncated dominion. His ship-marked coins suggest extensive maritime trade during his days. With him passed away the age of the great Satavahanas and by the end of the 2nd century A.D., the rule of the Satavahanas was a matter of past history.

There were different opinions about their capital. Some argue that Srikakulam in Krishna district was their capital. Evidences show that Dharanikota in Guntur district, Dharmapuri in Karimnagar district and Paithan in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra State were used as capitals at various periods.

The Deccan, during this period, was an emporium of inland and maritime trade. The region between the rivers of Godavari and Krishna was full of ports and throbbing with activity. There was plentiful currency to facilitate trade and the Telugus entered upon a period of great industrial, commercial and maritime activity.

Buddhism flourished throughout the period and at the same time the rulers were devoted to Vedic ritualism. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. The Stupa at Amaravati is known for its architecture par excellence. Satavahanas were not only the able rulers but were also lovers of literacy and architecture. The 17th ruler of this dynasty, Hala was himself a great poet and his ``Gathasaptasati'' in Prakrit was well received by all. Gunadhya, the minister of Hala was the author of ``Brihatkadha''.

The decline and fall of the Satavahana empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish dynasties. During the period from A.D.180 to A.D.624, Ikshvakus, Brihatphalayanas, Salankayanas, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms. Such instability continued to prevail until the rise of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Important among them were the Ikshvakus. The Puranas mention them as the Sriparvatiyas. The present Nagarjunakonda was then known as Sriparvata and Vijayapuri, near it, was their capital. They patronised Buddhism, though they followed the vedic ritualism. After the Ikshvakus, a part of the Andhra region north of the river Krishna was ruled over by Jayavarma of Brihatphalayana gotra. Salankayanas ruled over a part of the East Coast with Vengi as their capital. Next to rule were the Vishnukundins who occupied the territory between the Krishna and Godavari. It is believed that their capital was Indrapura, which can be identified with the modern Indrapalagutta in Ramannapet taluk of Nalgonda district. By A.D.514, the land north of the Godavari, known, as Kalinga became independent. The area south of the Krishna fell to the share of the Pallavas, who ruled from Kanchi. The Vakatakas occupied the present Telangana. This state of affairs continued with few changes up to the beginning of the 7th century A.D.

Buddhism continued, though in a decadent form during this period. Mahayanism gave wide currency to the belief that the installation and worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images, and the erection of stupas conferred great merit. The Madhyamika School of thought in Mahayana was propounded by Nagarjuna. Sanskrit came to occupy the place of Prakrit as the language of inscriptions. The Vishnukundins extended patronage to architecture and sculpture. The cave temples at Mogalrajapuram and Undavalli near Vijayawada bear testimony to their artistic taste.

The period of Andhra history, between A.D.624 and A.D.1323, spanning over seven centuries, is significant for the sea-change it brought in all spheres of the human activity; social, religious, linguistic and literary. During this period, Desi, the indigenous Telugu language, emerged as a literary medium overthrowing the domination of Prakrit and Sanskrit. As a result, Andhradesa achieved an identity and a distinction of its own as an important constituent of Indian Cultural set-up.

This change was brought by strong historical forces, namely, the Eastern and Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the early Cholas. Kakatiyas came to power during the later half of this period and extended their rule over the entire Telugu land with the exception of a small land in the northeast. Arts, crafts, language and literature flourished under their benevolent patronage.

Eastern Chalukyas

This dynasty was a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami. Pulakesin II, the renowned ruler of Chalukyas conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in A.D.624 and installed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana (A.D.624--641) as its ruler. His dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana extended his dominions up to Srikakulam in the north and Nellore in the south. He was succeeded by his son Jayasimha I (A.D.641--673). Between A.D.641 and A.D.705 some kings, except Jayasimha I and Mangi Yuvaraju, (A.D.681--705) ruled for short duration. Then followed a period of unrest characterised by family feuds and weak rulers. In the meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed ousted Chalukyas of Badami. The weak rulers of Vengi had to meet the challenge of the Rashtrakutas, who overran their kingdom more than once. There was no

Eastern Chalukya ruler who could check them until Gunaga Vijayaditya came to power in A.D.848. He also failed to face the Rashtrakutas, and the then Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha treated him as his ally. After Amoghavarsha's death, Vijayaditya proclaimed independence. He started on a campaign to the south and achieved some notable success. He ruled for 44 years and passed away in A.D.892. He was succeeded by his brother's son, Chalukya Bhima (A.D.892--921). Rashtrakutas again attacked the Vengi kingdom during this period but were repulsed effectively by Vengi and came to an understanding with Rashtrakutas and treated them as his allies. They were able to maintain their independence till the Chalukyas of Kalyani in A.D.973 overthrew the Rashtrakutas.

Contemporaries to the Eastern Chalukyas were the Eastern Gangas in the northeast and the Pallavas in the south.

The Eastern Gangas appeared in the political scene towards the close of the 5th century A.D. as rulers of Orissa. The first known ruler of this dynasty was Indravarma (6th century A.D.). He had his capital at Dantapura, but later shifted to Kalinganagara (Mukhalingam in Srikakulam district). The Gangas ruled with their capital in Andhra for nearly five centuries, until it was shifted to Cuttack at the end of the 11th century A.D. The early Eastern Gangas were ruling a small territory in Srikakulam district in the Telugu land.

The Pallava rule, which was earlier eclipsed by the onslaught of the Kalabhras, was revived during the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. by Simhavishnu, a scion of the Pallava ruling family and was firmly established at Kanchi. This new dynasty of the Pallavas is known as the `Greater Pallavas' or the `Later Pallavas' dynasty. The earliest Pallava ruler was Virakurcha and the most famous of them was Trilochana Pallava. An inscription noticed at Manchikallu, near Macherla in Guntur district is the earliest epigraphical record of the Pallava family. The entire territory south of the Krishna held sway over by Mahendravarman (A.D.600--630), son of Simhavishnu of the Later Pallavas. From the 7th century A.D. onwards, the Pallavas has to face the expanding Chalukya power. The conflict continued for a long time with varying degrees of success. But the extermination of the Chalukyas of Badami by the Rashtrakutas gave respite to the Pallavas to consolidate their power. The Pallavas continued till the end of the 9th century A.D., when a new power, the Cholas of Tanjore, displaced them and occupied Kanchipuram.

Among the minor Chalukya families that ruled parts of Andhra, those of Vemulavada (presently in Karimnagar district) are the most important. Their rule extended over the present-day Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts. As subordinate rulers loyal to the Rashtrakutas, they ruled with semi-independent status for about two centuries (A.D.755--968). The rule of the Vemulavada Chalukyas coincided with that of the Rashtrakutas. One peculiarity with this family is that it traced its descent from the Sun, while many other Chalukya families considered themselves as of lunar descent.

The Cholas attained the status of a major power in south India under the valiant leadership of Rajaraja I (A.D.985--1016). Two rebel princes of the Eastern Chalukya family sought refuge in his court. Rajaraja I utilised the claim of one of these princes, Saktivarma, as a pretext for intervening in the affairs of Vengi. He was successful in seating Saktivarma on the throne of Vengi and, from that time, the Eastern Chalukyas played a role subservient to the Cholas. But the Telugu country became a cockpit of battles between the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani who supported a rival claimant to the throne of the Vengi each time. An Eastern Chalukya Prince, Rajendra, occupied the Chola throne in A.D. 1070 under the name of Kulottunga I. Nevertheless, Vijayaditya VII, a cousin of Rajaraja, continued to rule over Vengi till his death in A.D.1076 when the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.

The Eastern Chalukyas occupied a prominent place in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Though they were originally of Kannada stock, they patronised Telugu and gave fillip to it. Since the time of Gunaga Vijayaditya, inscriptions show Telugu stanzas, culminating in the production of literary works. Later on, in the 11th century under the patronage of the then Eastern Chalukya king, Rajaraja, the great epic, `Mahabharata' was translated partly by his court poet, Nannaya.

At the time of Chalukya conquest three religions, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, were prevalent. Of these, Buddhism was on the wane. The Buddhist Aramas were transformed into pilgrim centres by the resurgent Hinduism. Jainism lingered on, and an appreciable section of the people paid homage to the Tirthankaras. Hinduism enjoyed the status of a national religion throughout the kingdom. Temples were built which played an important role in the religious life of the people and the temples of Siva at Chalukya Bhimavaram and Draksharama are among them.

The 12th century A.D. was a period of chaos. The Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, who were at first successful in overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas, were driven out after 17 years by the Imperial Cholas with the help of local chiefs. But the latter did not rule directly and thought it prudent to leave the kingdom to the feudatories themselves in lieu of nominal allegiance. The Velanati Cholas of Tsandavolu (Guntur district) were the foremost among the feudatories. Between A.D.1135 and 1206, several minor dynasties ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh recognising the authority of the Velanati Cholas nominally. The chiefs of these dynasties fought amongst themselves, and one such struggle among them was the `Palnati Yuddham'.

Medieval Period

Kakatiyas

The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the Kakatiyas. They were at first the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a small territory near Warangal. A ruler of this dynasty, Prola II, who ruled from A.D.1110 to 1158, extended his sway to the south and declared his independence. His successor Rudra (A.D.1158--1195) pushed the kingdom to the north up to the Godavari delta. He built a fort at

Warangal to serve as a second capital and faced the invasions of the Yadavas of Devagiri. The next ruler Mahadeva extended the kingdom to the coastal area. In A.D.1199, Ganapati succeeded him. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He put an end to the rule of the Velanati Cholas in A.D.1210. He forced the Telugu Cholas of Vikramasimhapura to accept his suzerainty. He established order in his vast dominion and encouraged trade.

As Ganapati Deva had no sons, his daughter Rudramba succeeded him in A.D.1262 and carried on the administration. Some generals, who did not like to be ruled by her, rebelled. She could, however, suppress the internal rebellions and external invasions with the help of loyal subordinates. The Cholas and the Yadavas suffered such set backs at her hands that they did not think of troubling her for the rest of her rule.

Prataparudra succeeded his grandmother Rudramba in A.D.1295 and ruled till A.D.1323. He pushed the western border of his kingdom up to Raichur. He introduced many administrative reforms. He divided the kingdom into 75 Nayakships, which was later adopted and developed by the Rayas of Vijayanagara. In his time the territory constituting Andhra Pradesh had the first experience of a Muslim invasion. In A.D.1303, the Delhi Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army to plunder the kingdom. But Prataparudra defeated them at Upparapalli in Karimnagar district. In A.D. 1310, when another army under Malik Kafur invaded Warangal, Prataparudra yielded and agreed to pay a large tribute. In A.D.1318, when Ala-ud-din Khilji died, Prataparudra withheld the tribute. It provoked another invasion of the Muslims. In A.D.1321, Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country then called Tilling. He laid siege to Warangal, but owing to internal dissensions he called off the siege and returned to Delhi. Within a short period, he came back with a much bigger army. In spite of unpreparedness, Prataparudra fought bravely. For want of supplies, he surrendered to the enemy who sent him to Delhi as a prisoner, and he died on the way. Thus ended the Kakatiya rule, opening the gates of the Telugu land to anarchy and confusion yielding place to an alien ruler.

The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant role in the defence of the realm. Anumakonda and Gandikota among the `giridurgas', Kandur and Narayanavanam among the `vanadurgas', Divi and Kolanu among the `jaladurgas', and Warangal and Dharanikota among the `sthaladurgas' were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the Kakatiya period. The administration of the kingdom was organized with accent on the military.

Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the masses, intellectuals favoured revival of Vedic rituals. They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of Harihara. Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories. Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of the Mahabharata which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied north, received

encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself a writer and he encouraged other literature.

The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through religious art. Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture where due. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly to Siva, reveal in their construction a happy blending of the styles of North India and South India which influenced the political life of the Deccan.

The most important of these temples are those at Palampeta, Hanamkonda and the incomplete one in the Warangal fort. The temple at Palampeta, described as the `brightest gem in the galaxy of Medieval Deccan temple architecture', was constructed by Recherla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya Ganapati, in S.1135 (A.D.1213). The figures in the temple are of a heterogeneous character comprising gods, goddesses, warriors, acrobats, musicians, mithuna pairs in abnormal attitudes and dancing girls. The sculptures, especially of the dancing girls, possess the suggestion of movement and pulsating life. A striking peculiarity of this temple is the figure-brackets which spring from the shoulders of the outer pillars of the temple. The figure-brackets are mere ornaments and represent the intermediate stage between their earlier analogues at Sanchi and the later examples at Vijayanagara.

The Thousand-Pillared Temple at Hanamkonda, built by the Kakatiya king Rudra in A.D.1162, is similar in style and workmanship to the Ramappa temple. This temple, dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Surya, is star-shaped. The Nandi pavilion, in which a huge granite bull still stands, the beautiful entrances to the shrine, the pierced slabs used for screens and windows, and the elegant open work by which the bracket-shafts are attached to the pillars are the other most interesting features of this temple.

The temple in the Warangal fort, believed to have been built by Kakatiya Ganapati, was constructed making use of large slabs. The floor of the shrine is beautifully polished and shines like a mirror. An interesting feature of this temple is the four gateways called `Kirti Stambhas' which face the four cardinal points of the compass. In their design the gateways are reminiscent of the `toranas' of the Great Stupa at Sanchi. The architecture and sculpture of these temples are thus conventional to a degree but no one can deny their magnificence nor can any one fail to see the rich imagination, patient industry and skilful workmanship of the builders of the temples of the Kakatiya period.

After the fall of Kakatiyas, uncertainty prevailed over the region. Several small kingdoms came into existence, Musunuri Nayakas occupied Warangal from Muslims and ruled between A.D.1325--1368. The fall of Kakatiya kingdom and its annexation to the Tughlak empire made the Hindu feudatories to unite themselves to liberate the Andhra country from alien rulers. A movement was started at Rekapalli on the bank of the Godavari under the leadership of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and his cousin Kapaya Nayaka and succeeded in driving away the Muslims from the Telugu country in A.D.1328. Kapaya Nayaka became the ruler in A.D.1333, after the demise of Prolaya Nayaka, and Warangal was once again the capital of the Telugu Country. They were

dethroned by Recherla Chiefs and ruled the entire Telangana from A.D.1325 to 1474 with Rachakonda as their capital. The coastal area was ruled by the Reddis of Kondavidu between A.D.1325 and 1424. Addanki was their first capital which was later shifted to Kondavidu. There was also another branch of Reddis at Rajahmundry. In due course, Reddi kingdom disappeared in the hands of Vijayanagar kings, and Gajapatis of Orissa in the frequent battles with each other. The Gajapatis of Orissa with Cuttack as their capital extended their territory far into Telugu land by conquering the Reddis of Rajahmundry in A.D.1448. They also occupied some parts of the Bahmani kingdom. But, Vijayanagar king, Krishnadevaraya, occupied the entire Telugu region that was in the possession of Gajapatis.

The Reddis and Recherla chiefs were the patrons of learning. The renowned poet Srinatha, and one of the three great poets who wrote the Mahabharata in Telugu, Errapraggada lived in that age.

Bahmanis

The disastrous fall of Warangal in A.D.1323 brought the Andhras, for the first time in their history, under the yoke of an alien ruler, the Muslims. In A.D.1347 an independent Muslim State, the Bahmani kingdom was established in south India by Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu by revolting against the Delhi Sultanate. To stabilise his position, Hasan waged wars to annexe the two neighbouring Hindu kingdoms, Warangal, under the Musunuri Nayakas, and Vijayanagar, which was under the Rayas. He occupied the area up to the river Tungabhadra in A.D.1358, and shifted his capital from Daulatabad to Gulbarga. The Hindu rulers, however, reoccupied their lost territory during the period between A.D.1358--75. Harihara Raya II of Vijayanagar conquered many areas which were under the Bahmanis during the period of Muhammad Shah II (A.D.1378-1397). The successors of Muhammad Shah II, who were also hostile to Rayas of Vijayanagar, waged wars against them. But they were defeated by the Vijayanagar armies. During the reign of Muhammad III (A.D.1463--82), the Bahmanis, for the first time, extended their empire from sea to sea and thereby got into their possession a large part of the Telugu area, namely, the area north of the Krishna up to the coast and the present Guntur district. By the end of the 15th century the Bahmani rule was plagued with faction fights and there came into existence the five Shahi kingdoms, the Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahis of Bijapur, the Imadshahis of Berar, the Qutbshahis of Golconda and the Baridshahis of Bidar. Thereafter, the rule of the Bahmani dynasty came to an end in A.D.1527. Of the five Shahi dynasties, it was the Qutbshahi dynasty that played a significant and notable role in the history of Andhras.

Vijayanagar

The year A.D.1336 saw the emergence of a new power, the kingdom of Vijayanagar in the south-western part of Andhra on the banks of the Tungabhadra. It was founded by two Sangama brothers, Harihara and Bukka, with the blessings of a great saint patriot of medieval India, Vidyaranya, and Harihara became its first ruler. It was that great

kingdom which, by resisting the onslaughts of Muslims, championed the cause of Hindu civilisation and culture in its polity, its learning and arts.

The two brothers took possession of Kampili from Hoyasala ruler of Karnataka, Ballala III. They later established a new city on the southern bank of Tungabhadra, opposite Anegondi, and gave a name to it as Vijayanagar or Vidyanagar. They expanded their territory by occupying the Udayagiri fort in the Nellore region and Penukonda fort from Hoyasalas. Meanwhile the Bahmani Kingdom came into existence in the Deccan. In the conflicts between the Bahmanis and Vijayanagar, Harihara-I lost some territory. After his death in A.D.1355, his brother Bukkaraya succeeded him. On account of frequent wars with Bahmanis, Bukka could not do anything in the initial period, however, he conquered Madhura and extended his territory to the south up to Rameswaram. Harihara II (A.D.1377--1404), who ascended the throne after Bukkaraya, consolidated and its frontiers further extended. During this time coastal Andhra lying between Nellore and Kalinga was under the Reddis of Kondavidu. Harihara II carried on campaign, for gaining control over the territory, against the Reddis and wrested Addanki and Srisailam areas from the Reddis. This led to clashes with the Velamas of Rachakonda in Telangana. To counter attack, Rachakonda sought help from Bahmanis and this checkmated Harihara II from proceeding further into Telangana. The extension of Vijayanagar territory towards northwest gave it control over the ports of Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol and led to an expansion of commerce and ensuing prosperity.

In the dispute between sons, after the death of Harihara II, Devaraya I (A.D.1406--422) emerged victorious and ascended the throne only to wage wars against the Bahmanis, the Velamas of Telangana and the Reddis of Kondavidu. His reign also saw the commencement of hostilities between the Gajapatis of Kalinga and the Rayas of Vijayanagar. Devaraya I passed away in A.D.1422. His sons, Ramachandraraya and Vijayaraya I, who ruled one after the other, did not do anything significant.

The next ruler, Devaraya II (A.D.1426-1446), son of Vijayaraya, was a great monarch. He effected the conquest of Kondavidu and carried his arms into Kerala, subjugating the ruler of Quilon and other chieftains. The writings of Abdul Razzak, the Persian ambassador, who visited south India during the reign of Devaraya II, bear testimony to the supremacy of the king over many ports of south India. According to him, the dominions of Devaraya II extended from Ceylon to Gulbarga and from Orissa to Malbar. The relations between the Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms continued to be hostile during the reign of Devaraya II also. Devaraya was a great builder and a patron of poets. Extensive commerce and revenues from various sources contributed to the prosperity of the Vijayanagar kingdom under him.

But the kings who succeeded Devaraya II were quite incompetent and allowed the empire to disintegrate. To add to this, there was pressure from Bahmani Sultans. The Portuguese were also rapidly trying to establish themselves on the west coast and in the ports along it.

The Vijayanagar minister, Saluva Narasimha, who usurped the throne in A.D.1485 could successfully counter these forces. Thus the Saluva line of kings came to rule Vijayanagar. However, he had to spend a good deal of his time and energy putting down many rebel chieftains. He died in A.D.1490 leaving his two sons to the care of Narasanayaka of the Tuluva family, a trusted general. Narasanayaka assumed himself the power as a regent in A.D.1492 keeping the real rule under tutelage. Narasanayaka died in A.D.1503 and by that time he had established his authority effectively over the whole of his extensive dominion. His son, Vira Narasimha, succeeded him as the regent and proclaimed himself as a ruler in A.D.1506, thus inaugurating the third dynasty. He died in A.D.1509 and his brother, Krishnadevaraya, succeeded him.

The period of Krishnadevaraya was considered as the golden age of the Vijayanagar history. He was a great warrior, statesman, administrator and a patron of arts. His first task was to repulse the Bahmanis. He occupied Raichur doab, carried the war up to Gulbarga and returned successfully. He extended his dominion in the east and north-east by defeating the Gajapatis of Orissa in A.D.1518.

Krishna Devaraya died in A.D.1529. After his death, Vijayanagar kingdom started declining gradually. There was a tussle for power and the rulers spent their time in struggle against internal revolts. The five Muslim rulers in Deccan kingdom, took this opportunity, united and formed a league and marched towards Vijayanagar with combined forces. In a decisive battle fought on the 23rd January, 1565 on the south bank of the Krishna near the village of Rakkasi Tangadi, Vijayanagar was defeated and Ramaraya, who led the Vijayanagar armies, was killed. Tirumalaraya, the younger brother of Ramaraya, along with his puppet ruler, Sadasivaraya fled to Penukonda in Anantapur district with all the treasure. The victorious armies of Muslims then marched towards Vijayanagar. Uninhibited looting of the city by the Muslim rulers as well as the ruthless robbers went on for days together. Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been brought and wrought on such a splendid city teening with a wealthy and industrious population in prosperity one day and on the next seized, pillaged and reduced to ruins amid scenes of savage measures and horrors beggaring description.

Tirumalaraya after reaching Penukonda ruled for some time and tried his best to rebuild the empire but failed. The last ruler of Vijayanagar dynasty was Sriranga (A.D.1642--1681).

The Rayas of Vijayanagar regarded all sects of Hindus alike, built temples to Siva and Vishnu and patronised them by lavish grants. They patronised even Jains and Muslims. The Vijayanagar architecture fused various elements of the Chalukya and Chola art, and produced extremely beautiful gopuras and mantapas. The most typical of them can be found at Tirupati, Tadpatri, Srikalahasti and Penukonda. The Tadpatri and Lepakshi temples are the notable examples of Vijayanagar architecture and sculpture.

Telugu language and literature was given a preferential treatment and Telugu was treated as official language of the empire. Simultaneously, Sanskrit and other languages were encouraged by the Vijayanagar rulers. The renowned Telugu poet Srinatha was honoured

with Kanakabhisheka by Proudhadevaraya of the first dynasty of the rulers. Particularly, the reign of Krishnadevaraya marked a new era in the literary history of south India. He was himself a scholar and authored Amuktamalyada, a celebrated Telugu work. His court known as Bhuvanavijayam, was adorned by such eminent poets like Allasani Peddana, Nandi Timmana, Dhurjati, Tenali Ramakrishna, Mallana, Ramarajabhushana, Pingali Surana and Rudra, known as Ashtadiggajas. The greatest of them was Allasani Peddana whose famous work Manucharitra heralded the eminence of the native genius of Telugus.

Qutb Shahis

The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis faithfully and was appointed governor of Telangana in A.D.1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah, in A.D.1518. During his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended his kingdom upto Machilipatnam. He was murdered by his third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli. Jamsheed reigned for seven years till A.D.1550 but remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime. His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly thirteen at the time of his father's assassination, fled to Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him a training ground and he learned the art of administration.

After Jamsheed's death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim returned to Golconda and ascended the throne. Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who was known as Malkibharam in the Andhra country, was the real architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to A.D.1580. He organised the central and provincial governments and brought them into close contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service which kept him informed on all affairs. The kingdom was made safe for travel and trade. Ibrahim had also many works of public utility to his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars and poets like, Telaganarya and Gangadhara who dedicated their works to him.

Ibrahim took an active part in the battle of Rakkasi Tangadi in A.D.1565. It immensely benefited him in cash and territories, and the kingdom was extended to the south as far as Madras and Gandikota.

The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim's son and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. Muhammad Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great writer and a builder. The city of Hyderabad was laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent buildings, straight roads and other civic amenities. For this purpose, he invited many Persians to settle down in Hyderabad and Machilipatnam. He was a scholar and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the Deccani language. Muhammad Quli was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in A.D.1612. He was highly religious and a model of virtue and piety. He followed his uncle in promoting learning and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad was designed and its foundation laid by him, though the main structure of the Mosque was completed during the next four generations.

Sultan Muhammad's premature death in A.D.1626 was a sad prelude to the decline and fall of Golconda. He was succeeded by his minor son, Abdullah Qutb Shah, who was indolent. The fall of Ahmadnagar in A.D.1633 to the Mughals exposed Golconda. Abdullah Qutb Shah acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mughals and concluded a treaty in A.D.1636. He was reduced to vassalage and the Mughal Hajib, a resident officer of the Mughals imposed on him, interfered in day-to-day administration and encouraged fissiparous tendencies. The traitors of Golconda found their strength in the Mughals who did not hesitate to invade Golconda.

Abdullah Qutb Shah died in A.D.1672 and was succeeded by his third son-in-law, Abul Hassan Qutb Shah, popularly known as Tana Shah. He had a steady mind, broader vision and administrative experience of a high order. He handled the domestic and foreign affairs deftly and put forth all his efforts against the Mughal tide.

Abul Hassan and his kingdom were misrepresented by false propaganda to justify the interference of the Mughal emperor who contemplated to liquidate the Deccan Sultanates and incorporate it in the Mughal empire. The emperor came to the Deccan in A.D.1682 and launched his campaign against both the Marathas and the Deccan Sultanates. His original plan was to put down the Maratha power, but later on, he suspended the plan and directed his forces against Bijapur and Golconda in A.D.1685. Bijapur fell in after two months' siege. But Golconda held out for a long time. It came to an abrupt end owing to the treachery of an Afghan general, Abdullah Khan, who opened the gate in the dead of night and facilitated the capture of the fort. The equanimity with which Abul Hassan Tana Shah had faced the Mughal captors and the unequalled loyalty of Abdul Razak Lari, who remained faithful to his king, Tana Shah, are of special significance.

The fall of Golconda in A.D.1687 had far reaching consequences. It halted the face of cultural progress for years and relaxed the administrative grip on the English Company at Machilipatnam and Madras. So long as the kingdom was powerful in the south, the king Abul Hassan and his Minister, Madanna, kept their constant vigil on the English merchants.

Qutb Shahi rulers adopted religious tolerance. They treated Hindus equal with Muslims as well and maintained cordial relations between the two throughout. They encouraged the local language Telugu besides the Deccani Urdu. They patronised scholars and awarded them titles and Jagirs. The builder of Hyderabad, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was an eminent poet in Persian and was an author of several Persian works. The fourth king, Ibrahim was a great patron of Telugu. His court was crowded with Telugu poets besides many others. The rulers adopted the local customs to a great extent. This tolerance and patronage of the kings were followed by the nobles as well. Ramadas (Goppanna), a great devotee of Sri Rama who lived in the period of Abul Hassan, wrote a number of poetical works and songs in praise of his deity.

The Deccani architecture, is a combination of Persian, Hindu and Pathan styles. They mostly borrowed heavily from Hindu style of architecture. The Bala Hissar gate of the Golconda fort is remarkable for the figures and emblems of Hindu mythology.

The citadel of Hyderabad, the Charminar is the most remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi monuments. It is one of the magnificent structures in India.

The socio-cultural life of the people during the rule of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of broad-mindedness and catholicity based on sharing and adopting of mutual traditions and customs.

The Mughal Rule

Aurangazeb, the Mughal emperor, invaded Golconda in A.D.1687 and annexed it to the Mughal empire. When this was done, Golconda became part of the Deccan Subha and a Nazim was appointed as an agent of the Mughal emperor. Thus, for about a period of 35 years it was ruled by Nazims, the last one being Mubariz Khan.

The period between A.D.1687 and A.D.1724 saw several sea changes. Aurangazeb died in A.D.1707. The administrative machinery of the Mughal imperial regime began to crumble and the central authority manned by successive feeble rulers gradually lost control over the provinces. In Deccan, situated far away from the capital, the state of affairs was still worse. This anarchy contributed much in giving a new turn to Indian history. It enabled two foreign mercantile companies to consolidate themselves as political powers capable of subsequently playing decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation. They were the East India Company of England and the Compagnie de Inde Orientale of France. These trading companies had their headquarters at Madras and Pondicherry respectively and both had trade centres at Machilipatnam. They were waiting for suitable opportunities to expand their areas of control and so, did not hesitate to take sides in the local skirmishes.

Modern Period

Asaf Jahis

The founder of this dynasty was one Mir Kamaruddin, a noble and a courtier of the Mughal Muhammad Shah, who negotiated for a peace treaty with Nadirshah, the Iranian invader; got disgusted with the intrigues that prevailed in Delhi. He was on his way back to the Deccan, where, earlier he was a Subedar. But he had to confront Mubariz Khan, as a result of a plot by the Mughal emperor to kill the former. Mubariz Khan failed in his attempt and he was himself slain. This took place in A.D.1724, and henceforth Mir Kamaruddin, who assumed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk, conducted himself as an independent prince. Earlier, while he was one of the Ministers of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, the latter conferred on him the title of Asaf Jah. Thus begins the Asaf Jahi rule over Golconda with the capital at Aurangabad. It was only during Nizam II rule that the capital of the Deccan Subha was shifted to Hyderabad reviving its importance.

The Asafjahi Nizams are generally counted as seven, though they were ten. Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung, son and grandson of the Nizam I who were killed by the Kurnool and Cuddapah Nawabs and Salabatjung who also ruled for a decade, were not counted by the

historians though the Mughal emperors at Delhi recognised them as Subedars of the Deccan.

The Nizams of Asafjahi dynasty who ruled the Deccan are the following:

(1) Mir Kamaruddin (Nizam-ul-Mulk - Asaf Jah I) (A.D.1724--1748), (2) Nasir Jung (A.D. 1748--1751), (3) Muzaffar Jung (A.D.1750--1751), (4) Salabat Jung (AD.1751--1761), (5) Nizam Ali Khan - Asaf Jah II (A.D.1762--1803), (6) Nizam III Sikandar Jah (A.D.1803--1829), (7) Nizam IV -- Nasir-ud-Daula (A.D.1829--1857), (8) Nizam V -- Afzal-ud-Daula (A.D.1857--1869), (9) Nizam VI -- Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (A.D.1869--1911), and (10) Nizam VII -- Mir Osman Ali Khan (AD.1911--1948 September).

Though Hyderabad was founded in A.D.1590--91 and built by Muhammad Quli, the fifth king of the Qutbshahi dynasty, it was a princely capital under them. The pomp and peagantry of the fabulous Asafjahi Nizams gained an all-India importance as well as World wide recognition. The rule of the Nizams lasted not only for a much longer period from A.D.1724 to 1948 but also concerned a large territory with diverse language groups that came under their sway.

The authority of the founder of the State of Hyderabad, Asafjah I, extended from Narmada to Trichinapally and from Machilipatnam to Bijapur. During the period of Afzal-ud-Daula (A.D.1857--1869) it was estimated to be 95,337 sq.miles (2,46,922.83 sq.kms.), forming a lateral square of more than 450 miles (724.17 kms.) each way.

After Nizam I, Asaf Jah, died in A.D.1748, there was tussle for power among his son, Nasar Jung, and grandson Muzaffar Jung. The English supported Nasar Jung whereas Muzaffar Jung got support from the French. These two heirs were subsequently killed by Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah, one after another, in A.D.1750 and AD.1751 respectively. The third son of Nizam I, Salabat Jung became the ruler as Nizam under the support of the French.

Hostilities recommenced in India between the French and the English in AD.1758 on the outbreak of Seven Years War in Europe in A.D.1756. As a result, the French lost their power in India and consequently it also lost influence at Hyderabad. In A.D.1762 Nizam Ali Khan dislodged Salabat Jung and proclaimed himself as Nizam.

Hyderabad came into focus again when Nizam Ali Khan (Nizam II) in A.D.1763 shifted the capital of the Deccan from Aurangabad to Hyderabad. Such a move helped rapid economic growth and expansion of the city, resulting in its importance and prosperity.

Between A.D.1766 and A.D.1800, Nizam's sovereignty had declined considerably and the British gained their authority over the Nizams by compelling the latter to sign six treaties.

In A.D.1766, the Nizam signed a treaty with the British, whereby in return for the Northern Circars, the British agreed to furnish Nizam Ali Khan with a subsidiary force as and when required and to pay Rs.9 lakhs per annum when the assistance of the troops was not required in lieu of Northern Circars to be ceded to them. In A.D.1768 he signed another treaty conferring the Northern Circars to the British and the payment by the British was reduced to Rs.7 lakhs. According to another treaty, he surrendered the Guntur circar in A.D.1788. In A.D.1779, the Nizam conspired with Hyder Ali of Mysore and the Peshwa of the Marathas to drive away the English. When they learnt about his designs, the English marched against the Nizam who had to sue for peace agreeing to the presence of an English Resident along with army, artillery and cavalry at Hyderabad. Through another treaty, the Nizam was compelled to disassociate himself from Hyder Ali. In A.D.1800 yet another treaty was signed by the Nizam with the British altering the earlier treaties to increase the strength of the English army in Hyderabad. In lieu of the cost of maintenance of the force, the Nizam had to cede to the company an area comprising the districts of Rayalaseema and Bellary (now in Karnataka). With this the Nizam lost not only the territory but also reputation and power.

The East India Company acquired the Nellore region comprising the present Nellore and Prakasam districts and a part of the Chittoor district from the Nawab of Arcot in A.D.1781. Together with the other parts of the territories of the Nawab, this area was merged with the then Madras Presidency of the Company in A.D.1801. Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, the Telugu land was divided into major divisions: one that came to be popularly called Telangana under the feudal rule of the Nizam, accounting approximately one-third of the entire land and the other, broadly designated as Andhra, in British India.

It was during the period of Nizam III -- Sikandar Jah (A.D.1803--1829), that the English cantonment, raised on the other side of Hussain Sagar, was named after him as Secunderabad. This township grew rapidly as the modern town with Railway station and other commercial establishments. The notable events under the rule (A.D. 1857--1869) of Nizam V, Afzal-ud-Daula, were the construction of the Afzal Gunj Bridge or the Nayapul, over the river Musi and the establishment of a General Hospital.

The modern era of the development of the twin cities began soon after the last flood of the river Musi in A.D.1908 which had shattered the life of the people living in Hyderabad. This necessitated the planned development of the city in a phased manner. Sri M.Vishweshwarayya, the great engineer of Mysore, was specially invited for this purpose and was appointed as adviser to the Nizam's Government to suggest measures for flood control and improvement of the city. As a result of his suggestion, Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar were constructed in A.D.1917. These two dams not only controlled the floods from river Musi, but also supplied drinking water to the city. These spots have also become recreational centres for many people in Hyderabad. Another step taken for the development of the city was the formation of the City Improvement Board in A.D.1912, which paid greater attention to the construction of roads, markets, housing sites and shopping centres in the city. Nizam VII, Osman Ali Khan, also moved to Kingkothi, the northern suburb of the city in A.D.1914, which helped in the development

of its surroundings. Several public utility services were commissioned in A.D.1922. Electricity was commissioned in A.D.1923. In A.D.1928 with the establishment of rail connection to Bangalore, the city was brought on the metre-gauge map of India. By A.D.1932 bus service was started in the city and in A.D.1936 the bus routes radiated from the capital to all the district headquarters. In A.D.1935, the Madras-Karachi Air Service was linked with Hyderabad with Hakimpet as landing ground.

Many buildings of utility like Legislative Assembly, Hyderabad and Secunderabad railway stations, the High Court, City College, the Asafia Library (present State Central Library), the Unani Hospital, the Osmania University, were constructed during the reign of Nizam VII.

If Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was the founder of Hyderabad City, Osman Ali Khan, the Nizam VII, can be called as the maker of modern Hyderabad, in a variety of ways. The buildings constructed during his reign are impressive and represent a rich variety of architecture, such as the magnificent Osmania University, synthesizing the modern, the medieval and the ancient styles of architecture. The sprawling Osmania General Hospital in the Mughal style, the lofty High Court in Indo-Saracenic style, the stately well-proportioned Legislative Assembly building in Saracenic-Rajasthani style, symbolize his desire to build modern and majestic Hyderabad. The engineers or the architects and craftsmen of the period have to be congratulated for their talent.

A fascinating pretty edifice in the centre of the city is the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly building, with the lawns of the Public Gardens, to form the needed premises.

The noble buildings during the Asafjahis' period were the Chow Mahalla during Nizam V, Pancha Mahal, and the Falaknuma Palace. The Falaknuma, built by Nawab Viquar-ul-Umra, a Paigha Noble in A.D.1892 at a cost of Rs.40 lakhs, has become a land mark like Charminar.

The hereditary Diwans of the Nizams, the Salar Jungs were as colourful and dazzling as their masters. The Mir Alam Tank, the Mir Alam Mandi, the Salar Jung Museum, their Devdi, the Aliya School are inalienable parts of Hyderabad.

Under the Company and the Crown

It naturally took some years for the East India Company to consolidate and stabilize its rule in the Telugu area, which came under its direct rule. In the initial stages, the Company had to counter strong resistance from the Zamindars in the coastal Andhra and the Palegars in the Rayalaseema districts, that were in existence from the ancient Hindu rulers or the medieval Muslim rulers. The Company decided to use the Zamindari system to its best advantage, entrusting the Zamindars only with collection of land revenue and taking away from them the executive and judicial powers. The Company also introduced the system of `Permanent Settlement' in A.D.1802.

In Rayalaseema, the first Principal Collector, Thomas Munro, of the ceded districts suppressed all the Palegars and established a new mode of collection of land revenue directly from the tiller of the soil in A.D.1808. This system came to be known as `Ryotwari' system.

The administrative measures taken by the Company in the rest of the Telugu land also led to similar changes in the Hyderabad State of which Telangana formed a major constituent. The famine of A.D.1777 and the devastating flood in the succeeding year greatly impoverished the State of Hyderabad and its economy was badly affected. The unwise policies of the rulers led the State on the verge of bankruptcy by neck-deep debts and the Nizam was harassed by Arab and Rohilla bankers. In such situation, the Company, through its Resident, intervened and saved the Nizam. Thus, the Nizam became a dependable friend of the Company and his support to the Company in the crucial period of the War of Independence in A.D.1857 (otherwise called Sepoy Mutiny) turned out to be decisive factor in clinching the issue in favour of the Company's rule in India. In A.D.1858 the British crown took over the reign in the entire India.

Thus, the British, who entered India in the early 17th century as a trading company, gained power as its ruler for over a century and a half.

Freedom Struggle

The role of the Andhras in the Freedom Struggle is next to that of none and they had always been in the forefront along with the rest of the countrymen. The first War of Independence in A.D.1857 did in no way affect the state of affairs in the south, though ripples were felt in the State of Hyderabad, in the shape of a raid by Rohilla and Arab soldiers against the Residency and a rebellion by the Gonds in the Adilabad district under the leadership of Ramji Gond. However, in A.D.1860, the English suppressed all these rebellions.

The rest of the 19th century passed away without any event of major importance, though occasional rebellions of the peasants here and there brought out their dissatisfaction to the forefront. The introduction of English education helped the formation of a strong educated middle class, which found security of life in the Government jobs. Agriculture became the mainstay of the people, as the cottage industries, especially the cloth industry, dwindled due to the deliberate policy of the Government to encourage British industries and trade at the expense of the indigenous ones. However, construction of dams across the Godavari and the Krishna by A.D.1852 and 1855 respectively, resulted in increasing agricultural production and helped, for a time, to cloud the real issues.

The beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence of the numerically strong, educated, confident but dissatisfied middle class, seeking equality with the white ruler. The dissatisfaction, as elsewhere, was voiced in the form of pamphleteering. The foreign government, ever vigilant in such things, sought to nip it in the bud and as a consequence of it, repressive measures were introduced. Gadicherla Hari Sarvottama Rao (1883--1960) was the first victim of the move in Andhra. He was sentenced for his seditious

article `Cruel Foreign Tiger'. The young men of Andhra had their own share in the `Vande Mataram' and `Home Rule' movements also.

But, along with this agitation, a kind of constructive work was also carried on by some fore-sighted leaders such as Kopalle Hanumantha Rao (1880--1922). Long before Gandhiji thought of the constructive programme, Hanumantha Rao founded his `Andhra Jateeya Kalasala' (National College) in Machilipatnam to train young men in techniques of modern production, as he thought that it was the surest way to win independence from an imperialist rule which cared more for its markets than anything else.

In 1920, when Gandhiji started his non-co-operation movement, it had an immediate response in Andhra. Under the leadership of eminent men like Konda Venkatappaiah (1866--1948), Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu (1872--1957), Bulusu Sambamurti (1886--1958) and Bhogaraju Pattabhi Seetaramaiah (1880--1959), the Andhra young men made many a sacrifice for the cause of the Nation. Many practicing lawyers gave up their lucrative practice and many a brilliant student gave up their studies to respond to the call of the Nation. In November, 1921, the Congress gave permission to the Provincial Committee to start Civil Disobedience if the conditions laid down by Mahatma Gandhi were fulfilled.

Three episodes during the Civil Disobedience Movement in Andhra attracted the attention of the whole country. The first was the Chirala-Perala episode led by Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya. He served for some time in the Government College at Rajahmundry and the National College at Machilipatnam. He was, however, not satisfied with the kind of education that was imparted there. Moreover, after attending the Calcutta Congress in 1920, he was attracted to the programme of Non-co-operation and resolved to dedicate his life to the achievement of Swaraj. For this purpose he trained thousand disciplined band of warriors and gave them the name `Ramadandu'. He put them to test at the All-India Congress Session in Vijayawada to maintain peace and order and the All-India leaders were immensely pleased with the kind of work they did.

Chirala and Perala were two contiguous villages in Prakasam (then part of Guntur) district with a population of 15,000. The Government wanted to combine them into a municipality in 1920. But the people protested against this move because it meant imposition of additional taxes. These protests were not headed to and the municipality was constituted. As a protest against this, all elected councilors resigned. The Government, however, carried on the administration of the municipality with a paid chairman. In January, 1921, the residents refused to pay the municipal taxes. Several of them including a woman were prosecuted, tried and sentenced to imprisonment. This woman was considered to be the first woman in the country to be imprisoned on political grounds. After the All-India Congress session at Vijayawada, Gandhiji came to Chirala. Gopalakrishnayya sought his advice on the future course of action to be taken. Gandhiji suggested two alternatives, (1) to continue the No-Tax Campaign in a non-violent manner and (2) mass exodus of people to the vacant areas beyond the municipal limits. The second would automatically end the municipality. But he made it clear that whatever course they chose the Congress would bear no responsibility and that they must stand on

their own legs. Gopalakrishnayya had enough confidence in himself and the people, and in spite of the warning, he persuaded the residents to move to the area outside the municipal limits and raise temporary tenements which he called `Ramanagar'.

It was an unprecedented step in the history of the country. For eleven months people lived there in thatched huts braving the severity of weather. Gopalakrishnayya and his Ramadandu kept up the morale of the people. Their aim was to establish a parallel government and demonstrate to the outside world how Swarajya, as conceived by him, would be like. He constituted an Assembly comprising members elected from each caste and established an arbitration court. Sankirtans and Bhajans kept up the morale of the people. He, however, faced financial difficulties and he went to Berhampore in 1921, when the Andhra Conference was in session to collect some money. There he was prohibited to address the public meetings but he defied the orders. He was arrested and sentenced to one year's imprisonment and sent to Trichinapally. There was no other person who could occupy his place. The Government also took repressive measures against those who built sheds on government lands. People returned to their homes in the municipality at the end of eleven months and reconciled themselves to its constitution. Though the movement failed, the qualities of courage and fearlessness they developed stood them in good stead in the subsequent stages of the freedom movement.

There were similar movements, though not of the same scale or character, in Repalle and Vijayawada municipalities. The Government was not obdurate and yielded to popular pressure and took steps to redress their grievances.

The next episode was the `Forest Satyagraha' of the ryots of Palnad in Guntur district in 1921. The peasants of this place had to pay heavy tax for permission to graze their cattle in forests. When the crops failed that year, they decided to send their cattle into the forests without paying the fee and suffer the penalties. They resorted to social boycott of all government officials and refused supply of even the bare necessaries of life to them. It did not produce the desired change in the attitude of the officials. They took the cattle forcibly, confined them in cattle-pounds and refused to free them unless the fee was paid. There was, therefore, clash between the cattle owners and the armed police that was brought on the scene. In the firing that took place one Kannuganti Hanumanthu was killed. Meanwhile, Gandhiji called off the Non-Co-operation Movement due to some untoward incidents at Chowri Chowra and with this the Palnad Satyagraha also came to an end.

The No-Tax Campaign at Pedanandipadu in Bapatla taluk of Guntur district was the third famous landmark. There was considerable difference of opinion between leaders like Konda Venkatappayya and Mahatma Gandhi with regard to this campaign. Gandhiji wanted to try the experiment first in Bardoli in Gujarat. The local leaders, however, tried to convince him that the conditions laid down for starting such a campaign were fulfilled by the people of this place and they were very keen on starting it. Gandhiji reluctantly gave permission to proceed with it. In January, 1922, when the first instalment of land revenue fell due, a non-payment campaign was started under the leadership of Parvataneni Virayya Chowdery. As a first step the village officers were persuaded to

resign so that no land revenue could be collected. The Revenue officials could not collect even five per cent of the demand of land revenue. Repressive measures were resorted to movables, cattle and even lands were attached for non-payment of land tax, but none was present to bid them in the auctions. Military was moved into the area to terrorise them. These did not produce any result. The volunteers worked day in and day out to maintain order and see that no untoward incident took place. Before they proceeded on further action, the movement was called off and the local leaders gave up the No-Tax Campaign, and the taxes were paid.

When the movement was called off, it left the minds of many young men sore and the disappointment took a violent turn in one instance. A rebellion broke out in the agency areas of the Northern Circars under the leadership of Alluri Sitaramaraju (1897--1923). He was a simple and unostentatious young man given to studies of spiritual importance. He was keen on the welfare of the lowly and the innocent. He contributed his mite in the days of the non-co-operation movement and later settled down among the hill tribes of the Visakhapatnam district, spending his time in spiritual practices. The misdeeds of a British contractor, who took pleasure in under-paying the workers drawn from the hill tribes, brought him into a tussle with the police who supported the contractor. This led to encounters between the police and Sitaramaraju, who was supported by the hill tribes under the leadership of the Gamu brothers. Sitaramaraju raided many police stations and carried off guns and powder. The alien Government then made use of all its resources to quell the rebellion. A company of the Assam rifles under the leadership of Saunders was sent there. The campaign lasted nearly for one year from December 1922 and, in the end, many of the followers of Raju, especially the Gamu brothers, were overpowered in an encounter. The rebellion petered off by October 1923. Raju surrendered himself, so it was said, and was shot dead without any trial.

In 1930 when Gandhiji started his salt-campaign, the broad east coast of Andhra became the venue of memorable deeds of many a young man and woman, who in spite of the severe blows of lathis, prepared salt and courted imprisonment. The tremendous awakening, which was an outcome of this movement, resulted in the rout of the parties other than the Congress in the elections of 1937.

The thirties saw the emergence of leftist organisations in Andhra which gave a fillip to the progressive trends. Meanwhile, in 1939, the British Government dragged India into World War II and the Congress ministries resigned.

From 1942, history moved with a quick and vigorous pace. The arrest of the leaders at Bombay on August 9, 1942, provoked the masses. The `Do or Die' message of the National Congress inspired the people of Andhra, who under the leadership of young but devoted workers, brought the functioning of the Government to a stand still for a few days. Many young students and workers faced the bullets cheerfully, to swell the number of those unknown, unwept, and unsung heroes of India who died to make their country live.

Events moved on quickly and, on August 15, 1947, India achieved its Independence. A new Constitution came into force from the 26th of January, 1950, which envisaged the new set-up of Government at the Centre as well as at the States by duly elected representatives from the people on an adult franchise.

The Andhras all along their fight with the British authorities, thought that the exit of the Britishers would facilitate the early formation of the Telugu areas as a separate State. But the Constituent Assembly had to decide otherwise and this proved to be a bitter pill for the Andhras to swallow.

Economic and Social Developments

The period of British rule in India forms a significant chapter in the history of the ancient land. Many aliens came to this land, conquered some parts of the territory, but were soon absorbed as natural citizens of the country. For the first time, the British (and the other European nationals) who conquered and ruled it for a considerable time remained aliens administering a colonial rule and ultimately had to return. The policy that underlined the various measures the British took in legislative, judicial and executive fields was only to tighten their grip over the country and to exploit it to the advantage of their own motherland

However, the very measures they took had, curiously enough, initiated and promoted many positive factors leading to consolidation of the Indian society and their urge for freedom. The colonial rule, of course, left the country impoverished economically, but it unified the nation, which was rudely shocked and, therefore, prepared itself for a searching introspection. This resulted in ushering in a new order, which almost displaced the old one.

As a constituent of India, Andhra region also received its share of these negative and positive forces. Andhra was noted, for a long time since the period of the Satavahanas, for its cloth industry. In spite of several political upheavals, the ports of Andhra had been busy with incoming and outgoing ships of various countries. Even in the early years of the British rule, Andhra flourished as an exporter of fine varieties of cloth, chintz, palampores, etc. Handicrafts and metal crafts also formed a part of the exports along with cloth. Narsapur, in the present-day West Godavari district, was noted for its ship-building activity and some of the Europeans also were customers at the place. There used to be a great demand for indigo, an agricultural product, available only in Andhra and in a few other parts of the country. The over-all exports were far ahead of imports in value and the region earned a lot of foreign exchange, which enabled it to withstand the severity of famines that ravaged the country often.

But the Industrial Revolution which started in England in the latter half of the 18th century, gradually affected the cottage industries of Andhra as well as those in the rest of India. England then turned out to be a manufacturing country. By the aid of machines, the English factories could manufacture finished articles at a lesser cost than those from the cottage industries. Further, the British being the rulers in the country, discouraged the

artists and craftsmen by imposing heavy taxes. As a result of these measures the once flourishing cottage industries and handicrafts of Andhra languished and gradually vanished. The finished articles that came out of the factories in England were imported into Andhra and thus began the economic drain which gradually impoverished the country and enriched Great Britain. The synthetic method of preparation of indigo by the western scientists, affected the farmers very badly. The unemployed poor artisans in the villages became agricultural labourers thus swelling the ranks of those that depended on the land.

A greater harm was caused by the `divide and rule' policy of the British. The communal virus thus injected into the political body of the country had vitiated the relations between the Hindus and the Muslims to such an extent that it forced the Indians to agree for the division of India into two independent states. Though Andhras living in the coastal and Rayalaseema districts managed to keep away from this communal divide, those living in the State of Hyderabad had to undergo a lot of suffering in 1946--48 in the wake of a fanatic struggle carried on by Razakars to carve out the Nizam's dominions as an independent Muslim-dominated State. However, the timely action by the Union Government of Free India saved the situation.

But, as mentioned earlier, some of the measures introduced by the alien rulers to safeguard their own interests proved very beneficial to Indians. The political and administrative unity brought in by the Britishers, helped the various, linguistic groups to come together and take pride in being the citizens of a great country with common cultural traditions. The rail-road, the telegraph, the telephone and the newspaper brought all those living in various corners of this vast country come together and to understand each other. This system of communication also helped the transit of goods from one place to the other and was of immense help during the times of famine.

The Britishers, wanted to keep India as a producer of raw materials and as such harnessed the rivers by constructing dams. The dam on the Godavari at Dowleswaram was constructed in 1852 and the one on the Krishna at Vijayawada in 1855. These naturally helped the farmers of the delta areas, though they could not solve the problem of poverty that tormented the people at large.

It must, however, be conceded that the foreigner's rule had resulted in a renaissance that yielded fruitful results in social and cultural fields. The introduction of English as a medium of teaching in schools is the main factor that contributed to this transformation, though it was mainly intended to train Indians for ministerial jobs. This new system of education, unlike the old traditional one, threw open the gates of the schools to all Indians irrespective of caste or creed. A certificate from such a school served as a passport for a job in the service of the Government. The Christian missionaries from England and America also played a notable part in spreading the system.

The introduction of printing press in the State in or about 1810 helped in bringing knowledge to the door-steps of the ordinary readers. As a result, educational activity in Andhra as well as in the rest of India, was influenced by European literatures, modern

sciences and democratic ideas that sprung from the knowledge. This knowledge brought out many revolutionary changes in the religious and cultural fields.

This contact with European thought enabled many Hindu leaders to reinterpret Hinduism to strengthen it to withstand the threat from the proselytisation carried on by the Christian missionaries. The reaction to it resulted in the founding of the Brahma Samaj and the Arya Samaj. At the same time, Europeans such as Anne Besant, captivated by the merits of the ancient Hindu and Buddhist thoughts, founded the Theosophical Society. All these gained some following in Andhra, especially among the educated classes.

Telugu literature also underwent a sea-change under the influence of the English writings. The credit for pioneering such a change goes to Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu. He was also responsible for bringing in many social reforms, the main thrust of which was the upliftment of the women's status.

All these revolutionary changes in social and cultural fields found their expression in the urge for freedom among people.

  Post-Independence Era

Struggle for Andhra State

The Andhras were struggling for the formation of a separate Andhra Province since the period of British, but could not succeed. When India attained Independence on the 15th of August, 1947, Andhras hoped that their long-cherished desire would be realised soon. Inspite of several renewed efforts put forth by the Andhra leaders before the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhai Patel, the desire for a separate Andhra State remained as a dream itself.

The Dar Commission, appointed by the Government of India under the Chairmanship of S.K.Dar did not recommend for the creation of States on the linguistic consideration. This report of the Commission created such an adverse reaction in Andhra that the Congress leaders felt it prudent to assuage the ruffled feelings of the Telugus. An unofficial Committee, consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaiah, popularly known as the J.V.P. Committee, was constituted by the Congress. The Committee in its report submitted to the Working Committee of the Indian National Congress in April, 1949 recommended that the creation of linguistic provinces be postponed by few years. However, it suggested that Andhra Province could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim to the city of Madras (now Chennai). This report provoked violent reaction in Andhra as the Telugus were not prepared to forego their claims to the city of Madras.

Under the prevailing situation, a Partition Committee was formed under the Chairmanship of Kumaraswami Raja, the then Chief Minister of Madras. Andhra was represented by Tanguturi Prakasam, B.Gopala Reddi, Kala Venkata Rao and N.Sanjiva Reddy. The Partition Committee could not arrive at an agreed settlement. Prakasam

disagreed with the views of other members and gave a dissenting note. The Government of India, took advantage of the dissenting note of Prakasam and shelved the issue. To express the resentment of the Andhras, Swami Sitaram (Gollapudi Sitarama Sastry), a Gandhian, undertook a fast unto death, which created an explosive situation in Andhra. However, Swami gave up his 35-day fast on the 20th of September, 1951, on the appeal made by Vinoba Bhave. Nothing came out of this fast except the increasing distrust of the people of Andhra towards their own leaders and the Government of India.

In the First General Elections of 1952, Andhras expressed their resentment towards the Congress leaders by defeating them at the polls. Out of the 140 seats from Andhra in the Madras Legislative Assembly, the Congress could secure only 43, while the Communist Party of India bagged as many as 40 seats out of the 60 it contested. In the Madras Legislative Assembly itself, the Congress could secure only 152. The non-Congress members in the legislature, numbering 164 formed themselves into a United Democratic Front (U.D.F.) and elected T.Prakasam as their leader. But the Governor nominated C.Rajagopala Chari to the Legislative Council and invited him to form the ministry.

After Rajagopala Chari became the Chief Minister of the Madras State, he tried to divert the Krishna waters by constructing Krishna-Pennar Project for the development of the Tamil area. The Andhras agitated against this as they feared that the Project spelt ruin to Andhra. The Government of India appointed an expert Committee under the Chairmanship of A.N.Khosla, who pronounced that the project in its present form should not be proceeded with and suggested the construction of a project at Nandikonda (the site of the present Nagarjunasagar Project). The report of the Khosla Committee vindicated the apprehensions of the Andhras regarding the unfriendly attitude of Rajagopala Chari's Government towards the Andhras. The desire of the Andhras to separate themselves from the composite Madras State and form their own State gained further momentum.

At this juncture, Potti Sriramulu, a self-effacing Gandhian, began his fast unto death on the 19th of October, 1952 at Madras. Though the fast created an unprecedented situation throughout Andhra, the Congress leaders and the Government of India did not pay much attention to it. On the 15th of December, 1952, Sriramulu attained martyrdom. The news of Sriramulu's death rocked Andhra into a violent and devastating agitation. The Government of India was taken aback at this popular upsurge. On the 19th December, 1952, Jawaharlal Nehru announced in the Lok Sabha that the Andhra State would be formed with the eleven undisputed Telugu districts, and the three Taluks of the Bellary district, but excluding Madras City.

On the 1st of October, 1953, Andhra State came into existence. It consisted of the districts of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool, and the taluks of Rayadurg, Adoni and Alur of the Bellary district. On the question of Bellary taluk, it was included in the Mysore State on the recommendation of L.S.Mishra Commission.

Kurnool became the capital of the new State, under the terms of the Sri Bagh Pact of 1937 between the leaders of the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema. T.Prakasam became

the first Chief Minister of the Andhra State and C.M.Trivedi was appointed Governor of this new State. With the inauguration of the Andhra State by Nehru, the forty year old dream of the Telugu people to have a separate State of their own was partly fulfilled. They looked forward to the formation of Visalandhra with Hyderabad City as the Capital.

Police Action in Hyderabad State

Andhras were very much agitated over the developments in the State of Hyderabad during the years 1946--48. The Nizam was very anxious to become independent and he insisted that Hyderabad should be the third dominion. He tried to achieve his ambitious desire with the help of Khasim Razvi of the Ittehadul Muslimeen and its storm-troopers, the Razakars.

Meanwhile, the Hindus of the Hyderabad State who accounted for 93 per cent of its population, launched the `Join India' movement with the cooperation of a few patriotic Muslims for the integration of the State with the rest of the country. The State Congress leaders, led by Swami Ramanand Tirtha, invoked themselves whole-heartedly in the movement. As the State Congress was banned by the Nizam, its leaders conducted their activities from places like Vijayawada and Bombay. The Communists on their part organised village defence squads to protect the villagers from the attacks of the Nizam Police and Razakars.

All negotiations between the Nizam's Dominions and the Indian Union proved abortive. The Nizam Government did not agree to the accession of the Dominions to the Indian Union. The activities of the Majlis Ittehadul Muslimeen and the Razakars within the Dominions were posing a threat to peace and harmony. The growing violence of the Razakars seriously jeopardised law and order. The Government of India, tried to make the Nizam see reason and sign the Instrument of Assession with India. After tortuous negotiations, the Nizam finally entered into a `Stand Still Agreement' on November 29, 1947, with India for one year to maintain status quo, which existed between the British and the Nizam before August 15, 1947. This agreement of the Nizam was only to gain time to procure military hardware from different parts of the world and smuggle them into Hyderabad. In the meanwhile, the Nizam sent a delegation to the U.N.O. to refer the Hyderabad case to the Security Council.

With the growing violence by the Razakars and the Nizam's attempts to get himself independent, the Government of India decided to curb these tendencies by launching a `Police Action' against the Nizam. On the 13th of September, 1948 `Police Action' on Hyderabad commenced. The Indian Army, led by Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri entered the State from five directions and the military action was a brilliant success. On 18th September, 1949, Nizam's forces surrendered and Mir Laik Ali, the Prime Minister of the Nizam, and Khasim Razvi were arrested. On September, 23, the Nizam withdrew his complaint in the Security Council. The merger of Hyderabad Dominions into the Indian Union was announced. Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri took over as Military Governor of Hyderabad and stayed in that position till the end of 1949. In January 1950, M.K.Vellodi, a Senior Civil Servant, was made the Chief Minister of the State and the Nizam was

designated `Raj Pramukh'. After the 1952 General Elections, the first popular ministry headed by B.Rama Krishna Rao took charge of the State.

Emergence of Andhra Pradesh

The creation of Andhra State in October, 1953 strengthened the general demand for linguistic States. Andhras had also long cherished demand for the formation of Visalandhra, since the people of Hyderabad State were unanimous in their demand for the trifurcation of their State. Andhras hoped that the outlying Telugu areas in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Madras be incorporated in the greater Andhra.

The States Reorganisation Commission, with Syed Fazl Ali as the Chairman, set up by the Government of India in December 1953, who heard the views of different organisations and individuals, was though convinced of the advantages of Visalandhra, however, favoured the formation of separate State for Telangana. This report of the S.R.C. led to an intensive lobbying both by the advocates of Telangana and Visalandhra. The Communists reacted sharply and announced that they would resign their seats in the Hyderabad Legislative Assembly and contest elections on the issue. In the Hyderabad Legislative Assembly, a majority of the Legislators supported Visalandhra.

The Congress High Command favoured Visalandhra and prevailed upon the leaders of the Andhra State and Telangana to sort out their differences, who, thereupon, entered into a `Gentlemen's Agreement'. One of the main provisions of the Agreement was the creation of a `Regional Council' for Telangana for its all round development. The enlarged State by merging nine Telugu speaking districts of Adilabad, Nizamabad, Medak, Karimnagar, Warangal, Khammam, Nalgonda, MahabubNagar and Hyderabad, into Andhra State with its eleven districts of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool, totalling 20 districts* was named `Andhra Pradesh' with its capital at Hyderabad. It was inaugurated on the 1st of November, 1956 by Jawaharlal Nehru. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, who later rose to the position of the President of India. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao, last of the Chief Ministers of Hyderabad State was elevated to the Office of the Governor of Kerala. C.M.Trivedi continued to be the Governor of Andhra Pradesh.

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*Three more districts were added later by the creation of Prakasam in 1970, Ranga Reddy in 1978 and Vizianagaram in 1979. Thus, the State presently has 23 districts.

As stated above, on the formation of Andhra Pradesh on the 1st of November 1956, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy became the first Chief Minister of the new State. Consequent on his becoming the President of the All India Congress Committee, he resigned the post of Chief Minister on 10th June, 1960 and was succeeded by D.Sanjivaiah, a talented young

man from the Scheduled Castes. After 1962 General Elections, Sri N.Sanjiva Reddy again became the Chief Minister of the State on 12th March, 1962. But, he relinquished the Chief Ministership in 1964 on moral grounds consequent on the adverse verdict of the Supreme Court in Kurnool Transport Nationalisation case. He was succeeded by Sri Kasu Brahmananda Reddy on 29th February, 1964. He was in the office till 30th September, 1971. His long innings witnessed development of the city as well as the State in many ways. True the Telangana agitation erupted during his time paved way for rectification of defects and implementation of measures to develop Telangana.

Political Crisis in 1969 and 1972

During the years 1969 and 1972, Andhra Pradesh was rocked by two political agitations popularly known as the `Telangana' and the `Jai Andhra' Movements respectively. Telangana agitation was started by the people of the region when they felt that the Andhra leaders had flouted the Gentlemen's Agreement which facilitated the formation of Andhra Pradesh.

The influx of the people from the coastal region into the city of Hyderabad created many social tensions. Slowly the discontent spread among the Telangana officials and the unemployed youth who felt that they were exploited by the people of the Andhra region. The discontent manifested itself when a student of Khammam went on a hunger-strike in January 1969 demanding the implementation of the safeguards for Telangana provided in the Gentlemen's Agreement. Slowly the agitation spread to Hyderabad and other parts of Telangana. In the beginning, the movement demanded the implementation of the safeguards agreed upon earlier, but later it wanted the separation of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh.

The agitation took a new turn when the Congress legislators from Telangana supported the movement. Dr.Channa Reddy entered the fray and formed the Telangana Praja Samiti to lead the movement. But by November 1969, there was a split in the Praja Samiti when dissident Congress legislators realised that the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was not in favour of separate Telangana. The movement slowly petered out. In September 1971, Brahmananda Reddy, the then Chief Minister, resigned his position to make room for a leader from Telangana to become the Chief Minister. On the 30th of September, 1971, P.V.Narsimha Rao* became the Chief Minister. The Telangana Praja Samiti was dissolved and its members rejoined the Congress.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------*He raised to the position of occupying the Chair of Prime Minister of India during 1991-96.

During 1972, another agitation known as the Jai Andhra Movement was launched in the Andhra region. The agitation was a sequel to the Telangana agitation which demanded that only `Mulkis' should be appointed to the posts in Telangana including the Hyderabad city. The `Mulki' issue had a long history behind it. As early as in 1919, the Nizam of Hyderabad issued a firman laying down that only `Mulkis' are eligible for public appointments in the State. `Mulki' was defined as one who was born in the State of

Hyderabad or resided there continuously for fifteen years and had given an affidavit that he abandoned the idea of returning to his native place. Even after the formation of Andhra Pradesh, the Mulki rules continued to be in force in the Telangana region. As these rules stood in the way of the people of the Andhra region to compete for the posts, their validity was challenged in the High Court. A full bench of the High Court by a four-one majority held that the Mulki rules were not valid and operative after the formation of Andhra Pradesh.

But on an appeal by the State Government, the Supreme Court declared on the 3rd of October, 1972 that the Mulki rules were valid and were in force. The judgement created a great political crisis in the State. The people of the Andhra region felt that they were reduced to the status of second class citizens in their own State capital. They felt that the only way to uphold their dignity was by severing their connection with Telangana and started a movement for the separation of Andhra region from Andhra Pradesh.

As the agitation continued, President's rule was imposed in the State on the 10th of January, 1973. Finally, a political settlement was arrived at under the aegis of the Central Government. A `Six-Point Formula' was agreed upon by the leaders of the two regions to prevent any recurrence of such agitations in future. The `Six-Point Formula' included (1) the abolition of Mulki rules and the Telangana Regional Committee and (2) the establishment of a Central University at Hyderabad to augment educational facilities.

On December 10, 1973, President's rule in the State was revoked and a popular ministry with Sri Jalagam Vengala Rao as the Chief Minister was inducted. With this, normalcy returned and the State enjoyed political stability.

In the General Elections held in February 1978 for the A.P.Legislative Assembly, the Congress Party swept the polls and Dr.M.Channa Reddy became the sixth Chief Minister of A.P. on the 6th of March 1978. He announced that separate Telangana was no longer an issue. Owing to some factional squabbles in the party, Dr.Channa Reddy resigned in October 1980 and was succeeded by T.Anjaiah, who remained in office only for one year and four months. In February 1982, he was replaced by Sri Bhavanam Venkataram, who in turn was replaced by Sri K.Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy in September 1982. Thus Andhra Pradesh was administered by four Chief Ministers in four years.

Frequent changes of the Chief Ministers by the Congress High Command created dissatisfaction among the people. Taking advantage of this popular discontent, Sri N.T.Rama Rao, a leading figure of the film world formed a regional party called `Telugu Desam' in January, 1983 and contested the General Elections to the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly held in 1983. His party became victorious and Sri Rama Rao was sworn in as the tenth Chief Minister of the State. But, on the 16th of August 1984, Sri Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, a cabinet colleague of Sri Rama Rao, succeeded in becoming the Chief Minister by engineering the dismissal of Sri Rama Rao by the then Governor. However, Sri Rama Rao was reinstated on the 16th of September 1984 consequent on the severe criticism on the action of Governor. In the elections of March 1985, Sri Rama Rao

proved that he continued to enjoy the confidence of people by winning absolute majority in the House.

The Telugu people who were not quite pleased with some of the policies of the Telugu Desam Government, returned Congress in 1989 general elections to the State Legislature with good majority. During the following five years, three Chief Ministers, Dr.M.Channa Reddy, Sri N.Janardhana Reddy and Sri K.Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy held the reins of power. The discontentment of the Telugu public was reflected in pushing the Congress out and handing over the power again to the Telugu Desam Party in 1994. In 1995 N.T.Rama Rao, has been succeeded by Sri N.Chandrababu Naidu, returned Congress in 2004 Dr.Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy, the present Chief Minister of the State.

The changing fortunes of the political parties at the hustings is, besides other things, a sure indication of the people's awareness of their rights and privileges and their mature judgement of the relative performance of the ruling parties.

A list of Chief Ministers and Governors of the State with their period of stay in the office from the formation of the State in 1956 till February, 1999 is given below:

Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh

Sl.No. Name From To

1  Sri. K. Rosaiah 04/09/2009

2  Dr.Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy 14/05/2004 02/09/2009

3 Sri N. Chandra Babu Naidu 01/09/1995 14/05/2004

4 Sri N.T.Rama Rao 12/12/1994 01/09/1995

5 Sri K.VijayaBhaskara Reddy 09/10/1992 12/12/1994

6 Sri N.Janardhana Reddy 17/12/1990 09/10/1992

7 Dr.Marri Chenna Reddy 03/12/1989 17/12/1990

8 Sri N.T.Rama Rao 09/03/1985 03/12/1989

9 Sri N.T.Rama Rao 16/09/1984 09/03/1985

10 Sri N.Bhaskara rao 16/08/1984 16/09/1984

11 Sri N.T.Rama Rao 09/01/1983 16/08/1984

12 Sri K.Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy 09/01/1982 09/01/1983

13 Sri Bhavanam Venkataram 24/02/1982 20/09/1982

14 Sri Tanguturi Anjaiah 11/10/1980 24/02/1982

15 Dr Marri Chenna Reddy 06/03/1978 11/10/1980

16 Sri. Jalagam Vengala Rao 10/12/1973 06/03/1978

President's rule 10/10/1973 10/12/1973

17 Sri P.V.Narasimha Rao 30/09/1971 10/01/1973

18 Sri Kasu Bramhananda Reddy 29/02/1964 30/09/1971

19 Sri (Dr)Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy 12/03/1962 29/02/1964

20 Sri Damodaram Sanjivayya 11/01/1960 12/03/1962

21 Sri.Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy 01/11/1956 11/01/1960

Governors of Andhra Pradesh

Sl.No. Name From To

1 Sri. Narayan Dutt Tiwari 21/08/2007

2  Sri. Rameshwar Thakur 04/01/2006 21/08/2007

3  Sri. Sushil Kumar Shinde 04/11/2004 04/01/2006

4  Sri. Surjeet Singh Barnala 03/01/2003 03/11/2004

5  Dr. C. Rangarajan 24/11/1997 02/01/2003

6  Sri G. Ramanujam 22/08/1997 23/11/1997

7  Sri Krishan Kant 07/02/1990 21/08/1997

8  Smt. Kumudben Manishankar Joshi 26/11/1985 07/02/1990

9  Dr. Shanker Dayal Sharma 29/08/1984 26/11/1985

10  Sri Ramlal 15/08/1983 29/08/1984

11  Sri K.C. Abraham 15/08/1978 14/08/1983

12  Smt. Sharada Mukerjee 05/05/1977 14/08/1978

13 Sri Justice B.J. Diwan 17/02/1977 04/05/1977

14 Sri R.D. Bhandare 16/06/1976 16/02/1977

15 Sri Mohanlal Sukhadia 10/01/1976 15/06/1976

16 Sri Justice S. Obul Reddi 25/01/1975 09/01/1976

17  Sri Khandubai Kasanji Desai 11/04/1968 25/01/1975

18  Sri P.A. Thanu Pillai 04/05/1964 10/04/1968

19  Genl. S.M. Shrinagesh 08/09/1962 03/05/1964

20  Sri Bhimsen Sachar 01/08/1957 07/09/1962

21  Sri C.M. Trivedi 01/11/1953 31/07/1957

Architecture  

Architecture in Andhra Pradesh ranges from prehistoric cairns to Buddhist Setups; Hindu and Jain temples of great importance to imposing churches, secular monuments such as the Charming of Hyderabad to some of the most beautiful mosques and Islamic tombs of India.

Cities of Andhra Pradesh have interesting examples of European architecture as well as domestic vernacular architecture.

Warangal, Penuconda, Bimlipatnam and Chandragiri are among the important historical towns and cities of the state besides old Hyderabad and the world famous Golconda Fort.

Prehistoric Architecture (later half of third millennium B.C.)

In the later half of third millennium B.C., people in the central and lower Deccan (which constitute most of modern Andhra Pradesh) lived on or around granite hills. They had round or rectangular houses, 2.4 to 6 meters wide. Walls were generally made of a mixture of sticks, earth and clay; erected around 7.5 cm thick wooden posts and a bamboo screen. The roof was either conical or flat, made of bamboo strips and reeds and covered with dry leaves and clay. Of pre historic architecture only stone burials survive in different parts of the state.

Ancient Andhra people were mentioned in the text of Aitreya Brahmana as early as in the 8th century BC. After Emperor Asoka, Simuka founded the independent Satavahana dynasty. The Satavahanas were followed by the Ikshwakus, kutus, Vrahatpalayanas and Vakatakas.

Buddhist Monuments and Sites

Outside Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the largest number of Buddhist sites in India are located in Andhra Pradesh. Buddhism flourished in this region under the patronage of Mauryan,

Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. In the second century AD, Acharya Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy (the ‘Middle Path’) in the valley now mostly submerged under the waters of Nagarjunasagar Dam situated about 150 Km south of Hyderabad. Other Buddhist sites are concentrated in Visakhapatnam-Vijayawada belt.

Amaravati

Amaravati stupa (a mound forming a Buddhist sacred monument), 50 Km south of Vijayawada town, was built in the 3rd – 2nd centuries B.C. Subsequent additions were made in the 1st-4th centuries AD under both Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. The site lies close to the ancient Satavahana capital, Dhanyakataka. The stupa, was the largest in the eastern Deccan, (36.5 m across and encircled by a 4.2 m path). This was a brick structure covered with marble casing slabs. Most of the broken carved capping pieces, railings and posts are removed and displayed in the Government museum in Chennai. Only a large earthen mound survives of the original stupa. Some of the pieces can also be seen in the site museum at Amaravati, in addition to a miniature outdoor model of the original stupa.

Guntupalle

Guntupalle is about 60 km east of Vijayawada. Situated amidst a picturesque hill and ravine, Guntapalle has a rock cut cave, a circular Chaitya Hall (meeting hall), several standing images of Buddha and more than 30 votive stupas and Viharas (monasteries). Both rock cut and structural, architecture at Guntapalle dates from the Satavahana period of 2nd to 1st century B.C. The stupas have limestone cladding over brick-work. The monuments are built on a terrace approached by a long flight of steps.

The Chaitya Hall has an unusual circular plan and a dome shaped ceiling adorned with rock cut beams resembling wooden rafters. A horseshoe–shaped arch stands at the entrance.

Sankaram

Sankaram is situated 41 kms west of Visakhapatnam and 3 km north of Anakapalle. The site has numerous monolithic votive stupas, rock cut caves and other structures built around the 7th Century. The main stupa was carved out of a rock and then encased in bricks.

The site has a brick built monastery. This consists of a rectangular court surrounded by small cells; in the middle is an apsidal-ended shrine. The hillside rock cut sanctuaries contain reliefs of Buddha. Another cave has images of Ganesha and Bhairava carved on the sides. Obviously the place was used for Hindu worship in subsequent periods.

Nagarjunakonda and Anupu

During the 3rd –4th centuries AD, Nagarjunakonda, 150 km south of Hyderabad, was the capital of the Ikshvaku rulers. The ancient site occupied an area of about 23 sq.km in a

valley on the banks of Krishna river. A large number of monasteries and shrines were erected to serve the needs of different Buddhist sects. Most of the excavated remains were submerged under the enormous reservoir created by the Dam built in the nineteen sixties on the Krishna river. A few monuments were reconstructed on a hilltop, which became an island in the reservoir.

At Nagarjunakonda the reconstructed stupas have circular brick or rubble walls. The walls have cladding of limestone slabs or plaster. The Simha Vihara has two Chaitya halls, one encircling a Buddha image. The Chaitya Halls and monasteries had limestone columns set in to brick or stone walls. However only the lower portions including the pavement slabs and access steps survive. Nagarjunakonda also has remains of some Hindu shrines. The island has an archaeological museum rich in sculptures mainly from the 3rd –4th century AD and also a few pieces from much later periods.

Other reconstruction sites are at Anupu on the east bank of the river. These include a temple (3rd-4th century), monasteries (4th century) and a Stadium ( 4th century). The monastery has also a refectory, a store and a bath. The stadium has tiered galleries providing seating around a rectangular court.

Hindu Temples

Rock Cut Temples:

Bhairavakonda, (near Nellore)

In the 7th –8th Centuries AD, Kondavidu chiefs ruled over a large part of eastern Deccan. Bhairavakonda near Nellore has remains of several rock cut Hindu temples dedicated to God Shiva and other Hindu deities. The shrines have Lingas and also small images of Shiva and other gods. The column bases have seated lions and the entrances are guarded by huge figures with clubs. Monuments in Bhairavakonda are similar to the Pallava style of architecture that flourished further south in Tamilnadu.

Undavalli, (near Vijayawada)

Like Bhairavakonda, Undavalli is also a 7th – 8th century, Kondavidu site with rock cut Hindu temples. The largest among the temples is four storeyed in height; each successive upper storey being recessed from the lower one. Projected eaves separate the floors from each other. Parapets at upper levels are lined with large lions and other figures. There are four shrines in four interconnected mandapas. Columns and walls have images of Vishnu in Anantashayana and Vishnu on Garuda sculpted on them.

Structural Temples: Early Chalukyan :

Alampur (near Kurnool)

Hindu temples in Alampur reflect the style of Papanath at Pattadhakal, because of their Indo Aryan Shikharas. They are not large temples; the largest temple occupies a rectangle 75 feet by 50 feet. They are structurally very complete as the walls and spires are in a finished state and there is a finial in the form of a fluted melon like member (amalasila) in position on most of them.

Nine Early Chalukyan temples dating from the 7th – 8th centuries are situated at Alampur on the Tungabhadra river. Although they are known collectively as the Nava Brahma, all of the shrines are dedicated to Shiva. A rectangle of walls encompasses a sanctuary surrounded by a pathway and a mandapa on columns divided into three ailes. Rising over the sanctuary is a curved shikhara (tower) derived from central and western India models. This is divided into tiers and decorated with arch like motifs; a large amalasila is placed on top. The outer walls are regularly divided into projecting niches.

Alampur retained its importance as a major religious centre all through the history. The protective walls and gateways in the town and the 11 th century Papanasi group of temples (which have been dismantled and re-erected about four km to the southeast) stand testimony to that.

 

Kakatiya Temples:

The early chiefs of the Kakatiya dynasty were feudatories of the Chalukyas. As independent kings, the Kakatiyas ruled the Deccan for nearly two hundred years in the 12th and 13th Century with architectural works mainly concentrated around Warangal. The Kakatiya architecture has roots in the Chalukyan style with improvisation to suit local conditions. Locally available granite and sandstone were used for the main structure. The Shikhara was built with lime and brick. Kakatiyas stepped their Shikharas instead of using curvilinear spires of Chalukyas and vertical structures of the north. The domed ceiling of the central hall was polygonal, eight or sixteen sided instead of circular. Volcanic, intricately carved and polished black basalt was used for pillars, jambs, lintels and motifs.

Hanamkonda and Warangal

The Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda was erected in 1163 by Kakatiya king Rudradeva. Three shrines in this temple are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Surya. The doorways have cutout lintels. To the south of the Mandapa rests an exquisitely polished Nandi (bull figure), the temple has several columned mandapas. The large number of granite columns of this temple has given it, its name.

Warangal, once the capital of Kakatiya kings, was an important urban centre of the Deccan since the eleventh century. In 1300 AD the city is said to have had a population of nearly 100 000.

The Bahmanis finally captured Warangal in 1366 and later Warangal became part of the Qutb Shahi kingdom.

The old city has an unique circular plan with two concentric circles of fortifications. Most of Warangal’s standing buildings are located within the circular shaped fort. The famous entrance portals on four sides are 30 meters (100 feet) high. Of the centrally located Shiva temple of Kakatiya period, only the ruins remain. The only courtly building to survive is Kush Mahal attributed to Sitab Khan, alias Sitapati a Hindu chief, and Governor of Warangal under the Bahmanis in the early sixteenth century. This is the only royal palace in Warangal, though not belonging to the Kakatiya kings.

The Kush Mahal does not resemble any of the Bahamani buildings of the Deccan. The palace is smaller in scale but strikingly similar to the sixteenth century Hindola Mahal in Mandu, capital of the Malwa kingdom near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.

Kush Mahal is the only royal palace in Warangal that survives: though it does not belong to the Kakatiya kings. George Michell, UK based scholar of Indian architecture opined that being at the geometric centre of the fort and near the Shiva Temple, Kush Mahal may have been built over the site of an original Kakatiya palace, which like the Shiva temple was dismantled.

Palampet and Ghanpur

Ramappa Temple of Palampet, about 40 km north of Warangal and built in 1213, consists of the main shrine dedicated to Shiva with the nandi mandapa in front. It has a reddish sandstone exterior and projecting eave continuing around the building. The shikhara is multi storeyed and made of brick. The most striking features of the temple are the figure brackets springing from the shoulders of the outer pillars supporting the eaves slabs. Highly polished in black basalt, these consist of mythic beasts or elongated female figures almost life size, cut with great precision.

Six kms from Palampet, Ghanpur has two 13th century partly ruined temples in Kakatiya style similar to the Ramappa Temple.

  Hybrid Styles: Simhachalam

Situated in the outskirts of Visakhapatnam, the Varaha Narasimha temple was built by the Eastern Ganga rulers in the 13th century. The temple combines Deccan and Orissan architectural features. Located on a hill, it is one of the most popular places of Hindu pilgrimage in the region. The main shrine is dedicated to Vishnu.

 

Reddi Kings of Kondavid:

The Reddi dynasty ruled in the region around present day Vijayawada and Guntur towns for nearly a hundred years (1328-1428). The kingdom was ravaged by the Bahmanis (1458), the Vijaynagara Kings (1516), the Qutb Shahis, (1531,1537 & 1579), the Mughal Army of Aurangzeb in 1687, the French (1752), the Asafjahi Kings, and finally the British (1766 &1788). Two major hill forts, one at Kondapally 20 Km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondavid about 30 km west of Guntur bear testimony of the fort building skill of the Reddi Kings. Surviving structures in these two massive granite forts therefore represent a mixture of Qutb Shahi and Hindu styles.

At Kondapally, the old palace lies on an elevated platform situated between the two hills on either side. A wide stone stairway leads to the hilltop. The peak is fortified with towers and loop holed bastions. The upper fort is accessed through three successive gateways. This leads to Tanisha Mahal named after Abul Hasan Tana Shah, the seventh and last Qutb Shahi King. The palace has a cloistered lower floor with arched roofs. There is a large hall above. Several bathrooms have stone pipes and cisterns. The Zenana quarters are approached along a terrace and enclosed by a high wall. The buildings in Kondapally are in predominantly Qutb Shahi style with ogee arches and extensive use of granite and stuccowork.

At Kondavid, ruins of three forts from successive periods can be seen. The main fort at a height of nearly 320 meters consists of massive ramparts, magazines, godowns, granaries and wells. There is a temple with carved stone pillars and a mosque within the fort.

 

Architecture of the Vijayanagara Kings:

Early Vijayanagara style had considerable influence of Chola style of Thanjavur, Tamilnadu. But the scale was much bigger and the Vijayanagara architects developed a scheme of a large temple complex with several concentric walls entered through gopuras leading to multiple shrines, tanks, stores, kitchens and other ancillary structures. The gateways had tall brick towers. The shrines had large mandapas standing on delicately carved granite columns.

Penuconda

The question whether the founders of Vijayanagara Empire were of Telugu or Karnataka origin is much disputed . According to one version, Harihara and Bukka, the two brothers were first in the service of Kakatiya King, Prataprudradeva. After Warangal fell in 1323, they moved away to safer places but were eventually captured by the Tughlaqs and were taken to Delhi as prisoners and were forced to become Muslims. They later gained favour of the Tughlaqs and received ministerial appointments. When the brothers found the political conditions conducive, they declared themselves free and founded the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. They got reconverted to Hinduism. Andhra Pradesh can

therefore rightfully stake a claim to a good part of the glory of the great Vijayanagara Empire ( 1336-1664 ) which with its first capital at Hampi, extended from the present day Karnataka to Orissa including Andhra Pradesh.

The golden period of the Vijayanagara dynasty was the rule of the legendary Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1530). During the reign of Vira Sadashiva Raya (1543-1568), Vijayanagara forces were defeated by a confederacy of four Sultans. Hampi was devastated and abandoned and the court and army fled southwards to Penuconda. Penuconda is a small town with a hill fort located about 70 km south of Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh. The town is full of ancient Hindu and Jain Temples, mosques, fortifications, towers and palaces. The four sides of the town are presumed to be guarded from evil spirits and diseases by the idols of Lord Hanuman, the largest of them, about eleven feet tall is placed at the Yerramanchi gate, the main entrance to the fort town.

Penuconda was the residence of the Vijayanagara Rajas from as early as 1354. Tirumal Raya moved here after the disastrous battle of Talikota in 1565. Gagan Mahal, the royal palace was built in 1575. Penuconda is an interesting architectural case. The town has Hindu buildings in Islamic style and Muslim Dargahs built in Hindu or to be more precise, Lepakshi style. In the same tradition, Gagan Mahal has a basement in Hindu style but a ground floor of intricate Islamic details with later additions. Continuing the Vijayanagara traditions, the palace is similar to several structures at Hampi, with Islamic style arches, vaults and plaster decoration combined with temple like elements. The upper level is capped with an octagonal pyramidal tower. An adjoining three storeyed square tower with projecting balconies overlooks the approaches from the east. Nearby stands a small, square structure, also with a pyramidal roof. The skyline of Penuconda fort is dominated by the Rama Burj, an observation tower standing in the northwestern corner in Vijayanagara style.

Next to the Gagan Mahal, are two 15th century Hindu temples dedicated to Rama and Shiva. The temples are built of granite in early Vijayanagara style with their towers topped by domical roofs. The walls have stone carvings depicting scenes from Ramayana and other epics.

Penuconda also has a Jain temple; the Parshvanath Temple built in the 15 th Century dedicated to the 9th century B.C, 23rd Great Teacher (Tirthankaras) of Jainism. Inside the temple stands a 11th century sculpture depicting Parshvanath in standing posture and facing a serpent. Built in the late Chalukyan style, the sculpture is of exceptional merit.Penuconda has an early 17th century mosque built in grey and black granite attributed to one Sher Ali.

Lepakshi

A significant artistic achievement of the Vijayanagara rulers, the Virabhadra Temple at Lepakshi, 10 Km west of Hindupur town was built 1600 AD. The temple complex is renowned for its ceiling-paintings and the intricately carved sculpture-columns. Dedicated to Shiva, consort Uma and also Vishnu, the temple complex is surrounded by

two rectangular enclosure walls. Besides the Mandapas, Gopuras and subsidiary shrines it contains monolithic large figures of Nandi Bull and Nagalinga. Though the basements and the superstructure are of carved stone, the brick towers over the sanctuaries are pyramidal in shape with domed roofs.

Tadpatri

Situated 54 Km north east of Anantapur town, Tadpatri has two sixteenth century Vijayanagara Temples. Located on the banks of Pennar river, the Ramalingeswara Temple dedicated to Rama and Sita, has multistoreyed and pyramidal towers with hemispherical roofs. The Venkataramana Temple located inside the town has Vishnu as the principal deity and is similar to Ramalingeswara Temple in architectural style. Both the temples are extremely rich in sculpture and carvings.

Srisailam

The 14th –16th century Mallikarjuna temple and the 16th century Uma Mahaeswara temple at Srisailam dedicated to Shiva have Vijayanagara style Gopuras on four sides and pyramidal towers rising over the sanctuary and walls with exquisitely carved panels depicting mythological subjects. Srisailam is one of the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage.

Kalahasti

Kalahasti has a very large sixteenth century Shiva Temple with granite basement and walls rich in intricately carved pilasters and a tall pyramidal tower nearly 120 feet (36.5m) high. Situated on the banks of Swarnamukhi river, Kalahasti is a very important centre for Hindu pilgrimage and also famous for a popular and traditional technique of painting on cloth known as Kalamkari. Achyutdevaraya, one of the Vijayanagara Kings was crowned at Kalahasthi temple.

Palaces of Chandragiri

The second Vijayanagara capital Penuconda was also under constant threat from Qutb Shahi and Adil Shahi rulers. Therefore the capital was again shifted to Chandragiri (Chittoor) by 1585. Penuconda was thereafter ruled by Vijayanagara Governors. Chandragiri remained capital of the declining Vijayanagara Empire till 1646. Located 11 km north east of Tirumala Hills, Chandragiri has natural defences with a ring of hills surrounding it. It has an upper fort, reputed to date from 1000 AD situated on a 183m (600 ft) rocky hill. At the base of the hill there are defensive walls and gateways, two well preserved palaces, a tank and other civic structures. The palace of the Vijayanagara kings is an early seventeenth century specimen of south Indian architecture combining

Hindu and Muslim styles . The palace is 45.7m (150 feet) long with a three storeyed façade of pointed arches and pyramidal towers. It consists of a centrally located Durbar Hall. The hall is surrounded by a two storeyed colonnade, which acts as a clerestorey, allowing light to penetrate the space. The Main palace and the ancillary structures have stucco facades and variations of Vijayanagara style.

It is from the Chandragiri Palace that in 1639 the ‘Vijayanagara Empire’ granted land to Francis Day for the East India Company at Madras.

Ahobilam

Situated about 80-km south east of Nandyal town, Ahobilam is one of the most sacred Hindu sites of Andhra Pradesh . The temples here are all dedicated to Narasimha, the mythological lion-god who destroyed demon Hiranyakashipu. The temples owe their origin to the 14th century Reddi Kings but the present architectural form is a result of additions and improvements by the Vijayanagara kings in the 16th and 17th centuries. Both the main temples located in Lower Ahobilam and Upper Ahobilam are therefore in typical early Vijayanagara style.

Tirumala

Tirumala is famous for the temple dedicated to Venkateswara, an aspect of Vishnu and is among the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage in India. The site is situated among a range of seven wooded hills at a height of about 700 meters. Origins of the temple complex can be traced to the 10th century. Due to the proximity of Chandragiri, the late 16th century capital of Vijayanagara kings, the temples at Tirumala received patronage from the powerful dynasty and prospered. Though the carvings and several architectural elements reflect Vijayanagara style, the temple complex has been extensively rebuilt

Tirupati

Tirupati is a large town at the foot of the Tirumala hills and the gateway to Tirumala. The 14th – 17th century Govindaraja temple is in parts built in the Vijayanagara style. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu.

Qutb Shahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)

The first Qutb Shahi mosque of Hyderabad is the Masjid Safa at Golconda. Built in 1518 AD, this is 75 years older than the Charminar. The mosque is a well-preserved structure and is very much in use. But little known to outsiders. The benedictory verse fixed in the prayer niche of the mosque expressed a hope of the founder of the kingdom Sultan Quli Qutbul Mulk, that his descendants would be honourable. In this mosque, 25 years after its erection Sultan Quli was assassinated by Mir Mahmud Hamadani, Qiladar of Golconda at the instigation of the heir apparent Yar Quli Jamshid.

Jamshid, the second king built for himself a very beautifully proportioned tomb, one of the most beautiful structures in the whole Qutb Shahi tombs complex.

Qutb Shahi rule at Golconda began with the assumption of virtual independence in 1518 AD by the Bahmani Governor Sultan Quli Qutb Shah. Till then, Golconda was under the Bahmanis (1347-1518).

The Bahmanis had Gulbarga as their capital till 1424 and thereafter shifted the capital to Bidar. After 1518 the Bahmani kingdom disintegrated in to five independent kingdoms: the Adil Shahi at Bijapur, Baridi at Bidar, Nizam Shahi at Ahmed nagar, Berar at Ellchipur and Qutb Shahi at Golconda.

There is a fundamental difference between Islamic Architecture in northern India and in the Deccan which includes the Qutb Shahi style. Unlike other parts of India, a unique building style developed here based more on the development of overseas ideas than the evolution and adaptation of local architectural tradition to Islamic needs. The links of Deccani kingdoms with Persia, Turkey and Arabia were very close and the great fortress cities of Deccan; Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda and Gulbarga were not built around existing centres of Hindu culture. Philip Davies, in the Penguin Guide to Monuments of India commented ‘As such they tended not to use salvaged temple masonry buildings, with all the structural and artistic compromises which this entailed. A vigorous architectural style and an alien new culture were injected in to the conservative heartland of Hindu India.’

The Qutb Shahis ruled from 1518 to 1687. This approximately coincided with the reign of the great Mughals (1526-1707) that built Humayun’s Tomb (1565), Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1580) and finally the Taj Mahal (1631). During the same period the Bijapur Sultans built Gol Gumbad (1656) and the Barid Shahis built several exquisite tombs (1543-1591) at Bidar. The architectural ancestors of the Qutb Shahis were naturally the Bahmanis. Evolution of Deccani architecture amalgamated the early Tughlaq influence, the intermediate appearance of Persian forms and motifs and the lasting mark of meticulous workmanship of local craftsmen.

The earliest Bahmani mosque; the Shah Bazaar Mosque at Gulbarga built around 1367 and the late Bahmani Jami Mosque at Bidar (early 16th century) provided the model for almost all mosque construction in the Deccan. Sultan Quli’s Masjid Safa, mentioned earlier and situated just north of Habshi Kamans at Golconda, is strikingly similar to the Jami Mosque at Bidar.

The early Bahmani Tombs are simple square domed chambers characterised by low flattish domes, corner finials (a formal ornament at the top of a canopy, gable, pinnacle, etc) and sloping walls similar to the Tughlaq tombs. Later Bahmani architecture can be found in Bidar in the form of Tomb of Mahmud (died 1518) which has triple tiers of arched recesses and plain merlons (alternating raised portions in a battlement, also called crenellations) without any decorations. The first Qutb Shahi Tomb at Golconda, that of Sultan Quli (died 1543) is also an austere structure similar to Mahmud’s tomb in Bidar.

Qutb Shahis therefore began with Bahmani moorings and proceeded to evolve an individual style that culminated in architectural marvels like the Charminar and other landmarks. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the 5th Qutb Shahi King built Charminar and shifted his palaces from Golconda fort to the new quarter North West of the Charminar. Therefore he is known as the founder of Hyderabad though he is not the founder of the dynasty.

Qutb Shahis built with massive granite walls. Granite and lime mortar are the chief ingredients of Golconda Fort, the Royal Tombs, the Charminar and the innumerable Qutb Shahi mosques. The Mortuary Bath in the Qutb Shahi Tombs complex has rugged arches in Bahmani Style. The tombs are typically square buildings with arched lower storeys supported on massive plinths, some of which have arcades. The lower storeys are surmounted by crenellated parapets with small bulbous minarets, protruding at each corner. The domes are supported over tall drums, which may be arcaded and balustraded. They are slightly bulbous in contours rising from a base of petals or trefoil merlon motifs. The granite is usually covered with stucco and with coloured tile work. Projecting cornices are encased in plaster designs as well as miniature and arcaded galleries encircling the corner minarets. The construction of the massive domes speaks for the structural expertise of the Qutb Shahi master builders and craftsmen.

Locally available granite, sand and lime were used in the construction of Qutb Shahi monuments including Charminar. Lime used for the plaster seems to have been specifically ground and treated to give durable stucco. Generally shell, lime, jaggery, white of egg etc are known to enhance the binding property of lime. The Sio2 /CaO ratio in Charminar’s mortar and plaster (1.61-2.25) indicates that the engineers at that time were probably aware of the necessity of having a higher Sio2 content but were not sure of the optimum value (presently the common practice is to have 3.0) at which the maximum strength of lime cement could be obtained.

Built during 1591-92, to a height of 56.7meters ( 186 feet), on a square base of 31.5meters (100 feet), Charminar is said to be a prototype of Tazia, representation of the tomb of Imam Husain. It is said that during the Mughal Governorship between Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi rule, lightning destroyed the South Western minaret which ‘fell to pieces’, but ‘it was forthwith repaired at a cost of Rs 60000’! Charminar was plastered in 1824 at a cost of Rs 100000.

During early Asaf Jahi rule, Deccan was the scene of intense rivalry between the British East India Company and the French. Other active players in the region were the great Marathas. In 1756, French forces entered Hyderabad in order to install an Asaf Jahi Ruler of their choice. In the end, it was the choice of the British that prevailed. Meanwhile in 1756, French General Monsieur Bussy had occupied the Charminar for a few days.

In their construction technology, selection of building materials and in artistic excellence Qutb Shahi architects and engineers reached a high degree of proficiency. Eminent historian H.K. Sherwani opined that in the later Qutb Shahi period, dressed stone began to be used for facing the frontage of larger structures instead of stucco. Mecca Masjid is

an example of this. The Qutb Shahis also used the facade of Mughal cusped arches in conjunction with the typical Qutb Shahi pointed ogee arch as seen at Jama Masjid, north east of Charminar and also on the facade of the mosque on the uppermost storey of Charminar. This could either be due to Mughal influence as held by Sherwani or a later imposition when most of the important Qutb Shahi mosques were restored or renovated.

A detailed discussion on Qutb Shahi town planning principles is not within the scope of this article. It may however be interesting to note that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the fifth king and Hyderabad’s founder planned Hyderabad as an ‘open city’. It was to have no walls. The Walled City of the eighteenth century was a creation of the Mughal rulers. The Qutb Shahis already had their well-fortified Golconda Fort to fall back upon at times of need. The last Qutb Shahi king, Abul Hasan Tana Shah in fact was forced to spend the period from 1656 to 1687 in Golconda Fort and was taken prisoner from there after the Mughal conquest.

After the fall of Hyderabad before the Mughals, the city walls were started by Mubariz Khan, the Mughal Governor (1724) and completed by Asaf Jah. I in 1740 to keep the Marathas away.

The city was planned around two focal points: one, the Charminar and the other, a vast central garden around a fountain with the main thoroughfares following a regular geometric pattern. Jan Pieper a well-known German Town Planner and others have opined that this was an attempt to create a replica of Paradise.

The grid of the two principal intersecting roads meeting at Charminar, the Pathar Ghatti- Shahali Banda road and the Laad Bazaar road, is tilted at a distinct 10 degrees angle with the north -south axes. This is perhaps due to the compulsion of placing the Charminar with its roof- top mosque in such a way that the mosque could face the exact direction of Mecca as geographically aligned with reference to Hyderabad. Most mosques of Hyderabad are oriented in this manner. Originally the intersecting roads passed under the Charminar. There old width, say of the Laad Bazar road, even today corresponds to the 11meters ( 36 feet) span of the four arches of Charminar. If Charminar is tilted in relation to the cardinal directions, then the intersecting roads passing underneath have little choice to do otherwise.

Rest of the streets of Qutb Shahi Hyderabad also followed a regular grid. During the Asaf Jahi period, the quarters within the regular blocks developed with an organic and irregular system of lanes and bylanes.

The road pattern inside the Golconda Fort that pre-dates Hyderabad is irregular and in parts governed by the terrain with the main streets encircling the walls of the inner fort situated on a hillock. Ruins of Golconda contain fragments of earthen pipes used for water supply. Golconda Fort is perhaps one of the least explored heritage sites of India. There are strange figures and animals worked out of stone and stucco on the walls of the outer fort facing the Naya Quila, waiting to be studied by art historians and archaeologists.

Neo Qutb Shahi (Hyderabad city)

Qutb Shahi style came to an abrupt halt following the Mughal conquest of 1687. The Mughal Governor ruled from Aurangabad. As earlier mentioned, the Mughals started building the city walls and that was similar to Qutb Shahi fortification in massive granite. Early Asaf Jahi rulers preferred European style as seen in Chow Mahalla (older parts 1750 AD). This was followed by buildings in late Mughal style and still later in Indo European style and the composite style in vogue during the days of City Improvement Board. Interestingly, during the later half of the 19th century, there was a revival of the Qutb Shahi style.

Mosques and tombs were built with domes and arches similar to the Qutb Shahi ones.

A typical example is the Afzalgunj Mosque near Nayapul. This was built in 1868 and is said to have been modelled after a Qutb Shahi Mosque. Afzalgunj Mosque has two tall minarets, a facade of three pointed ogee arches, high arcaded parapets with smaller minarets and stucco decorations: all in the Qutb Shahi design.

In some other examples of this style, there are tombs where the entire upper portion, dome etc. are Qutb Shahi but the arcade at the ground floor is of cusped arches in mughal style. A very conspicuous specimen of Neo Qutb Shahi style is the Abdul Haq Diler Jung’s mother’s tomb (1883) and his own tomb (1896), near Secunderabad Boats Club. However one of the tombs has pilasters in European style in the first floor arcade and the proportions are relatively slender compared to typical Qutb Shahi tombs.

This period was one of experimentation. A special feature of this style is that in none of the examples, exposed granite was used. Qutb Shahi revival apparently lasted for only half a century.

Palaces of the Nizam: Asaf Jahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)

The Asaf Jahis who succeeded the Qutb Shahis were prolific builders. Several palace complexes of HEH the Nizam, landmarks like the Andhra Pradesh High Court, the Osmania Arts College and the Osmania Medical College building are among their well-known contributions. Asaf Jahi rulers also experimented with European styles and attempted a synthesis of European traditions with Hindu and Islamic forms and motifs.

Chow Mahalla Palace

Among two intervening rulers, Salabat Jung spent a greater part of his time in Hyderabad (Salabat Jung, the officially un-crowned Nizam ruled for a short period during the power struggle between the British and the French, compounded by the interference of the Marathas). By some accounts, he is credited with the building of the first Asaf Jahi Palace in Hyderabad i.e. the Chow Mahalla palace. The Asaf Jahis deserted the former Qutb Shahi palace quarter lying north west of Charminar and decided to construct a new

palace complex for themselves to the south west of Charminar. In ‘The Unpublished Diary of a French Officer of Bussy’s Army’, the Officer describes Salabat Jung’s palace with its approach from Chowk (later known as Mahboob Chowk) as follows:

" the other or second building is the mansion of the Nawab, which is made up of three blocks of residences....... We here see a reservoir, the garden and the reservoir lead up to a large courtyard.... in the midst of this court is the first apartment, which is a large carpeted hall, one storeyed; its ceiling is supported by a number of small wooden pillars .....the second block of houses is also a great hall of which the ceiling is supported by a number of wooden pillars, each of a single piece, it is carpeted and one-storeyed. In the centre of the hall is the Nawab’s throne between four pillars, where he receives the ambassadors.....as for the third block of houses, it lies to the left as you enter the preceding hall. Here are two houses facing each other, between which is a fruit garden with a square medium sized reservoir and a small fountain. In the house on the right is a large screen, and it is here that the Nawab dines and sleeps with his concubines. ....such is the apartment of Nawab Salabat Jung ."

The above account is vague and does not clearly correspond to the buildings in Chow Mahalla as they stand now. This however confirms that Salabat Jung selected the site and created the nucleus of perhaps modest structures laid along a series of inter-linked courtyards, the old structures being later replaced by grander ones. The Chow Mahalla Palace complex in fact extends from the Lad Bazaar on the north to the Aspan Chowk road on the south. During different phases of Asaf Jahi rule, portions of Chow Mahalla were built. The durbar was held in the hall or pavilion called the Khilwat. This was built around 1780 during the reign of Nawab Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II but later extensively renovated in 1911. Khilwat has a composite architectural style with Mughal as well as Qutb Shahi arches, topped by twin octagonal pavilions on the parapet. It is an over decorated building with huge proportions with a curious Asaf Jahi Baroque.

Jilu Khana facing the Lad Bazaar and Daulat Khana e Ali was built during the reign of Asaf Jah I (1724-1748). South of Khilwat one enters the next courtyard around which the main four palaces are located lending the Chow Mahalla name. It is believed that this complex was built during the reign of Nawab Afzal -ud Doula Bahadur, the Nizam or Asaf Jah V (1857-1869). The palaces are named Afzal Mahal, Mahtab Mahal, Tahniyat Mahal and Aftab Mahal. Of these, Afzal Mahal is the most imposing and a two storeyed building with a European facade of Corinthian columns and a parapet without pediment. Other three buildings are single storeyed structures with relatively modest scale and facades of Corinthian columns. All the four buildings are laid around a large courtyard garden with a marble cistern at the centre.

There are later additions to the complex in late Mughal style with facades of cusped arches, made between 1912 and 1926 when the older buildings were also renovated.

Chow Mahalla was used even by subsequent Nizams and state banquets were held here. Well known among those is the banquet held in honour of T.R.H the Prince and the

Princes of Wales on 10th February 1906. For several decades, the sprawling Chow Mahalla Complex has been lying vacant.

Purani Haveli Palace

Asaf Jah II apparently lived in the Chow Mahalla complex buildings built by his predecessors, since the main palaces were built by Asaf Jah V nearly hundred years later. In 1777, between Chatta Bazaar and Dabirpura Main road, towards north east of Charminar, he started construction of the first buildings of Purani Haveli for his son, Sikandar Jah. But Sikandar Jah, on becoming the third Nizam (1803-1829) went to live in the Khilwat palace in Chow Mahalla. The buildings built by Asaf Jah II therefore came to be known as Purani Haveli. Purani Haveli regained its glory only when the sixth Nizam, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan made it his official residence.

Purina Haveli Complex is U shaped with a single storeyed central building in European style flanked by two double storeyed oblong wings (nearly 1000 feet) of which the western one has the famous wooden wardrobe. Both the wings are wider towards the southern end where these are only single storeyed and have two extremely well proportioned courtyards surrounded by rooms and deep verandahs with semicircular European arches. Purani Haveli is one of the most important architectural landmarks of Hyderabad combining European facades with traditional Indian courtyards. The complex also includes two annexes attached to the northern ends of the parallel wings. Purani Haveli on the whole is under- used. A training institute runs in parts of the building beside the offices of the Muffakham Jah Trust. Nearby there is another beautiful courtyard house now used as the Princes Esin Women’s Education Centre.

King Kothi Palace

Of the three principal buildings of the King Kothi Complex, the main King Kothi building now housing a hospital and the Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) accommodating the offices of the Nizam’s Private Estates (Sarf E Khas) only survive. The third building, Usman Mansion was demolished in the early eighties and in its place a new hospital building is constructed by the State Government. Originally built by one Kamal Khan, the complex was acquired by the Nizam VII. Both the surviving buildings in King Kothi are in European style. Nizam VII, the last ruling Nizam (1911-1948) lived here and passed away in this building on February 24th 1967.

The northern and the main road-facing gateway of Mubarak Mansion is called the Purdah Gate where always a big purdah or curtain hung. When Nizam went out of the Palace, the purdah was lifted up which showed that he was not present. The gate was guarded by Maisaram Regiment, police and Sarf E Khas Army with lances in their hands. To the east of Mubarak Mansion, stands the Ghadial Gate: the gate with a clock. King Kothi complex has various European styles incorporated in it. The canopies over windows, the intricate woodwork, the sloping tiled roofs in octagonal pyramid shapes of the Ghadial Gate

complex, and the classical semicircular arches are among the characteristic features of King Kothi. As mentioned earlier, the King Kochi Complex has remained in use for offices and Hospital.

Falaknuma Palace

Falaknuma palace mainly served as a royal guesthouse for the Nizams. The palace was built by Nawab Vikarul Umra Bahadur, a noble from the Paigah family, who later became Prime Minister of Hyderabad (1894-1901). The main buildings were completed in 1884. Nizam VI, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan Bahadur purchased it in 1897 and later added other structures like the Coronation building. The sixth Nizam occasionally lived here and died in this building in 1911.

Falaknuma palace complex is dramatically located on top of a hill about four km south of the Charminar. The main palace was designed by English architects in 1872. The central building is placed over a large terrace accessed through two levels of basements. The building is in classical style with a two storeyed deep and colonnaded verandah carrying a pediment. Though basically Palladian, the columns are thicker in proportion. The facade has Ionic columns at the ground floor and Corinthian columns at the first floor. A wide staircase leads to the ground floor. On both sides of the main central palace are two identical crescent shaped blocks with classical facade and pediments.

At the rear, there is a long and imposing courtyard, nearly 600 feet long, surrounded on all sides by rooms and corridors. At the southern end, there is a round shaped hall with deep verandas faced by colonnade in Ionic style called Gol Bungla and an interesting glass roofed large verandah overlooking the vast expanse down below. Parts of the side wings are older structures incorporating Islamic features. The Coronation building and a few ancillary structures are in late Mughal or Rajasthani style.

The interior of the main building has a marble entrance hall and fountain, and an Italian marble staircase supporting marble figures, lined with portraits of British Governors General. The reception room is in Louis XIV style. Elsewhere there are French tapestries, beautiful inlaid furniture from Kashmir, and Victorian artefacts.

Dignitaries who stayed at Falaknuma as guests include the future King George V and Queen Mary, Prince of Wales, and Viceroy Lord Wavell. Falaknuma is one of the largest and most important palaces of India

After years of neglect and non-use Falaknuma Palace is now being given a major face-lift by the Taj Group for a Heritage Hotel.

Mahboob Mansion

This palace, presently in disuse and poor condition, is named after Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, the VIth Nizam who used to occasionally live here though his permanent residence was the Purani Haveli described earlier. Built in the late nineteenth century, this is a very interesting and large palace in a combination of classical European and Mughal style. It has roofs somewhat similar to the eastern blocks of Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) in King Kothi.

The Paigah Palaces (Hyderabad city)

In the hierarchy of nobles of Hyderabad, the Paigah family ranked immediately next to the ruling family of Nizams. Abul Fateh Khan Tegh Jung Bahadur, progenitor of Paigah family migrated to Hyderabad in the late 1740’s. Nizam Salabat Jung (not considered an Asaf Jah) conferred on him the order of nobility in 1756. Tegh Jung was also entrusted with the defence of the kingdom. Eventually this became the hereditary function of the Paigah nobles.

The Paigahs were also the foremost palace builders of Hyderabad. As described earlier, the Falaknuma Palace was built by Nawab Vikarul - Umra, Iqbaluddoula. This was later acquired by the Nizam VI. Vikarul Umra also built the Paigah Palace in Begumpet, presently the office of Hyderabad Urban Development Authority. Dating back to the 1880’s, this is a large two storeyed neo-classical building with a portico, semicircular arches, unfluted Corinthian columns, projected and pedimented windows and deep arcaded verandahs on all four sides.

Near Paigah Palace lies the Deorhi of Nazir Nawaz Jung, who was the grand son of Vikarul Umra. The building however was built in the 1880’s. This is a beautiful and large two storeyed palace in European style. It has wide verandas facing outwards as well as inwards overlooking a courtyard. The complex is partly converted into a club. The rest of the area is used as a residence.

Palaces of other nobles of the Paigah family; Asman Jah (Bashiruddoula) and Khursid Jah are in poor state of preservation in the old city. The most important palace of Bashiruddoula, the Bashirbagh Palace situated north of the old city has been demolished. Asman Garh, a smaller but interesting European-style palace on a hilltop in Dilsukhnagar still survives.

Palaces of Other Nobles in Hyderabad

Malwala palace

Interestingly, the palaces described so far were purely European in character while some had only the ancillary buildings in late Mughal style or a combination of European and Mughal features. Malawala Palace is one of the few surviving wooden palaces of Hyderabad built in late Mughal and Rajasthani style. The ancestor of this family, Sagar Mall had accompanied the first Nizam to Hyderabad in 1724. Sagar Mall became

custodian of the revenue (Mall) records of the state. This function was passed down to his descendants hereditarily. Thus the family acquired the name Malwala.

Malwala Palace is located along the road leading towards east from Charminar. The complex had three components: the double storeyed large residential quarters arranged around several smaller courtyards and vernacular overhanging wooden balconies at first floor level facing the street; the road side block with a double height semicircular gateway flanked by a pedimented side wing with Corinthian columns in European style enclosing a smaller and outer courtyard, and finally the grand inner court with a fountain in the centre surrounded by wooden pavilions on two sides and overhanging wooden balconies with intricate carvings and supported by ornate wooden brackets on the other two sides.

This inner court is accessed by another arched gateway on which at first floor a Naubat Khana is located. The southern pavilion facing the entrance has a grand facade of seven cusped Mughal arches in carved and lacquered wood approached by wide flight of stairs. This leads to a double height hall that has rooms overlooking it from the first floor. A flight of wooden steps links this first floor with the ground. These two pavilions and the courtyard were used for family gatherings and for entertaining guests during special occasions. Malwala Palace is unique in its extensive use of woodwork and as specimen of a typical Hyderabad courtyard house. This is also one of the important palaces belonging to Hyderabad’s erstwhile nobles.

Other palaces of Hyderabad

Other important surviving palaces of Hyderabad are the Dhanraj Gir Palace (Gyan Bagh) and the Erra Manjil. Raja Dhanraj Gir belonged to a family of highly reputed nineteenth century merchants and philanthropists. Their sprawling palace complex in Pan mandi area is one of the best buildings of Hyderabad in European style and also the best preserved.

The Erra Manjil in Somajiguda was built by Nawab Fakhrul Mulk, a high-ranking noble and Vice President of the Nizam’s Executive Council. Erra Manjil is a vast complex basically in European style with ornate baroque facade, located on a hill, hence occupying a commanding position. This is presently used as a Government office.

European Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad City

Designed by Lt. Samuel Russel, the British Residency of Hyderabad was built in 1806 and is one of the best examples of European architecture in India. Presently used as a Government college, it has a Georgian facade and a vast campus comprising of several ancillary buildings of considerable architectural and historical significance.

Some Asaf Jahi palaces of the early period, like the Chow Mahalla were built in European style. The city also has several beautiful churches built during the nineteenth century.

Secunderabad, which is part of Hyderabad originally developed around a British Cantonment, set up in 1798. During the nineteenth century Secunderabad, the Residency area around Sultanbazar-Koti, and the Gunfoundry-Abids area had a strong presence of European population. Many large bungalows and houses of the period still survive. One can also find a few Art Nouveau or Jugendstil buildings built in the early nineteenth century.

European Architecture in other places of Andhra Pradesh

Bimlipatnam (Bheemunipatanam), 24 Km north of Visakhapatnam on the eastern coast was a Dutch Settlement set up in the seventeenth century. This small town has ruins of Dutch palaces, an ancient cemetery and an old church and a town hall. Public buildings and churches in European style can be found in many other towns such as Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vizianagaram, Machilipatnam and even Tirupati.

Architecture of Hyderabad during the CIB period

Set up in 1912 after the devastating floods of 1908, the City Improvement Board (CIB) functioned for nearly half a decade and built new roads, cleared slums, constructed housing colonies and several public buildings particularly during the nineteen thirties. Redevelopment of localities, roads and the Musi riverfront by the CIB triggered the construction of several city landmarks like the Osmania General Hospital, the High Court and the Moazam Jahi Market. Several European architects such as Vincent J. Esch designed these buildings and attempted a synthesis of European, Islamic and Hindu architectural traditions and motifs as can be seen in the Osmania Arts College building designed by Monsieur Jasper.

Modern Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

Unlike Chandigarh, Delhi and Ahmedabad, Andhra Pradesh does not have many specimens of modern architecture built by internationally known architects. However in Hyderabad, B.V.Doshi of Ahmedabad designed a residential colony for the ECIL, Mr Charles Correa designed the IDBI complex at Gacchibouli and Satish Gujral designed the CMC campus and buildings at Gacchibouli which are among the notable modern buildings of Hyderabad.Elsewhere in Andhra Pradesh some good modern buildings can be seen in Visakhapatnam.

Indian Handicrafts have made a name for themselves the world over. Ancient skills have been honed to perfection by craftsmen who have learnt the trade from their fathers, as did their fathers before them.  This tradition continues over the centuries, safeguarding the wide and varied artistic wealth of India.

Today, this tradition unfolds itself in an overwhelming variety of products, combining aesthetic appeal with utilitarian value.  To satisfy modern tastes and meet international demand, design institutes have been giving a new look to these traditional crafts.  A variety of products is available today in all their regional splendour.

These beautiful items are like a breath of fresh air in this age of mechanisation and mass production.  The high caliber of skills exhibited in creating the products has stood the test of time.  What's more, craftsmen have shown great ingenuity and flexibility in adapting to the requirements of the modern age.

Each region of India abounds in handicrafts reflecting the genius of its local craftsmen.  Andhra Pradesh in the south has the distinction of having all important categories of handicrafts practiced in their traditional locations spread over different parts of the state.

Karimnagar is well known for silver Filigree of superior quality created by master craftsmen.

Bidri is another prized product of Andhra Pradesh popular in different parts of the world.

The skills of artisans can be seen in caskets, vases and trays.While places like Nagarjunakonda and Amaravathi have influenced the growth of stone-carving in places like Durgi, wood-carving received its impetus from the temple sculptures.  This has made possible the creation of a variety of products in the shape of both figurines and panels that depict them from temple chariots and Gopuram (typical Hindu temple domes).

Metalware has found a new expression in the context of Andhra Pradesh with exquisite pieces of sheet-metal art deriving its motifs from the historic monuments of the Kakatiya sculpture.  At the same time, the art has successfully adapted itself to imbibing the use of Persian and other motifs.  This has resulted in the evolution of a whole range of utility-cum-decorative items like plant pots, vases, wall decorations and stationery items.  Cast art metalware, including icons and temple sculptures depicting various themes, is also produced in certain parts of the state.

Nirmal painting, unique for reproducing motifs from the well-known art schools, has greatly expanded its market by evolving a number of household items which include large-size furniture for drawing, dining and bedrooms.

Leather puppet-making is yet another speciality which has made its way into Andhra Pradesh and developed its roots in different parts of the state.  Originally conceived to meet the needs of the shadow puppet troupes, this technique is being increasingly adapted to evolve articles of home decoration.,

Andhra Pradesh has created a niche for itself in the wooden toy industry, combining both carving and painting to present interesting themes, such as village occupations, models of mythological figures, and animals in both stylised and natural forms.

Andhra Pradesh has its claim on some of the most distinguished crafts like the Kalamkari work with its origins traced back to antiquity.  Kalamkari, with its resist process and application of vegetable dyes has made an impact in various parts of the world.  The Kalamkari craft, as it has recently evolved in Srikalahasti, offers themes in the form of small and large decorative panels ideal for household and office decoration.

Andhra Pradesh has a rich tradition of handloom textile which has attracted attention from both within and outside the country.  By carefully assimilating some of the best features of weaving styles and techniques without sacrificing on the originality, and showing a high degree of flexibility to change, the artistic handloom weaving industry of Andhra Pradesh has emerged as a potent source of some of the most unique products made in the country.  The world-famous Tie and Dye cloth with its more recent innovation in furnishing fabrics, the well-known brocade and silk saris of kothakota and Gadwal, the famous Narayanpet saris and superfine Venkatagiri saris, besides Pondur Khadi are among the better known handloom textiles from the state.

The mirror embroidery of the style practised by the tribal women Banjaras, nomenclatured "Banjara Embroidery" is another important craft.  It offers possibilities for the profitable use of embroidery skills of this economically backward community in the state.

Andhra Pradesh has a place of pride in floor coverings too.  Carpets of Eluru and Warangal have long been known not only within the country but also in many parts of the world.   All natural-wool pile carpets produced in these places are a speciality.  The artistic Durry industry evolved in and around Warangal.  Durries with floral and figurative motifs have contributed significantly to exports.

“Lepakshi”, the well-known temple town in Andhra Pradesh, is a repository of stone sculpture and frescoes of a high order attained during the Vijayanagar period.  LePakshi as a name has thus aptly been chosen by the Andhra Pradesh Handicrafts Development Corporation as a name for its Marketing Wing., LePakshi serves as a vital link between the lover and buyer of objects of beauty and the legendary handicrafts of Andhra Pradesh.  “Lepakshi” Emporia have endeavoured to project the artistry and elegance of Andhra Pradesh Handicrafts in order to create an impact on markets within the country and abroad.

Andhra Pradesh has a rich tradition in handicrafts, with techniques of craftsmanship handed down from generation to generation.

Banjara Embroidery

Think of nomad, caravaners, gypsies and you think of them as “free people”. Free from the binds of urban life, they evoke dreams of the life spirit roaming without fetters.And it is from this that the Banjaras in Andhra Pradesh seem to have captured their exuberant clothes. Nomads in the past, the Banjaras today aggregate in groups called 'tandas'. Staying in communes, they still strive to preserve the fascinating and unpredictable

traditions of their ancestors. Tattooed women with hands weighed down by ivory bangles create the memorable mirror work which the Banjaras are famous for.

Bidri   This art of silver inlay on metal has always kept historians guessing.  Various accounts exist about its origin and entry into India and subsequently Andhra Pradesh.

If one were to believe the craftsmen themselves, they say that the art originated in Iran seven centuries ago.  It was brought down by migrants.  Zealously guarded by its practitioners, the art has successfully expressed the experiences of the Sufis, the aesthetic values of the Moghuls and the yearning of warriors to decorate their ornaments of valour-swords, daggers, lances and shields.  Today, Bidri has been aptly contemporarised producing cufflinks, name plates and more.  But always retaining the old grandeur that won the heart of many a king, warrior, scholar and commoner.

Broadly speaking, there are four main stages in the manufacture of  Bidri  They  are  (i)  casting (ii) engraving    (iii) inlaying and (iv) oxidising.  The articles are cast with the help of moulds of red clay into which the molten solution of copper and zinc prepared in the ratio of 1: 16 is poured.  The surface of the rough cast of the articles is filed and smoothened with sand paper and then rubbed with a solution of copper sulphate to impart a dark surface to provide a suitable base for the next stage of tracing the design and engraving.  The designs are traced by hand, by the craftsmen with the help of chisels. Next, pure silver wire or sheet (gold in rare cases) is hammered into the grooves of the design and the surface smoothened with the help of sand paper and files or with the help of a buffing machine.  In the ultimate interesting stage, the articles are heated gently and treated with a solution of sal-ammoniac and earth taken from old fort buildings which has the effect of making the entire surface turn jet black providing a distinct contrast to the shining silver inlay.  It is this contrast that lends Bidri a uniqueness that no other metalware could possibly claim.  Finally, oil is rubbed on the piece to deepen the black matt coating.

Bronze Castings

Before making bronze idols, the craftsman had to carefully study verses from the Shilpashastra.  The verses were called dhyana and instructed the craftsman on the physical measurements, proportions, description of the deity, characteristics, symbolism and above all, aesthetics.

This is how the craftsmen set about creating masterpieces from bronze in ancient India  What is also interesting is the guidance that was sought from nature for modelling icons - eyebrows were modelled after neem leaf or fish; nose, the sesume flower, the upper lip, a bow; chin, a mango stone; neck, the conch shell and so on.

In solid casting of icons, the mould is made by giving several clay coatings on a prepared wax model, but with a different clay each time.These convey the contours of the model to the cast-image and are, therefore, important. The molten alloy is then poured in a thin and

even stream into the mould. When the mould is broken, care is taken to see that the head of the icon is out first as a good omen.

Budithi

There is a small village called Budithi in Central Srikakulam, a district in Andhra Pradesh. Here, life revolves around creating beautiful shapes out of alloys. The shapes range from the charmingly traditional to the elegantly modern. The art form expresses itself as traditional cooking utensils and also in forms that suit contemporary needs - like flower pots and planters.

Usually made of brass, the objects have patterns that are geometric, with straight lines and curves forming simple and striking presentations.  Floral patterns abound too.

Crochet Lace

Introduced in the middle of the 19th Century to provide employment to the poverty-striken women of the area, lace work was, to start with, sent to friends and relatives abroad as gifts which were highly appreciated.  Starting with a mere dozen designs, the local skills were used to evolve as many as 300 designs over the years which speaks of the high artistic sense of the artisans.  The raw materials and implements required for this industry are simple, consisting of only a hooked needle and cotton thread.  The thread used is twisted mercerised cotton yarn made out of superior grade cotton.  The craft is carried on by thousands of women working part time at their homes in Narsapur and Palakol areas of West Godavari District and Razole Taluka of East Godavri District.

Articles produced include those that are wholly lace, as well as those in which lace work is used as decorative insertions in cloth. 

Dokra

Tribal in origin, the Dokra metal craft is common to the tribal belts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

In Andhra Pradesh this craft is found in Chittalbori and Ushegaon in Adilabad District.

What makes Dokra unique is that no two pieces are alike. Deftly created by hand, the objects have an individualistic touch.

Figurines, horses, drummers, peculiar shaped spoons and hauntingly original tribal Gods can be seen in Dokra.

Primarily made from brass scrap, the objects also have a core of clay preserved within the metal casting, unlike other metal work.

Filigree

"Standardisation is alien to them.” So say admirers of the silversmiths of Karimnagar - the creators of silver Filigree. Because, the most fascinating aspect of silver Filigree is the element of newness and surprise. Every piece looks different, delicate and unique.

In Filigree work, twisted silver wire is the material, and the articles have the trellis-like appearance of 'jali' (net) which endows them with a rare charm.

The silversmith crimps thin strips of fine silver into zigzag patterns and loops using it to fill up the ground of designs formed by thicker silver strips. The- strips and fine silver are then deftly soldered, carefully avoiding the trellis-like Filigree pattern.

Leaves, flowers, trees, animals, and birds in the area of origin seem to be predominant. However, the versatility of the art is not restricted by tradition. The art has been extended from jewellery to other household articles like tea-trays, ornament containers, key chains and even cigarette boxes.

Folk Paintings

There is a very picturesque origin to the art of painting.

"Narayan", the Supreme Being was engaged in meditation when celestial dancing girls, called apsaras, tried to disturb him with a display of coquetry and blandishments.  The God conceived of a plan to cure the maidens of their vanity.  He extracted the juice of a mango tree, and using that as his paint, he drew an imaginary portrait of a nymph, large eyed and delicate, with a form so filled with grace that no Goddess or woman, could vie with her in all the three worlds.  The apsaras were put to shame when they saw this painted maiden, Urvashi, and crept away silently from God's presence.  And the picture, into which Divine skill had infused the golden breath of life, became the ideal form of feminine beauty.  Vishwakarma, the architect of heaven, was then instructed in the art and science of painting so that he might transmit his knowledge to the people of the earth.

So in Telangana, in the tradition of the venerable Vishwakarma, the artists created innumerable scroll paintings.  Originally used by bards who went about reciting verses describing episodes from religious texts, the artists evolved a method of painting individual situations taken from Indian mythological sources as well as a whole range of village deities in limited sizes.  These types of paintings are ideal wall hangings, but if you are lucky you can acquire a scroll running into several metres.  Cherial in Warangal District is the traditionall centre of this art.

Another unique item is the peak of playing cards known as ganjifa, a speciality of the craftsmen of Nirmal.  They are circular in shape and richly decorated.  The method of making these is rather intriguing.  They are made from pieces of thin cloth pasted in three layers with a gum-like substance, then coated with liquid chalk to give it a white surface. 

The pieces are then turned into a round shape, polished with stone and painted like a miniature.  The rear sides are then coated with lacquer.

Ikat

Ikat, the technique by which the warp or weft or both can be tie-dyed in such a way that when woven, the 'programmed' pattern appears in the finished fabric.  Of resist-dye techniques, the use of clay or wax-resist has long been known to Indian textile printers and painters, who would stamp or delineate the fabric with resist and then immerse and re-immerse in dye.  To reserve areas of the warp or weft or both, before the process of weaving with tied threads, and then to dye the yarn, is a more interesting process that requires greater skill. And this seems to be more closely aligned to processes of tie-resist and warp-resist after weaving, than to the application of impression of a resist to the surface of a fabric.

Up to the beginning of this century, Chirala in Andhra Pradesh was renowned for an exquisite type of cotton sari, lungi, rumal and yardage in a range of Ikat techniques.  One of the products of this place is known as telia rumal, a many-purpose cloth used as lungi, loin-cloth, shoulder-cloth and turban cloth which was a popular import item in many Islamic countries.  Due to the heavy use of tel (oil), in the process of preparing the yarn for weaving, this variety of textile has deserved the name telia, meaning  ‘oily’.  Chirala, Pochampalli, Puttapaka and Koyyalagudem were given a new lease of life in the middle of this century by the All India Handicrafts Board as a result of which these and other nearby places have become important centres for the production of what is now known as Hyderabadi Ikats.  Many new experiments and imitations have been undertaken here ever since.  The techniques and designs of telia rumal have been adapted to make saris, spreads, and yardage material.

Kalamkari and Block Printed Fabrics

Kalamkari is the craft of painted and printed fabrics. It derives its name from Kalam or pen with which the patterns are traced. It is an art form that developed both for decoration and religious ornamentation.

The discovery of a resist-dyed piece of cloth on a silver vase at the ancient site of Haarappa confirms that the tradition of Kalamkari is very old. Even the ancient Buddhist Chaitya Viharas were decorated with Kalamkari cloth. The great Alexander is also supposed to have acquired this Kalamkari cloth.

 In Andhra Pradesh, Kalamkari is done in Machilipatnam and Srikalahasti.

With their roots in temple rituals, Kalamkari cloth also followed the old tradition of religious mural paintings.Craftsmen painted the narratives of religious legends from which people learnt the stories of their Gods. Bards recited verses describing these episodes, using these paintings as illustrations.

Coming to Srikalahasti, temples were a major inspiration. The art flourished under the patronage of the temples with their demands for hangings with strong figurative and narrative components. This specialisation in figurative work continues till today. Richly displayed episodes from the Puranas and other mythological material form the themes.

Little was known about printed Indian cotton before the archaeological findings at Fostat, near Cairo. The discovery unearthed a hoard of fragments of printed Indian cotton supposed to have been exported in the 18th century from the Western shores of India.

 A study of some of these Fostat finds in 1938 by Pfister, who traced them to India, brought to light evidence of a tradition of those fabrics that were actually block-printed and resist-dyed with indigo.

Before the artificial synthesis of indigo and alizarine into dye-stuffs, blues and reds were traditionally extracted from the plants indigofera anil and rubia tinctorum.  Alizarine, commonly used as a colouring agent, was found in the ancient times in madder. The madder root, rubia tinctorum, widely used in India, chay, the root of the oldenlandia umbellata were highly estimated as fine sources of red in the South.  The dye roots of morinda citrifoliainn and morinda tintoria known as al or cirang were to be found in Southern, Western and Central India.  These were the main sources of traditional Indian dyes.

The dyers and printers who did their respective jobs belonged to the Hindu or Muslim creeds. The blocks for printing were made by specialist block-makers, but sometimes the printers also made their own blocks.

The nature, requirements, the patterning, and the process of traditional textile usage are highly local for social and economic reasons, as well as for purely design reasons. It is this traditional inclination towards distinction that explains the varied vocabulary of what is traditionally available in the country.

In Andhra Pradesh, block-printed Fabrics come from Machilipatnam, Chirala, Vijayawada and Tuni.

Lacquerware

Lacquer craft is the application of lacquer on wood in pleasing shades to create a distinctive appeal.  Etikoppaka in Andhra Pradesh is one of the most important centres of this craft.

Lacquering is done on a lathe, hand- or machine-operated.  For turning slender and delicate items, the hand-lathe is preferred.  Lac is applied in a dry state. That is, the lacstick is pressed against the woodenware to be lacquered.  As the latter keeps revolving the heat from friction softens the lac, enabling the colour to stick.  Designs are painted with a brush on figures, objects and toys. Among the most popular lacquerware  are the

lac bangles.  Hitherto studded with gold and precious stones, today they are also available with beads, glass, stones, mirrors and more.

Puppets, Toys and Dolls

In India, toys and dolls have a history as old as the icons and idols themselves.  From the realm of divine inspiration today to day recreation, the craftsmen with their innate skills transformed mundane objects as toys into expressions of art.

In fact, Andhra Pradesh has a number of toy forms.  Leather puppets, Kondapalli dolls, Tirupati dolls, Nirmal toys and Etikoppaka dolls.

Leather dolls form the central part of the shadow puppetry or Chaya Natak.  The best known of course being the Tholu Bommalatta of Andhra Pradesh.  The dolls are made of goat-skin which after being cured and dried, is made translucent by a special process.  The figures are beautifully painted with vegetable dyes.  With painstaking attention to detail and a similarity in style and stylisation to Kalamkari paintings.

Kondapalli toys are absolutely lightweight and come from Kondapalli, a little village near Vijayawada.  The style is warm and realistic with the faces of the toys being highly expressive.  The themes are centred around village and village life.  However, the process being highly flexible, the art form has found many admirers in foreign countries.

The wood is first seasoned.  Every single unit is separately carved and joined to the body with an adhesive paste of tamarind seeds, then coated with lime glue.  Painting is done with brushes made of goat's hair.  You can see a wide range of themes.  From animals, occupations and daily life, besides mythological characters.

Nirmal toys are yet another interesting expression of the famous Nirmal work.  Animals and bird forms abound.

Sari

The word sari is the anglicised version of sadi which existed in Prakrit as sadia, and derives itself from the sanskrit word sati, meaning a strip  of cloth.  The use of sati has been mentioned in the Mahabharata and can probably be traced back even farther.

But nothing, however, is known about the garment or the way it was worn.  But it's certain that the art was highly cultivated.  There are innumerable references in ancient Indian literature to this effect.  In Buddhist literature one finds mention of pleated ends of such garments which are hastisaundaka or resembling the elephant's trunk, matsyavalaka or fish-tail, talavrntaka or the palmette and satavallika or having innumerable fine folds.

The length of the sari, varies depending on the culture and conjunction of use. 

Andhra has the bright Venkatagiri saris which are woven with the help of a fly-shuttle loom, thrown from side to side.  Venkatagiri saris have pleasant colours with gold dots, coins, leaves, parrots, or simple geometrical patterns.

Narayanpet saris, in cotton and silk, come from a place with the same name.  The cotton saris woven in dark earthy colours are particularly eye-catching.  The pallav in these saris is characterised by a unique pattern of alternating red and white bands.  The border is usually a flat expanse of deep maroon red or chocolate red thinly separated by white or coloured lines.  These saris follow the Irkal style which has its roots in a place called Irkal in the state of Karnataka.

The Gadwal cotton, and Kothakota saris from Vanaparti have rich gold borders and  heavy panels like pallavs.  Siddipet and Armoor also produce cotton saris with  rich designs

Sheet Metal

Pembarthi village in Warangal District of Andhra Pradesh saw its glory during the reign of the Kakatiyas. You'd be wondering why and how. It is a 500 year old answer!

During the period of Kakatiya rule, sheet metal workmanship adorned the vigrahas (statues) and vahanas (chariots). With temples proliferating in the vast Kakatiya kingdom, the Pembarthi sheet metal worker saw his fame attract people from all regions of India. But sadly, the decline of the Kakatiya kingdom put craftsmen in the back seat. After successive waves of Muslim influence, the Pembarthi sheet metal art has acquired strikingly beautiful secular overtones. During the period of the Nizam (the erstwhile ruler of Deccan), the craftsmen switched over to making articles of home decoration like pandans (boxes for carrying betel nut), attar pots (scent containers) and more.

Stone Carvings

In classic Sanskrit treatises, the sculptor has been given various names. He is known as the Sadhak (Admirer), the Mantrin (Wizard), and the Yogi ( Visionary). This is perhaps explained by the ultimate aim of the sculptor to be primarily spiritual and only secondarily aesthetic.

The sculptor was not endeavouring to portray the mere perfection of the physical structure, as with the Greeks. He believed that even the perfect human figure could not fully manifest the higher spiritual values of life, nor contain within itself the attributes and qualities of the divinity.

Therefore, to give expression to such abstract conceptions , the sculptor consciously set for himself an ideal, which was not based on the contemplation of the natural form, but upon meditation of the divine form.

Consequently, you would notice a distinctive power of suggestiveness in the sculpted forms. Perhaps their supreme function, the idols and forms suggest attributes and possibilities beyond the range of mortals.

But every time the chisel carved a shape, it was based on Shilpashastras (axioms of sculpture). Drawing inspiration from the mind, mythology and experiences, the sculptor has left behind an impression that cannot be ravaged even by time itself.

Durgi, Allagadda and Tirupati are among the stone-carving centres in Andhra Pradesh.

Wood Carvings

In ancient India, the carpenter held an important place in the social life of the village and was in fact called the Sutradhar or the "holder of the liner'.  Mention of carpenters is also in the Rig Veda where elaborate directions as to the season and manner of felling a tree, seasoning of the wood and the making of the different articles required are given.

Though carpenters no longer drive chariots like they used to in ancient India, they definitely continue to enthrall us by their intricate and beautiful work.  Painstakingly-created, every wood carving is a story of dedication and perseverance.  Matched and ultimately crowned by the joy of creation itself.

In Andhra Pradesh wood carving has been practised in many parts.  In addition to carving idols and mythological forms, the art has adapted itself to creating wooden balustrades, arches, even combs and trinkets, besides musical instruments.  Red Sanders and other country woods are used as raw material.

Languages  

The main languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh are Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Banjara, and English followed by Tamil, Kannada, Marathi and Oriya. Telugu is the principal and official language of the State. It was also referred to as `Tenugu' in the past. `Andhra' is the name given to it since the medieval times. Some argued that `Telugu' was a corruption of `Trilinga' (Sanskrit meaning three `lingas'). A general description of the land of the Telugus was made in the medieval times as `the land marked by three lingas of the three famous shrines of Draksharamam (East Godavari district), Kaleswaram (Karimnagar district) and Srisailam (Kurnool district).

Telugu is the most widely spoken language of the Dravidian family which consists of 24 languages spanning the entire South-Asia, from Baluchistan to Sri Lanka. In terms of population, Telugu ranks second to Hindi among the Indian languages. According to the 1981* Census, Telugu is spoken by over 45 million in Andhra Pradesh. It has also spread

to the other parts of the globe, i.e., Burma, Indo-China, South-Africa and the U.S.A. Being a mellifluous language, it is called, by its admirers as the `Italian of the East'.

Its vocabulary is very much influenced by Sanskrit. In the course of time, some Sanskrit expressions used in Telugu got so naturalised that people regarded them as pure Telugu words. Some Kannada and Tamil words were also taken into Telugu but they did not gain much currency.

With the advent of the Muslim rule, several Persian and Arabic words entered into the Telugu language. But they were confined to the spoken language and to the language of the judiciary and the executive. The influence of Persian and Arabic is discernible to a considerable extent in the languages spoken in Telangana due to its long association with the Muslim rule. There is also a great element of English words in the vocabulary of Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema because these regions were directly under the British rule for nearly a century and a half.

The evolution of Telugu can be traced through centuries in terms of its form as well as its function. Although culturally Telugu is close to its southern neighbours -- Tamil and Kannada -- genetically, it is closer to its northern neighbours -- Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuvi, Pengo and Manda. There is evidence to show that these languages were freely borrowed from Telugu even from the prehistoric period whereas borrowing between Telugu and Tamil and Kannada has been mostly during the historic period, i.e., post-5th century B.C.

*Language-wise population figures of 1991 Census have not yet been released by the Census Department. 

It is possible to identify broadly four stages in the history of the Telugu language.

(1) B.C. 200 -- A.D. 500

(2) A.D. 500--A.D.1100

(3) A.D. 1100--A.D.1400 and

(4) A.D. 1400--A.D.1900.

During the first phase, we only come across names of places and personal names of Telugu in Prakrit and Sanskrit inscriptions found in the Telugu country. Telugu was exposed to the influence of Prakrit as early as the 3rd century B.C. From this we know that the language of the people was Telugu, although the language of the rulers was different. The first complete Telugu inscription belongs to the Renati Cholas, found in Erragudipadu, Kamalapuram taluk of Cuddapah district and assigned to about A.D. 575. Telugu was exposed to the influence of Sanskrit about this period. It appears that literature also existed in Telugu about the same time, because we find literary style in the inscriptions some three centuries even before Nannaya's (A.D. 1022) Mahabharatam.

During the time of Nannaya, the popular language had considerably diverged from the literary language.

 In the period A.D. 500--1100, the literary languages confined to the poetic works, flourished in the courts of kings and among scholars. Phonetic changes, which occurred in the popular language, are reflected in the literary language, although the two streams remained apart in grammar and vocabulary. During A.D. 1100--1400 the literary language got stylized and rigid, closing itself from the influence of contemporary spoken language. Ketana (13th century AD), a disciple of Tikkana prohibited the use of spoken words in the poetic works and quoted some spoken forms. During the period A.D. 1400--1900, many changes culminating in today's form of Telugu took place.

 The prose language of the 19th century, as can be seen from the `Kaifiyats', shows the educated speech as base with occasional influence of literary language. We also notice the influence of Urdu language on Telugu before the spread of English education.

 From the foregoing overview of the history of the Telugu language, one can see that what we now use as modern standard Telugu, had its beginnings in the spoken variety, right from the 10th century A.D. The language was progressively enriched by contact with Sanskrit, Prakrit, Urdu and English from early times.

 Until the advent of the printing press and the school system of education, Telugu was broadly used in four areas: (1) inscriptions, (2) poetry, (3) folk literature, (4) common speech (social and perhaps official). The language of the inscriptions had always been based on the contemporary speech of the educated with an occasional admixture of literary and rustic expressions. Folk literature, which was in the form of songs, drew mainly on the speech of the common people among whom it circulated, basically rural in its character. Both in its appeal and form, the poetic language was confined to royal courts and the elite. Care was taken to keep it insulated from the speech of even the scholars and poets, who used it in other areas of communication. Because of this restriction on the medium, prose never emerged as a form of classical literature in Telugu. Even the sparse scientific writing on prosody, arithmetic, medicine and grammar was cast either in Telugu verse or in Sanskrit slokas. The emergence of popular literary forms like the satakas devotional songs and the yaksha gana necessitated extensive reliance on contemporary spoken language in their appeal and expressiveness. Early commentaries, historical accounts (like Rayavachakam), and the few prose works, which were written for instructional purposes in the first half of the 19th century, were all written in educated speech which was distinct from the language of the literary dialect. In 1853, Chinnayasuri, a Telugu pundit in the Presidency College, first experimented with a prose variety based on the classical poetic language in his book "Niti Chandrika". In 1855, he published Bala Vyakaranamu, an excellent grammar of the poetic language, but it was intended for school study and as a guide to `Correct Writing'. These works had, to some extent, given support to traditional pundits, who upheld the Kavya bhasha as primary and the spoken language as its degenerate form. The influence of Chinnayasuri temporarily arrested the growth of creative prose by famous writers until Gurazada Appa Rao appeared on the scene and produced his social play Kanyasulkam in 1897 in a near

modern language. The controversy that raged between the two schools, classical and modern subsided in 1919 with a victory for the classic writers to perpetuate the use of the so-called granthikam (or the poetic dialect) as the language of the text-book language and the medium of examination. However, teaching has all along been done only in the spoken variety of the teacher.

 For about 90 years (1850--1940), Telugu prose had a stunted growth, although scholars like Kandukuri Viresalingam and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao used a `liberalized poetic variety' in their writings, which was neither fully classical nor fully modern.

 Since the nineteen forties, Telugu prose style wriggled out of the clutches of the traditional pundits. The emergence of mass media of communication, like the radio, T.V., cinema, language, newspapers and new forms of writing, under the impact of nationalist movement reinforced the importance of the spoken word and various literary forms blossomed in modern language. By and large, the prosperous Krishna -- Godavari delta became the breeding ground of many writers and scholars, and their spoken variety assumed several prose forms and slowly spread to other areas assimilating other dialects in its course. The language now used in all modern forms of literature and newspapers has a great degree of uniformity and acceptability, which lends it the status of a standard language. Now the nationalised text-books and those prescribed for Telugu language degree by universities are the only `sanctuaries' of the poetic dialect.

 The seminar sponsored by the State Government in 1964 at Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, resolved that only the modern language should be used for all subject (non-1st language) books written in Telugu and all 2nd language books. This resolution has been implemented in the case of subject text-books produced by the Telugu Akademi. Now all the universities in the State are allowing the use of modern Telugu as the examination medium and modern literature has been prescribed for study at the University level. In 1966, Telugu became the official language of the State and in 1974, correspondence in Telugu was made at the taluk level. This was gradually extended to Heads of Departments and Secretariat levels. In 1969, Telugu as the medium of instruction was introduced on a large scale in higher education.

Literature

Telugu literature is generally divided into six periods, viz.,

(1) the pre-Nannaya period (up to A.D. 1020),

(2) the Age of the Puranas (1020--1400),

(3) the Age of Srinatha (1400--1510),

(4) the Age of the Prabandhas (1510--1600),

(5) the Southern period (1600--1820), and

(6) the Modern Period (after 1820). 

In the earliest period there were only inscriptions from A.D. 575 onwards. Nannaya's (1022--1063) translation of the Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu is the piece of Telugu literature as yet discovered. The diction is so masterly that historians think that there must have been earlier works in Telugu. After the death of Nannaya, there was a kind of social and religious revolution in the Telugu country. 

Virasaivism propagated bhakti towards Siva as the only means of attaining salvation. Tikkana (13th century) and Yerrana (14th century) continued the translation of the Mahabharata started by Nannaya. Yerrana was also a devotee of Siva. Quite a few poets continued writing in Telugu and we come to the age of Srinatha. 

During this period, some Telugu poets translated Sanskrit poems and dramas, while others attempted original narrative poems. The popular Telugu literary form called the Prabandha, was evolved during this period. Srinatha (1365--1441) was the foremost poet, who popularised this style of composition (a story in verse having a tight metrical scheme). Srinatha's, Sringara Naishadham is particularly well-known.

We may also refer to the Ramayana poets in this context. The earliest Ramayana in Telugu is generally known as the Ranganatha Ramayana, though authorised by the chief Gona Buddha Reddi. Then there were the great religious poets like Potana (1450--1510), Jakkana (second half of the 14th century) and Gaurana (first half of the 15th century).

The golden period of Telugu literature was the 16th and 17th centuries A.D., Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalayada is regarded as a Mahakavya. Peddana's Manucharitra is another outstanding Mahakavya. Telugu literature flourished in the south in the Samsthanas like Madurai, Tanjavur etc., and that is why the age itself was called the `Southern Period'. We find a comparatively larger number of poets among the rulers, women and non-Brahmins who popularised the desi metres.

With the conquest of the Deccan by the Mughals in A.D.1687, there ensued a period of decadence (1750--1850) in literature. Then emerged a period of transition (1850--1910), following a long period of Renaissance. The Europeans like C.P.Brown played an important role in the development of Telugu language and literature. In common with the rest of India, Telugu literature of this period was increasingly influenced by the European literary forms like the novel, short story, prose, drama, belles-litters, etc.

The father of modern Telugu literature is Kandukuri Viresalingam Pantulu (1848--1919), who wrote a novel, Rajasekhara Charitamu, inspired by the Vicar of Wakefield. He was the first person in modern times to use literature to eradicate social evils. He was followed by Rayaprolu Subba Rao, Gurazada Appa Rao, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Katuri Venkateswara Rao, Jashuva, Devulapalli Venkata Krishna Sastry, Sri Sri, Puttaparty Narayana Charyulu and others in the sphere of poetry. Viswanatha Satyanarayana had won the coveted Jnanapith Award. ``Kanyasulkam'' (Bride-Money), the first social play in Telugu by Gurazada Appa Rao was a thumping success. We also

find the progressive movement, free verse movement and Digambara style finding expression in Telugu verse. The well-known modern Telugu novelists were Unnava Lakshminarayana (of Malapalli fame), Viswanatha Satyanarayana (Veyi Padagalu), Kutumba Rao and Buchchi Babu. Telugu is specially known for its daring experiments in the field of poetry and drama.

Urdu, another important language of the State and spoken by the Muslims is Indian in origin. Though many words in it found their way from the Arabic and Persian, it has always been true to the idiom of the western Hindi dialect. It was ``the language of the Exalted Court'' at Delhi in the Mughal period. It acquired the shortened name `Urdu' and became the handmaid of the Persian culture in India.

The 1981 census recorded 41,69,179 Urdu-speaking persons in the State comprising 21,21,859 males and 20,47,320 females. Hyderabad City, the State's Capital accounted for 35 per cent of the Urdu-speaking people in Hyderabad district, forming over 8 per cent of the population, and came next to Telugu. Guntur, Anantapur and Cuddapah districts also accounted for a sizeable number of Urdu-speaking people. In the Telangana region, the overall proportion of Urdu-speaking people is very high.

Hindi speaking people, numbering 13,83,792, (7,10,313 males and 6,73,479 females) and forming about three per cent of the population, held the third place. None of the remaining languages was spoken by even 2 per cent of the population. Thus Tamil, Kannada and Marathi account for still smaller proportions. These individual languages, however, account for a fairly substantial proportion of speakers in some districts. There were 6,45,463 Tamil; 4,84,330 Kannada, 4,31,352 Marathi and 2,36,420 Oriya speaking people in the State. People speaking Tamil are found concentrated in Chittoor district, which adjoins Tamil Nadu. They are also found to some extent in Nellore and Hyderabad districts. Kannada and Marathi speakers can be seen in districts like Anantapur and Kurnool, and Adilabad and Nizamabad respectively which have close proximity to the adjoining Kannada and Marathi areas of Karnataka and Maharashtra states.

Of the numerous other languages spoken in the State, the 1981 Census recorded 44,489 persons speaking Malayalam; 36,180 speaking Gujarati, 18,544 speaking Bengali, Punjabi -16,833, Sindhi - 9,521, Assami -248 and Kashmiri -121. Of the foreign languages spoken in the State, 414 speak Arabic and three, Tibetan.

The principal tribal languages spoken in the State are Banjara/Sugali/Lambadi ( 45,00,000) , Koya (1,58,097), Gondi (1,12,303), Savara (47,609), Jatapu (23,366), Kolami (13,395), Khondi/Kondh (11,890), Gadaba (11,291) and Donda (9,951).