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Glass Technology
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Introduction
G lass is an amorphous solid usually formed by the solidification of
a melt without crystallisation. It is an inorganic product of
melting, which has been cooled to rigid state without
crystallization. Melting is in fact the sole large scale industrial
method of glass making. G lass is being used worldwide and has
various applications. They are typically brittle and optically
transparent. It is widely used in buildings and having industrial
applications. The presence of glasses in our everyday environment
is so common that we rarely notice their existence. G lass, as a
substance, plays an essential role in science and industry. There are
various methods of glass making other than melting for example
condensation of vapours, conversion of crystals to an amorphous
form using mechanical means or irradiation with fast neutrons,
dehydration and sintering of gels, etc.
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Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental
constituent of glass. The properties of glass can be varied and
regulated over an extensive range by modifying the composition,
production techniques, or both. In any glass, the mechanical,
chemical, optical, and thermal properties cannot occur separately.
Instead, any glass represents a combination of properties, and in
selecting an individual glass for a product, it is this combination
that is important. As an architectural element, glass has become
the quite essential product for your home or building. The
applications of glass are limited only by your imagination; glass
has many applications both internal and external that play a vital
role in the function and design of your project.
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Industrially produced glasses can be divided into groups
according to various criteria: composition, appearance,
properties, application, method of forming etc. According to
their chemical composition glasses are classified as silica glass
(quartz glass), water (soluble) glass or sodium silicate glass,
crystal glass, heat resistant glass, low alkali glass etc. G lass is
finding ever wider applications in modern technology; sealing
glasses which have been in use for many years, serve in vacuum
tight joining of glass to metal, especially in vacuum electronics, in
nuclear technology (protection from radiation, immobilization of
radioactive waste by fusion into a chemically, resistant glass, etc.),
in agriculture (as carrier of fertilizers with long term effects) and
a number of possible application in electronics and many more.
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Some of the fundamentals of the book are structure of glass,
structure of special melts and glasses, composition of glass, glass
formation, crystallization and liquid, optical properties,
theoretical strength of glasses, practical strengths of glasses, flaw
sources and removal, viscosity of glass forming melts, theoretical
principles of glass melting, chemical reactions occurring in glass
melting, dissolution of solids in the melt, flow of glass in melting
furnaces, physical chemical factors in sol gel processing,
deposition of transparent non crystalline, metal oxide coatings by
the sol gel process etc.
The present book covers different important parameters of glass
technology. The book is comprehensive guide for researchers,
technologists, new entrepreneurs and professionals.
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DEMAND OF GLASS
Indian packaging industry is pegged to be around $ 1 5 billion with a
growth rate of 1 5 % approximately, out of which Indian container glass
industry stands at $ 0.87 billion with an approximate growth rate of 1 2
%. The Indian float glass is estimated to be around $ 0.76 billion with
growth rate of 32 % in the last fiscal year. The comparison between per
capita consumption of glass in countries like the USA - 27.5 kg and
Japan 1 0.2 kg suggests that India with a consumption of 1 .4 kg has a
huge scope for significant growth opportunities.
India has well developed glass container manufacturing industry, which
remained rudimentary for a long period. The industry has evolved to
adopt modern processes and automation in a large way. The current
installed capacity of the industry is over 7,000 tons per day. Indian float
glass market has an installed capacity of around 3000 tons per day.
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It has grown with CAG R of 1 3 % over the last five years. The major
source of revenue comes from Architectural - 85%, Automotive - 1 0%
and Others - 5%.
The segments served by the glass industry, which are showing huge
growth prospects are Alcobev packaging, real estate and automobile
industry. The real estate is expected to grow at 30 % over the next
decade, attracting foreign investments worth $30 billion.
Fuelled by growth in sectors like real estate, infrastructure, retail,
automotive and food & beverages, the country’s glass industry will
acquire a market size worth Rs.340 billion by 201 5 from Rs.225 billion
at present, according to a study by industry body . Indian glass market
is estimated to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAG R) of
1 5% over the next three years. The Indian glass industry is pegged at
$2.7 billion. G lass consumption growth is expected in construction (9
per cent), automotive (1 9 per cent), consumer goods (1 0-1 2 per cent)
and pharmaceuticals (1 2-1 5 per cent) sectors.
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The flat glass market, at present, stands at 4,500 tpd and is
growing at 1 6 per cent year-on-year while the container glass is at
7,000 tpd and contributes 55-60 per cent to the overall glass
market. Other glass (lighting, bangles, beads) market is at 1 ,500
tpd. Total capacity of glass manufactured in India – 5200
tonnes/day. Two upcoming capacities of 700 tonnes/day and 1 000
tonnes/day till end of 201 6 or beginning of 201 7. Expected growth
in 201 6/1 7 will be > 12%, owing to the planned construction of
around 1 00 smart cities. G lass imports are to the tune of 500
tonnes/day. This remains stable owing to anti-dumping on clear
float glass from China, Pakistan, UAE and Saudi Arabia.
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Table of Contents
1 . GLASS
• Definition and Historical Summary
• Structure of G lass
• Structure of Special Melts and G lasses
• Composition of G lass
• G lass Formation, Crystallization and Liquid
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• Immiscibility
• Chemical, Mechanical and Physical Properties of
Industrially Important Melts and G lasses
• Rheological Properties of G lass Melts
• Surface Tension
• Density
• Thermal Expansion
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• Elastic Properties
• Mechanical Strength
• Hardness
• Thermal Properties
• Electrical Properties
• G as Permeability
• Chemical Stability and Surface Properties
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• Optical Properties
• Color of G lasses
• Production of G lass
• Raw Materials
• Melting Units
• Melting, Fining and Homogenization
• G lass Cooling
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• Heating and Regulating G lass Melts
• Refractory Lining of Melting Units
• Vapor-Deposited G lasses
• Occupational Health
• Forming
• Hand Forming
• Annealing
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• Secondary of Finishing Operations
• Uses
• Silica and Silica-like G lass
• Flat G lass
• Laboratory G lassware
• Light-Sensitive G lass
• Display Devices
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• G lass Fibers
• Molded Optics
• G lasses for Nonlinear Optical Devices
• Economic Aspects
2. OPTICAL PROPERTIES
• Introduction
• Bulk Optical Properties
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• Refr a ct ive Index
• Mola r a nd Ionic Refr a ct ivi t ies
• Dis per s ion
• Ult r a violet Abs or pt ion
• Vis ib le Abs or pt ion
• Liga nd Field Color a t ion of Gla s s es
• Amber Gla s s
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• Colloida l Met a l Color s
• Colloida l S emiconduct or Color s
• Ra dia t ion -induced Color s
• S ola r iz a t ion
• Infr a r ed Abs or pt ion
• Infr a r ed Abs or pt ion by Bound Hydr ogen
S pecies
• Infr a r ed Abs or pt ion by Dis s olved Ga s es
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• Infr a r ed Cut offs or t he Mult iphonon Edge
• Ot her Opt ica l Pr oper t ies of Gla s s es
• Phot os ens i t ive a nd Phot ochr omic Gla s s es
• Opa l Gla s s es
• Fa r a da y Rot a t ion
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Int r oduct ion
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• Ela s t ic Modulus
• Ha r dnes s
• Fr a ct ur e S t r engt h
• Theor et ica l S t r engt h of Gla s s es
• Pr a ct ica l S t r engt hs of Gla s s es
• Fla w S our ces a nd Remova l
• S t r engt hening of Gla s s
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• S t a t is t ica l Na t ur e of Fr a ct ur e of Gla s s
• Fa t igue of Gla s s es
• Ther ma l S hock
• Annea ling of Ther ma l S t r es s es
4. VISCOSITY OF GLASSFORMING MELTS
• Int r oduct ion
• Vis cos i t y Defin i t ions a nd Ter minology
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• Vis coela s t ici t y
• Vis cos i t y Mea s ur ement Techniques
• Rot a t ion Vis comet er s
• Fa lling S pher e Vis comet er s
• Fiber Elonga t ion Vis comet er s
• Bea m-bending Vis comet er s
• Ot her Vis comet er s
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• Temper a t ur e Dependence of Vis cos i t y
• Fr a gi li t y of Melt s
• Fr ee Volume Model for Vis cous Flow
• Ent r opy Model for Vis cous Flow
• Compos i t iona l Dependence of Vis cos i t y
• S i lica t e Melt s
• Bor a t e Melt s
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• Ger ma na t e Melt s
• Ha lide Melt s
• Cha lcogenide Melt s
• Effect of Hydr oxyl on Melt Vis cos i t ies
• Effect of Ther ma l His t or y on Vis cos i t y
• Effect of Pha s e S epa r a t ion on Vis cos i t y
• Effect of Cr ys t a lliz a t ion on Vis cos i t y
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5. STRUCTURE OF GLASSES
• Gla s s For ma t ion
• Models of Gla s s S t r uct ur e
• The S t r uct ur e of Oxide Gla s s es
• S ubmicr os t r uct ur a l Fea t ur es of Gla s s es
• Mis cib i li t y Ga ps in Oxide S ys t ems
• Gener a l Dis cus s ion
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6. GLASS TECHNOLOGY
• The Cha r a ct er is t ics of Gla s s
• Pr oper t ies of Molt en Gla s s es
• Vis cos i t y
• Cr ys t a lliz a t ion
• S ur fa ce Tens ion
• Dens i t y
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• S peci fic Hea t
• Ther ma l Conduct ivi t y
• Elect r ica l Conduct ivi t y
• Theor et ica l Pr incip les of Gla s s Melt ing
• Chemica l Rea ct ions Occur r ing in Gla s s Melt ing
• Dis s olut ion of S olids in t he Melt
• Flow of Gla s s in Melt ing Fur na ces
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• Homogeniz a t ion
• Vola t i liz a t ion
• Refin ing a nd S olubi li t y of Ga s es
• Fla t Gla s s a nd Tube-for ming Pr oces s es
• The For ming of Gla s s Fibr es
• Pr oper t ies of Gla s s
• Mecha nica l Pr oper t ies
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• Ther ma l Pr oper t ies
• Opt ica l Pr oper t ies
• Elect r ica l Pr oper t ies
• Chemica l Dur a bi li t y
• Pr incip le Types of Indus t r ia l Gla s s es
• S i lica Gla s s (qua r t z gla s s )
• S odium-S i lica t e Gla s s (wa t er gla s s )
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• S heet a nd Cont a iner Gla s s ; t he S ys t em Na 2 O-
Ca O-S i O2
• Cr ys t a l Gla s s ; t he S ys t em K 2 O-Ca O-S iO2 a nd
K 2 O-PbO- S iO2
• Hea t -Res is t a nt Gla s s es of t he S ys t em Na 2 O-
B 2 O3 -S iO2
• Colour ed Gla s s es
• Opa l Gla s s es
• Opt ica l Gla s s es
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• Gla s s Fibr es
• Ot her Types of Oxide Gla s s es a nd Pr oduct s
• Cha lcogenide Gla s s es
7. NITRIDATION OF SILICA SOL-GEL THIN FILMS
• Int r oduct ion
• Exper iment a l Met hods
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• Res ult s a nd Dis cus s ion
• Fi lm S hr ink a ge
• Refr a ct ive Index
• S IMS Dept h Pr ofi les
• Auger Ana lys es
• Enha ncing t he Nit r ida t ion Rea ct ion wit h a
Chlor ine
• Pr et r ea t ment
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8. MODIFICATION OF OXIDES BY POLYMERIZATION PROCESS
• Int r oduct ion
• Int r oduct ion of Chemica l-S t r uct ur a l
Va r ia t ions in
• Inor ga nic Polymer s
• Theor et ica l Ba s es
• Exper iment a l
•
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• Effect on Pr oper t ies
• Effect on Dens i fica t ion a nd Vis cos i t y
• Effect on Cr ys t a lliz a t ion a nd Cr ys t a lline
Tr a ns for ma t ions
9. DRYING AND FIRING MONOLITHIC SILICA SHAPES FROM SOL-GELS
• Int r oduct ion
• Exper iment a l Technique
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• Res ult s a nd Dis cus s ion
10. SOL-GEL-DERIVED INDIUM-TIN-OXIDE COATINGS
• Int r oduct ion
• Pr oper t ies of S ol-Gel Der ived ITO Coa t ings
• Cha r a ct er is t ic Pr oper t ies of ITO-Coa t ings for
Window-
S ys t ems Der ived fr om Dip Coa t ing
• Opt ica l Pr oper t ies
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• Ar chi t ect ur a l Pr oper t ies
• Mecha nica l Pr oper t ies
• Chemica l Pr oper t ies
• Long-Ter m S t a bi li t y, Wea t her a bi li t y, Out door
Tes t s
• Pr oper t ies of a n Ins u la t ing Gla s s Unit (One
Pa ne ITO- Coa t ed)
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11. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE SOL-TO-GEL AND GEL-TO-GLASS CONVERSIONS
• Int r oduct ion
• Gela t ion
• Gel-t o-Gla s s Conver s ion
• Exper iment a l
• Res ult s & Dis cus s ion
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• Phys ica l Pr oper t ies
• S hr ink a ge a nd Dens i fica t ion
• Is ot her ma l S hr ink a ge Exper iment s
12. MONOLITHIC XERO-AND AEROGELS FOR GEL-GLASS PROCESSES
• Int r oduct ion
• Ma in S t eps in Gel Pr oces s ing
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• Cr a ck ing Dur ing t he Dr ying Pr oces s
• Ana lys is of Ca us es of Cr a ck ing
• Effect of Ca pi lla r y For ces
• Concept of Mois t ur e S t r es s
• Mecha nica l Res is t a nce of t he Gel
• Wa ys of Avoid ing Cr a ck ing Dur ing Dr ying
• Monoli t h ic Aer ogels
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• Conclus ion
13. BEHAVIOR OF MONOLITHIC SILICA AEROGELS AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE 1000 C
• Int r oduct ion
• Dens i fica t ion of t he Gel
• Exper iment a l Pr ocedur e
• Res ult s a nd Dis cus s ion
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• Conclus ion
14. TIO2 COATED GLASS BEADS
• Int r oduct ion
• Exper iment a l
• Ma t er ia ls
• Ins t r ument a t ion
• Pr epa r a t ion of Ca t a lys t s
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• Hydr ogena t ion Exper iment s
• Res ult s a nd Dis cus s ion
• Fea t ur es of Gla s s Bea ds Coa t ed wit h TiO2
• Ca t a lyt ic Act ivi t y of Pd Dis per s ions on TiO2
Coa t ed
• Gla s s S uppor t s
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15. DEPOSITION OF TRANSPARENT NON-CRYSTALLINE METAL OXIDE COATINGS BY THE SOL-GEL PROCESS
• Int r oduct ion
• Dip-Coa t ing Technique
• S ingle-La yer Coa t ings wit h Refr a ct ive
Index Gr a dient
• Exper iment a l Wor k
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• Res ult s a nd Dis cus s ion
• S iO2 -B 2 O3 -Na 2 O S ys t em
• S iO2 -Ba O S ys t em
16. PHYSICAL CHEMICAL FACTORS IN SOL-GEL
• PROCES S ING
• Int r oduct ion
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• S i lica Gel
• TiO2 Gels
• S iO2 -B2 O3 Gels
• S iO2 -TiO2 Gels
• Na 2 O-S iO2 Gels
• Dr ying
• The Gel-Gla s s Conver s ion
• Conclus ions
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o Electrical, Electronic And Computer based Projects
o Essential Oils, Oils & Fats And Allied
o Engineering Goods
o Fibre Glass & Float Glass
o Fast Moving Consumer Goods
o Food, Bakery, Agro Processing
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Sectors We Cover Cont…
o Fruits & Vegetables Processing
o Ferro Alloys Based Projects
o Fertilizers & Biofertilizers
o Ginger & Ginger Based Projects
o Herbs And Medicinal Cultivation And Jatropha (Biofuel)
o Hotel & Hospitability Projects
o Hospital Based Projects
o Herbal Based Projects
o Inks, Stationery And Export Industries
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Sectors We Cover Cont…
o Infrastructure Projects
o Jute & Jute Based Products
o Leather And Leather Based Projects
o Leisure & Entertainment Based Projects
o Livestock Farming Of Birds & Animals
o Minerals And Minerals
o Maize Processing(Wet Milling) & Maize Based Projects
o Medical Plastics, Disposables Plastic Syringe, Blood Bags
o Organic Farming, Neem Products Etc.
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Sectors We Cover Cont…
o Paints, Pigments, Varnish & Lacquer
o Paper And Paper Board, Paper Recycling Projects
o Printing Inks
o Packaging Based Projects
o Perfumes, Cosmetics And Flavours
o Power Generation Based Projects & Renewable Energy Based Projects
o Pharmaceuticals And Drugs
o Plantations, Farming And Cultivations
o Plastic Film, Plastic Waste And Plastic Compounds
o Plastic, PVC, PET, HDPE, LDPE Etc.
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Sectors We Cover Cont…
o Potato And Potato Based Projects
o Printing And Packaging
o Real Estate, Leisure And Hospitality
o Rubber And Rubber Products
o Soaps And Detergents
o Stationary Products
o Spices And Snacks Food
o Steel & Steel Products
o Textile Auxiliary And Chemicals
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Sectors We Cover Cont…
o Township & Residential Complex
o Textiles And Readymade Garments
o Waste Management & Recycling
o Wood & Wood Products
o Water Industry(Packaged Drinking Water & Mineral
Water)
o Wire & Cable
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Contact us
Niir Project Consultancy Services
106-E, Kamla Nagar, Opp. Spark Mall,
New Delhi-110007, India.
Email: [email protected] , [email protected]
Tel: +91-11-23843955, 23845654, 23845886, 8800733955
Mobile: +91-9811043595
Fax: +91-11-2385886
Website : www.entrepreneurindia.co , www.niir.org
Take a look at NIIR PROJECT CONSULTANCY SERVICES on
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www.niir.org
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For more information, visit us at: www.entrepreneurindia.co