Global Agenda for

Proceedings of a Consultation on Setting LivestockResearch Priorities in West Asia and North Africa

(WANA) Region

12–16 November 1997ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria

edited byE.F. Thomson, R. von Kaufmann, H. Li Pun, T. Treacher and H. van Houten

International Livestock Research InstituteP.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry AreasP.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria

Affiliation of authors

E.F. Thomson International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry AreasP.O. Box 5466, AleppoSyria

R. von Kaufmann International Livestock Research InstituteP.O. Box 30709, NairobiKenya

H. Li Pun International Livestock Research InstituteP.O. Box 5689, Addis AbabaEthiopia

T. Treacher ConsultantDepartamento de Produccion Agraria,Universidad Publica de Navarra31006 PAMPLONA, Spain

H. van Houten ConsultantP.O. Box 45273, Nairobi Kenya

Correct citation: Thomson E.F., von Kaufmann R., Li Pun H., Treacher T. and van Houten H. (eds). 2000. GlobalAgenda for Livestock Research. Proceedings of a Consultation on Setting Livestock Research Priorities in WestAsia and North Africa (WANA) Region, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria, 12–16 November 1997. ILRI(International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya, and ICARDA (International Centerfor Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo, Syria. 172 pp.

ISBN 92–9146–062–1

Contents

Preface · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · vWelcoming address · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · viiExecutive summary · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1Opening statement · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 7

Introductory papersGlobalisation of ILRI: Rationale and activities out of Africa

H. Li Pun · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11Small ruminant research in the medium-term plan of ICARDA

E.F. Thomson · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 17Global nutritional problems with special attention to the role of animal foods in human nutrition

P. Pellett and S. Ghosh · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 25

Country papersCyprus country paper

S. Economides · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 49Iraq country paper

A.R. Al-Rawi · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 53Jordan country report

M. Abu-Zanat · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 59Lebanon country paper

C. Hilan · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 66Syria country paper

A. Swaid · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 69Egypt country report

F. Al-Keraby · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 73Sudan country paper

B. Fadlalla and F.A Ahmed · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 77Algeria country paper

M.A. Nouad · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 84Libya country paper

M. Al-Masri· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 92Morocco country paper

B. Boulanouar and A.M. Matthess-Guerrero · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 96Saudi Arabia country paper

M.H. Al-Khamees · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 103United Arab Emirates country paper

M. Djemali and G. Alhadrami · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 105Yemen country paper

S.H. Ahmed· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 107Turkey country paper

O. Gürsoy and H. Sungur · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 112

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Iran country paperJ. Tavakolian· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 117

Pakistan country paperM. Afzal · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 120

Kazakstan country paperM. Kineev · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 127

Turkmenistan country paperO. Khadjikov and O. Annamuhamedov· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 129

Uzbekistan country paperU. Aripov · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 132

The ACSAD paperF. Tleimat and M. Wardeh · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 133

Reports from working groupsReport of working group 1: Research priorities for WANA rangelands · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 137Report of working group 2: Research priorities for WANA mixed livestock-based farming systems · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 141Report of working group 3: Research priorities for WANA rangelands · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 144

General conclusions and recommendationsGeneral conclusions and recommendations · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 149

AppendicesParticipants · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 155Programme · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 161

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PrefaceAnimal food products are becoming increasingly important components of the diets of people indeveloping countries and this trend is expected to accelerate through the next two decades. Between1983 and 1993 there was an increase in the proportion of both calories and protein derived fromanimal products for all regions within the developing world except of sub-Saharan Africa and theWest Asia and North Africa (WANA) region. This must be remedied because foods from animalsources are the best means of overcoming the protein-energy malnutrition and deficiencies of keymicronutrients that are prevalent among poor people. The adverse effects of malnutrition mostseriously affect children, adolescents and pregnant and lactating women. In children malnutritionleads to poor growth, diminished mental development, reduced immuno-competence and general illhealth. Since the future of all nations depends on their children the consequences will be felt for along time and remedial action must be taken now.

The best means of improving the micro-nutrient content of the diets of the poor is to enable these people to get affordable supplements of animal food products, such as meat, milk and eggs. Inaddition to being convenient sources of high quality, readily digested protein and energy, theseproducts also supply essential micronutrients such as iron, zinc, B12, retinol, thiamin, calcium,vitamin B6 and vitamin A, which are typically lacking in cereal-based diets.

Livestock production is also a key activity for the livelihood of smallholder farmers andpastoralists in the WANA region. They serve multiple functions, including being the main form ofbuilding assets (saving and capitalisation). Improvement of the well-being of smallholder farmers andpastoralists require increasing the productivity of their agricultural production systems in whichlivestock are a key component.

Increasing supplies of livestock products in the WANA region will not be an easy task. Currentsystems of production are already putting a lot of stress on natural resources, particularly soil, water,and plant and animal biodiversity. New technologies must be found that are free of environmentalhazards and are sustainable in the long run. Innovations will also be required to cope with the animalnutrition, health and management problems that will emerge with more intensive systems ofproduction. And, the desirable innovations will not be adopted unless there are conducive policiesthat empower small producers, and ensure sustainable use of natural resources.

Fortunately the countries of the region have well established agricultural research institutionsthat are aware of and have been successfully dealing with the problems over the years. The institutions have acquired invaluable information and understanding of the causes of the problems and havedisseminated improved technologies that the farmers have adopted. Nevertheless, much more needsto be done to improve the welfare of the smallholder livestock keepers and poor consumers in theWANA countries.

Collaboration between partners is a powerful means of accelerating the rate of progress inagricultural research for development. To promote collaboration, ILRI and ICARDA, with thegenerous support of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) hosted theregional consultation reported in this proceedings. The purpose of the consultation was to fostercollaboration between livestock scientists in the region and to learn what had been done and whatmore is needed to promote livestock development. And finally to be informed how best they mightcomplement and add value to livestock research in the region.

ILRI and ICARDA are very grateful for the contributions of the forty participants from 16 WestAsian and North African countries (Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Yemen), and 3Central Asian countries (Kazakstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) and the representatives of the Arab

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Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), Arab Organization for AgriculturalDevelopment (AOAD), Centre de Coopération Internationale en recherche agonomique pur ledéveloppement (CIRAD), Department for International Development (DfID), Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Deutsche Gesellschaft für TechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ), Italian Co-operation and the Global Livestock Collaborative ResearchSupport Programme (GL–CRSP). This proceedings is the formal publication of the outcomes of theconsultation that have already greatly contributed to advancing collaboration in livestock research inWANA.

ILRI and ICARDA are indebted to Dr Euan Thomson for organising and managing theconsultation. We are also indebted to Dr Ahmed Sidahmed and his colleagues at IFAD for theircontinuous support and encouragement to carry out research activities for the development of thepoor in developing countries.

On behalf of ILRI, I would like to thank Dr Ersin Istanbouluglou, Vice-Chair, ICARDA Board of Trustees for his personal support and very active participation in the consultation and Dr Adel ElBeltagy, Director General of ICARDA, for hosting the meeting. The hospitality and generosity of allthe staff of ICARDA was exceptional and contributed greatly to the success of the consultations.

Ralph von KaufmannDirector for External Relations, ILRI

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Welcoming addressJ. DoddsICARDA Assistant Director General, Research

Dear ColleaguesOn behalf of Prof Dr Adel El Beltagy, Director General of ICARDA (International Center for

Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), who apologises for not being with us today, I welcome you tothe consultation on ‘Setting Livestock Research Priorities in WANA.’ The presence ofrepresentatives from 25 different countries in West Asia, North Africa (WANA), Central Asia,Europe and North America is a clear indication of your interest in attending the consultation.

As we all know, Syria lies in the heartland of the region where agriculture originated some 10,000years ago. But it is even more pertinent that we are sitting today close to the region where smallruminants were first domesticated at about the same time. The consultation is a landmark in thehistory of ICARDA for a number of reasons. First, ICARDA has just celebrated its 20th anniversary.Second, it is the largest meeting on livestock ever held at ICARDA. And third, it is the first meeting inWANA between ICARDA, which is now responsible for research on small ruminants in the dryareas, and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute).

In 1996 ICARDA, along with ILRI and the other centres within the CGIAR (ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research), completed the preparation of its new Medium-TermPlan (MTP) for the period 1998–2000. The MTP outlines the course that ICARDA will take until theyear 2000 and beyond, and presents the research activities that will be conducted to fulfil its mandateand achieve its goals. In his presentation, Dr Euan Thomson will go into greater detail about theresearch on small ruminants envisaged in the MTP. However, it is worth noting certain points.

WANA is a region with a population that is expected to double by the year 2025 to 1,500 billion.Achieving the additional food, and indirectly feed, production to meet the increasing demand of thepeople will put even greater pressures on the already scarce water and land resources. These prospectshave important implications for the future of livestock and rangeland research in the region.ICARDA recognises this and small ruminant and rangelands are explicitly included in our missionstatement. The MTP also presents the expanded geographical area of the centre to include the dryareas of Central Asia, Mongolia and north-west China, northern Mexico, southern America,southern Africa and northern India.

The joint FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)/ICARDA regionalworkshop held here in July 1997 is further evidence of the significance that ICARDA attaches tolivestock, in particular small ruminants. That workshop laid the foundation for a future programmeof research on the conservation, management and characterisation of species and breeds of livestockin WANA and central Asia. It will involve many national programmes, three CGIAR centres—ICARDA, ILRI and IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute)—as well as FAO. Thenearly completed laboratory/animal house, dedicated to Dr Orita who worked at ICARDA for eightyears with generous support from Japan, will strengthen the current research facilities alreadyavailable at ICARDA. Thus, ICARDA is taking seriously the importance of livestock in the countriesof the region where they account for 20–50% of agricultural gross domestic product.

But let us not deceive ourselves about the future. Core funding of research is decreasing to critical levels. This has resulted in greater efforts being made to raise funds for special projects which nowfinance more than half of ICARDA’s total research efforts. Several of us here today, including ourcolleagues from ILRI, have just returned from the 1997 annual meetings of the CGIAR with donorsin Washington. What we discussed and heard reinforces our awareness of the challenges ahead. We

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will have to take greater care to focus our scarce resources on research that has impact at the farm level, contributes to poverty alleviation and helps to strengthen the human resource capabilities of national programmes in specific areas.

We will have to carefully identify the roles of national programmes, international researchorganisations and advanced centres of research and teaching both within and outside the region. This will enable us to exploit the comparative advantage of these different entities. But comparativeadvantage does not mean we should work in isolation. Indeed, we are actively pursuing synergiesamong the collaborating partners This consultation is part of a process to bring us all closer together.

Let me say something about one of our major clients, the farmers and their families. Theycultivate the land and tend the animals, and they are exposed to so many factors beyond theircontrol—the weather, pests and disease, and the policy and marketing environment to mention but afew. We are critically aware of these issues and know that farmers will not change unless they seesubstantial benefits arising from the new technologies scientists develop. It is therefore moreimportant than ever to involve farmers in the whole research process: from the identification ofconstraints, through the planning of the research, to its implementation. Participation of farmers inthe research process is now beyond doubt a key to the successful adoption of new technologies. This is why this consultation is so timely and relevant. It will help us achieve our goal of conducting focusedresearch that is relevant to the needs of the region.

Before closing, let me thank ILRI for its support to livestock research in WANA and forparticipating in this consultation. And we thank IFAD (International Fund for AgriculturalDevelopment) for the generous financial support which has made the consultation possible. Onbehalf of the Director General and all my colleagues here at ICARDA, we hope that the coming fewdays will be productive and enjoyable.

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Executive summaryWhen the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) was founded in 1995, it was decided thatits contribution to international agricultural research would be demand-led and based on theInstitute's comparative advantages. The Institute would focus its research where it could be mosteffective. To achieve this focus, it would be necessary to define a global agenda for livestock researchthat takes into account the comparative advantages and potential contributions of otherstakeholders, especially the national agricultural research systems (NARS), regional research agenciesand the other international agricultural research centres (IARCs), including ICARDA.

To develop the global agenda for international livestock research, a series of consultations havebeen held at strategic global locations to determine the priorities of the stakeholders. The firstconsultation was held at ILRI1 in Nairobi, Kenya. This was followed by four regional consultationsorganised by ILRI in collaboration with the following:• International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), in Los Baños, The Philippines,2 in May 1995• International Centre for Research in the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), in Hyderabad, India3 in

June 1995 • Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), in San Jose, Costa Rica,4 in

October 1995• Asian stakeholders, in Hanoi, Vietnam, in May 1997.5

The meeting held in Nairobi served to establish an initial set of priorities for ILRI. Suggestionswere made about topics and partners in the different regions of the world. Background papers werepresented on on-going global initiatives, such as livestock and the environment and ecoregionalanalysis of livestock production systems, and regional papers for S. Asia, S.E. Asia, Latin America andthe Caribbean, West Asia and North Africa.6

Regional working groups were also formed. The main areas of research identified for WANAwere:• Conservation and management of natural resources• Development and transfer of livestock and feed improvement techniques• Policy, socio-economic and institutional research• Characterisation of indigenous livestock breeds and their resistance to disease• Germplasm development of grasses, legumes and shrubs for steppe areas.

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1. Gardiner P. and Devendra C. (eds). 1995. Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of a Consultation, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya, 18–20January 1995. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairbi, Kenya. 114 pp.

2. Devendra C. and Gardiner P. (eds). 1995. Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of the Consultation for the South-East Asia Region,IRRI (International Rice Research Institute), Los Baños, The Philippines, 10–13 May 1995. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute),Nairobi, Kenya. 276 pp.

3. Devendra C. and Gardiner P. (eds). 1995. Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of the Consultation for the South Asia Region,ICRISAT (International Crops Research for the Semi-Arid Tropics) Asia Center, Patancheru, India, 6–8 June 1995. ILRI (InternationalLivestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 141 pp.

4. Ruiz M.E., Sere C., Li Pun H. and Gardiner P. (eds). 1995. Latin American and Caribbean Livestock Research Priorities, San Jose, Costa Rica,16–20 October 1995. Summary Report. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 33 pp.

5. Devendra C., Smalley M. E. and Li Pun H. (eds). Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of a Conference on Development of Livestock Research Priorities in Asia, National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Hanoi, Vietnam, 13–15 May 1997. ILRI (International LivestockResearch Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 48 pp.

6. Sidahmed A. E. 1995. Livestock and feed development and improvement research needs in West Asia and North Africa. In: GardinerP. and Devendra C. (eds), Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of a Consultation, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya, 18–20 January 1995.ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. pp. 89–92.

The first regional meeting on future livestock research needs in WANA took place on November9–10, 1995, in Amman, Jordan.7

It was convened by ICARDA and ILRI, taking advantage of the presence of WANArepresentatives at a meeting on crop/livestock integration, organised by ICARDA. It was attended by20 people representing eight WANA countries, two advanced research institutes from Europe, oneregional organisation and two international agencies. Introductory papers were presented onlivestock production systems, feed resources, breeding, health, reproduction and socio-economics.Major researchable issues identified for WANA were:• Defining crop–livestock enterprises according to farmer’s goals

• Comparisons of small ruminants and cattle for resource use

• Diagnostic surveys of peri-urban systems

• Farmer participatory methods

• Marketing systems

• Livestock development policies

• Introduction of fodder crops

• Micronutrient deficiencies

• Feeding systems based on agro-industrial by-products

• Causes of embryo mortality and poor fertility

• Epidemiological studies and the economic impact of diseases

• Genetics of fecundity and disease resistance

• Characterisation and genetic improvement of local breeds.These topics were not prioritised, given the time constraints and the range of ecosystems covered

in the discussions. Dominance of bio-technical topics was due to a predominance of livestockscientists at the meeting. Given the importance of a more holistic view of livestock problems andopportunities, future consultations should include socio-economists. It was also concluded thatsenior NARS representatives from a wider range of countries should be invited to anotherconsultation, aimed at matching national development objectives with livestock research priorities.

Therefore, to complete the series of consultations, and as a follow-up to the meeting in Amman,ICARDA and ILRI with generous support from the International Fund for Agriculture Development(IFAD) organised this regional consultation to establish research priorities for the West Asia and NorthAfrica (WANA) region. The meeting took place at ICARDA in Aleppo, Syria, November 12–16, 1997.

The consultation brought together 40 representatives from national programmes in 17 WestAsian and North African countries—Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya,Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates andYemen—and three central Asian countries—Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It was alsoattended by representatives from two regional agencies, ACSAD and AOAD, and four donoragencies: CIRAD, DfID, GTZ and Italian Co-operation. The FAO and the US Global LivestockCollaborative Research Support Programme (GL-CRSP) were also represented. Altogether, thedelegates represented 24 countries interested in livestock research and development in WANA.

The main purpose of the consultation was to identify research priorities and define an agenda forlivestock research for development in the WANA region. Specifically it was intended to:

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7. Thomson E. F. and Lahlou-Kassi A. 1995. Report about a Workshop on Future Livestock Research Priorities in WANA. held inAmman, Jordan, 9–10 November 1995. (unpublished).

• identify major constraints and research opportunities in relation to the roles of livestock inpoverty alleviation, food security and management of natural resources

• define a regional livestock research agenda• identify priority topics for NARS-IARC collaboration.The consultation involved:• presentations of information papers by ILRI and ICARDA on their medium-term plans and

global and regional activities• a keynote address on the role of animal foods in human diets• country presentations on major livestock-related activities, production and development

constraints and opportunities for research• three working groups to identify research priorities for range-based and mixed crop–livestock

systems• plenary sessions to agree on the main recommendations and courses of action.

The country representatives provided background information on their agricultural systems,defined the importance of different livestock components and identified constraints to livestockproduction and development. The following general points emerged:• WANA is characterised by high human population growth and is expected to double its

population by the year 2020• It has low and erratic rainfall, severely limited water resources and limited areas of arable land• Regional poverty in countries such as Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen is masked in average

figures because of the rich countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabiaand UAE, which represent only 5% of the population of the region

• There is a major deficiency of high-quality protein and animal-source micro-nutrients in the dietsof the population in general

• Sheep are the most important livestock in the region, closely followed by goats• Pakistan, Sudan and Turkey have significant numbers of cattle, many of them in the smallholder

dairy sector• Buffalo are increasingly important livestock in Pakistan• Saudi Arabia and UAE have very sophisticated dairy and poultry industries in the private sector• Camels are less important except in Somalia and Sudan.At the plenary session it was agreed that:• there is great potential in the WANA region for the improvement of livestock productivity and

the welfare of livestock producers and consumers• the problems in animal production are complex, and holistic and participatory approaches to

research are needed to tackle them• no single institution could achieve much by working alone and, therefore, partnerships are

necessary• partnerships will have to be established based on general principles of openness and sharing of

costs, benefits and attributions• standardisation of research methods will be necessary to ensure broad regional and global

application• training, information exchange and networking are essential to increase the impacts of this

research

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• it is necessary to increase awareness of the importance of strengthening links between researchand development activities, such as extension and availability of credit.Three working groups developed a full list of constraints and opportunities. These were then

prioritised and further refined. Alternative approaches to research on the identified priorities wereconsidered to determine whether they could be tackled most effectively at the national orinternational level. Research priorities applicable across the different systems were identified as: • characterisation of small ruminant breeds within existing production systems• epidemiological studies to assess the economic importance of the main animal diseases, with

particular emphasis on the problem of transmission of diseases across national frontiers • inventories, monitoring and evaluation of feed resources• access to resources, including common property rights• impact of privatisation• development of strategies for rehabilitating rangelands.

The main recommendations for research priorities to be addressed by the national agriculturalresearch systems (NARS) were:• feed resources: assessment in different production systems, strategic supplementation• animal health: development of integrated flock and herd health management strategies,

validation of diagnostic kits• animal breeding: development of production and reproduction recording systems, selection

indices for livestock improvement based on farmers objectives, and strategies for establishmentof nucleus herds

• herd management: determine interactions between nutrition and reproduction efficiency • policies: delivery of veterinary and extension services, marketing policy for both inputs and

outputs• marketing: impact on production systems of marketing strategies and terms of trade• natural resource management: water conservation and utilisation• extension: assessment of extension services and proposals for improvements, establishment of

mechanisms to coordinate research, extension, credit and policy formulation.In addition to cross system recommendations identified in paragraph 13, the main

recommendations of the working groups for issues that need to be addressed internationally throughcollaboration between the national agricultural research systems (NARS) and the internationalagricultural research centres (IARCs) were as follows:• feed resources: improved forage and fodder quality, nutritional evaluation of feeds

(phytochemistry, methods and rumen ecology)• animal breeding: estimation of genetic parameters for economic traits, development of

appropriate genetic evaluation methods, breeding for disease resistance, breed characterisation,including DNA mapping

• animal diseases: economic impact and epidemiology of diseases of regional importance • policy: assessment of land management and land tenure systems, options for improvement • extension: assessment of extension methods• natural resource management: development of indicators for land degradation, water use

efficiency• farmer participation: development of effective methods to ensure the participation of farmers in

the overall research and development process.

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As a follow-up, it was agreed that more specific project proposals would be developed for researchon the priorities that had been identified in the consultation. This would be done in a participatorymanner, involving the major stakeholders and following the agreed principles for partnerships.

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Opening statementR. von KaufmannILRI, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya

Ersin Istanbulluoglu, Vice-Chair, ICARDA Board of Trustees, ladies and gentlemen, welcome to theopening session of the consultation, Setting livestock research priorities in West Asia and NorthAfrica.

I would like to start the proceedings by welcoming all the participants and thanking them fortaking the time and trouble to attend this meeting. The strong interest in the consultation thatlivestock policymakers and scientists from the countries of the West Asian and North African regionhave shown reflects the importance that they attach to finding solutions to the problems faced bysmallholders and pastoralists in the region. It also reflects their concern for the low-incomeconsumers of livestock products and the state of the environment.

On behalf of Dr Hank Fitzhugh, Director General of the International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI), I would like to thank the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)for its foresight and generosity in providing the essential financial support for the consultation. Welook forward to its continuing support in implementing its recommendations.

On behalf of the participants, I would like to thank Dr Adel El Beltagy, Director General of theInternational Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), for his personalcontribution to the success of this consultation and for making available ICARDA’s exceptionalheadquarters facilities for the meeting. We are indebted to Dr Euan Thomson and indeed all the staffof ICARDA for their welcome and hospitality. We recognise that meetings such as this require a lot of preparation and we are grateful to all concerned.

The title of the conference, Setting livestock priorities in West Asia and North Africa, indicates a trulydaunting topic. It will require careful setting of priorities to determine where research can have thegreatest impact on the many constraints that smallholders and pastoralists face in West Asia andNorth Africa. This is the task of the national and regional delegates to this consultation.

The international centres, represented here by ICARDA and ILRI, look forward to collaboratingwith their national and regional colleagues on important issues in livestock health, productivity,policy and the environment. The region has special significance for livestock scientists because itwitnessed the earliest domestication of livestock and the employment of livestock in animalagriculture. The importance of livestock remains undiminished, but it presents many challenges toscience that will be best met by exploiting the comparative advantages of national, regional andinternational institutions in collaborative livestock research programmes.

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Introductory papers

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Globalisation of ILRI: Rationale and activitiesout of AfricaH. Li PunILRI, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

IntroductionThe International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is one of the sixteen international agriculturalresearch institutions of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Itstarted activities as a global institute for livestock research in 1995, however, it builds upon more than two decades of research experience in Africa as it is the result of the merger of two other centres, theInternational Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and the International Laboratory for Research onAnimal Diseases (ILRAD).

Led by its global mandate for research in smallholder crop–livestock systems in developingcountries, ILRI is actively expanding out of Africa. This paper focuses on the globalisation of ILRI’sprogrammes into Asia, Latin America, West Asia and North Africa and the Caucasus, discusses therationale for this globalisation and describes the ongoing activities in those new research anddevelopment domains.

Rationale of globalisationILRI’s purpose is the improvement of the livelihood of people in developing countries through thesustainable increase in the productivity of crop–livestock systems while protecting the naturalresource base. ILRI is organised in three programmes: • Biosciences, which addresses lab and experimental station research on ruminant genetics,

ruminant health and feed resources

• Sustainable Production Systems, which addresses strategic and applied field based research onsystems analysis and impact assessment, livestock policy analysis, crop–livestock systems,livestock under disease risk, market oriented smallholder dairy and the System-wide LivestockProgramme (SLP)

• Strengthening Partnership with National Agricultural Systems (SPAN), which addresses theprovision of training and information systems and the organisation of networks.ILRI’s mandate encompasses international livestock research throughout the developing world.

ILRI is a new institution with old roots in Africa. Therefore, particular emphasis has been given in the last few years to identifying critical ecoregions and research priorities in Asia, Latin America and West Asia and North Africa (Devendra et al 1998; Ruiz et al 1995; Devendra and Gardiner 1995a;Devendra and Gardiner 1995b) establishing links and partnerships with national agriculturalresearch systems (NARS), other centres in the Consultative Group on International AgriculturalResearch (CGIAR), non-governmental organisations and agricultural research institutes; andpreparing project proposals to obtain the funds required to build outposted research teams and carryout research in key ecoregions of the world.

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In planning the globalisation of ILRI’s programme and its implementation, priority was given toAsia, particularly South-East Asia, as suggested by the Board of Trustees. The decision was based on ourassessment of Asian animal agriculture, which indicated that sustainable increases in farm productivitywere likely to come from mixed crop–livestock systems in rainfed and irrigated areas in South-East Asia(Devendra et al 1998). However, as ILRI’s programme evolved, activities are being developed in otherregions where livestock are important, particularly Latin America, Southern Asia, West Asia and NorthAfrica (WANA) and more recently the Central Asian countries and the Caucasus.

A key element in the globalisation process was the establishment of links between ILRIprogrammes. A two-pronged approach is used to implement globalisation. The first element is asystemic framework to characterise ecoregions and production systems and to target interventions byex ante analysis, priority setting and integration of information. The second element is componentanalysis and research based on opportunities identified through ecoregional consultations andexpressions of interest on feed, animal health, genetics, policy and other issues. Complementarily, weare vigorously pursuing the search for funds that will allow us to accelerate our expansion process andimplement agreements of the different regional consultations.

ILRI activities outside of Africa are funded from both unrestricted sources and sources restrictedto programme or projects. The latter includes the Australian Centre for International AgriculturalResearch (ACIAR), the Department for International Development (DFID, UK), the EuropeanDevelopment Fund (EDF), the German Ministry for Technical Co-operation (BMZ), theInternational Development Research Centre (IDRC, Canada), the Inter-American DevelopmentBank (IDB), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Japan, Spain and SwissAgency for Development and Co-operation (SDC). Several proposals are in donor agency pipelines.

Another important element of the ILRI globalisation strategy is the System-wide LivestockProgramme (SLP). Convened by ILRI, the SLP is a mechanism to strengthen the links of the CGIARplant-oriented centres with ILRI. A shared research approach to animal feed, nutrient cycling andnatural resource management has been developed, and the programme has plans and proposals forcollaborative research with ecoregional consortia in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Nine otherinternational centres8 constitute the Livestock Programme Group (LPG), which serves as the advisory body to the SLP. Centres and their ecoregional consortia are encouraged to submit concept notes ofresearch proposals for consideration by the LPG. When such a note is approved, the SLP will providesupport for the development of the full proposal and seek donor support under the SLP umbrella. Itmay also provide matching funds to complement donor and partner investments in such proposals.Three projects are currently being executed, with CIAT, ICRAF and ICARDA, each leading one.

Activities and progress in globalisation

Asia

Project on improvement of crop–livestock systems in rainfed uplands inSouth-East Asia

Collaborative agreements have been signed with IRRI and the Philippine Council for Agriculture,Forestry and Natural Resource Management Research and Development (PCAARD). A

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8. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), the International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat (CIMMYT), the International Center for TropicalAgriculture (CIAT), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the International Food PolicyResearch Institute (IFPRI), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the International Potato Institute (CIP) and theInternational Rice Research Institute (IRRI).

multidisciplinary team will be established to start the ecoregional characterisation of crop–livestocksystems, typification of livestock systems and constraint identification. Geographical informationsystems (GIS) maps will be produced, including maps for agro-ecological areas, livestock densities,socio-economic characteristics and markets.

The team will be based at IRRI, obtaining valuable collaboration from IRRI staff, while buildingtheir existing databases. The maps will help in selecting benchmark sites in the five countries initiallyselected for the project. A meeting with our partners from the national programmes is to take place inVietnam in November 1998, to select the locations for the regional project. The potential support forthis activity from donors is encouraging.

Following the Hanoi consultation, where training was identified as a first priority, a course oncrop–livestock systems research methods will be programmed for South-East Asia, to be held inVietnam at Can Tho University in 1998.

For the same ecoregion, new funding from ACIAR is being negotiated. ILRI has submitted toACIAR a project, ‘Sustainable endoparasite control for small ruminants in South-East Asia’. It isexpected that, this regional project will be implemented over the next months. An animalscientist–health specialist will then be hired and based at PCAARD and IRRI in Los Baños, thePhilippines. As a first activity in the project, a planning workshop is to be held by the end of next yearin Muñoz, the Philippines. This project is complementary to the one on improving crop–livestocksystems in rainfed uplands in South-East Asia. The activity will be part of ILRI Project ‘Geneticresistance to disease,’ and it will link the Biosciences and the Sustainable Production SystemsProgrammes.

Economic importance of animal diseases in intensive dairy systems

An agreement has been reached between Kasetsart University (Thailand), ILRI and Texas A&MUniversity to conduct a study on policies to promote prevention of diseases of intensification in dairycattle in central Thailand. This short-term study is meant to lead to the expansion of research onanimal health policy in Asia.

South Asia assessment

ILRI and the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) in the UK have finalised the assessment of livestockresearch priorities in South Asia. The Assessment involved extensive review of the literature;consultation with partners in India (Indian Council for Agricultural Research, ICAR; the NationalDairy Development Board, NDDB), Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka; field visits;interviews with donor agencies; and analysis and write up of information. Main ecosystems selectedfor ILRI activities have been recommended. Two concept notes have been produced on improvingdairy systems and small ruminant production systems. They will be shared with partners and donoragencies.

Project on improvement of crop residues through breeding

ILRI has a small team of scientists based at ICRISAT in Patancheru. The research is mainly geared atworking with crop breeders to identify cultivars of sorghum and millet with superior food and feedcharacteristics. A study, ‘Ex ante economic impact assessment of the genetic improvement of milletand sorghum residues’, is being conducted with support from the SDC.

With SLP funding, ICRISAT is co-ordinating the development of a proposal on improvinglivestock productivity in crop–livestock systems in South Asia. The objectives of this project include1) understanding the relative importance of factors influencing the evolution of mixed

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crop–livestock systems over time, 2) constructing and characterising a crop–livestock system typologyfor South Asia, and 3) assessing the relative importance of market, feed resource and animalgenotype–related constraints in selected mixed crop–livestock systems and the interactions betweenthem. This project complements what is already being done in South-East Asia and will complete thecharacterisation of the most important Asian crop–livestock systems.

Characterisation of dairy systems in Sri Lanka

ILRI will collaborate with the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) of India and the Ministryof Agriculture of Sri Lanka in characterising dairy systems and identifying key constraints. The rapidrural appraisal methods developed and tested in East Africa will be used in this study. Results willallow comparison of dairy systems in Africa and Asia.

Economic importance of foot-and-mouth diseases in Asia: Evaluation

This study was identified at the Hanoi meeting as one of the priority areas. ILRI is initiating the studyin collaboration with NARS in Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand andVietnam. The project will start by developing relevant databases in a GIS format. The initial focus will be on Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. The study is under the auspices of the OfficeInternational des Epizooties (OIE) and funded by the Swiss government.

Research on trade and livestock productivity

ILRI and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) initiated a study on the implicationsfor livestock production of trade and productivity options in South and South-East Asia. Using ageneral equilibrium model, they are assessing the implications of different production and tradescenarios on welfare and trade options in the region.

Research activities with the International Center for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD)

A livestock database will be developed within the present framework of the Hindu-Kush farmingsystem information file of ICIMOD. This collaborative activity is scheduled to start in 1998. Based on this initial activity, proposals will be prepared for submission to donors. This is being implemented asan extension of the ILRI project initially started in Africa improving crop–livestock systems in thehighlands.

Latin America and the Caribbean

Tropileche

This consortium of institutions is a joint effort to improve milk production in dual-purpose cattlesystems through the introduction of improved legumes. The consortium is co-ordinated by theInternational Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and includes ILRI and institutions of Peru(Instituto Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura, IVITA; Instituto Nacional deInvestigaciones Agropecuarias, INIA; Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana, IIAP;Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de Ucayali, CODESU), Costa Rica (Ministerio deAgricultura, Escuela Centroamericana de Ganadería, Universidad de Costa Rica), Nicaragua

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(Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería), Honduras (Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología) andVenezuela (Universidad Central de Venezuela). ILRI is participating through the joint appointment(CIAT–ILRI) of the co-ordinator, and through funding of the work on improved legumes by the SLP.Activities include characterisation of farming systems, on-farm testing of improved feeding systemsfor calves and milking cows, calibration of the Cornell carbohydrate and protein model, diffusion ofresearch results, and training. IDB, EDF and BMZ fund this activity.

Andean ecoregion

The initial activities of ILRI in this area are within the Consortium for the Sustainable Development ofthe Andean Ecoregion (CONDESAN). This consortium is working to improve crop–livestock systemsand natural resource management in the ecoregion. The consortium, co-ordinated by the InternationalPotato Centre (CIP), includes a wide range of research and development (R&D) institutions (nationalagricultural research institutes, non-governmental organizations, universities) interested in these topics. ILRI started activities in the consortium in 1997. A joint appointee, has been assigned by CIP and ILRIto co-ordinate livestock-related activities. Initial work has included establishing memoranda ofunderstanding with partners in Peru (Asociación para el Desarrollo Rural de Cajamarca,ASPADERUC, Centro de Investigación de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente, CIRNMA,Universidad Nacional Agraría, Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca), Colombia (UniversidadNacional de Caldas), Ecuador (Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias,INIAP, and Bolivia (Altiplano). Benchmark sites have been selected in the different countries: La Miel(Manizales, Colombia), La Encañada (Cajamarca, Peru), Sais Tupac Amaru (Junin, Peru) andVilque-Mañazo (Puno, Peru). Computer simulation models have been used to analyse ex ante thepotential impact of improving milk and meat production in mixed crop–livestock systems byintroducing improved feeding and herd management. A pilot credit and technical assistance scheme isbeing tested. IDRC, EDF and the Government of Spain are funding the initiative.

Working with partnersILRI continues working with partners, particularly CIAT in Colombia, to assemble and collate global spatial databases. Two activities are noteworthy:• Recently formed is the Consortium on Spatial Information for Agricultural Research, involving

nine international agricultural research centres, or IARCs (ILRI included), and the UnitedNations Environment Programme. An ILRI GIS specialist, is providing expert input to this newconsortium and working closely with other IARCs to generate and maintain the databases forLatin America, Asia and Africa that are needed to help maximise ILRI’s impact through theidentification of recommendation domains for technologies and target beneficiaries.

• CIAT and ILRI have been developing interpolated climate surfaces for all of Latin America andAfrica; these have been stored on CD-ROM. These surfaces allow a user to generate daily weatherdata (rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures and solar radiation) that can be used tocharacterise systems and to drive a wide variety of crop and livestock production and ecosystemmodels. These climate surfaces are being tested by colleagues around the world and will bereleased early in 1999.

West Asia and North AfricaThis regional consultation on livestock research priorities, organised by ICARDA and ILRI andfunded by IFAD, is one initial step in the more active research participation of ILRI in the WANA

region. Based on this consultation, proposals will be submitted to donors to implement mainrecommendations.

Almost simultaneously with the present consultation, a workshop, ‘Property rights, collectiveaction, and technology adoption’, was organised by IFPRI and ICARDA in Aleppo, Syria in Novemberof 1997. ILRI is also quite active in this topic, and case studies are being researched in Ethiopia andNiger. Future activities in the WANA region are under consideration.

ConclusionsILRI is very actively expanding its activities to critical ecoregions in the developing world, whereresearch in mixed crop–livestock systems can make a significant contribution to farm productivityand income, human welfare and sustainable natural resource management. In implementing itsglobal expansion, ILRI is using a demand-led process that considers the following: the needs ofsmallholders, interests of partners, matching priorities with institutional capabilities, potentialimpact and availability of resources. A holistic, participatory and multidisciplinary research approach is followed.Agreements have signed between ILRI and the following partners in Asia:• China: Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture• ICIMOD, based in Katmandhu, Nepal• ICRISAT• India: ICAR, NDDB• IRRI• Korea• Philippines: PCAARD, University of The Philippines in Los Baños

ILRI representatives will attend several scheduled meetings in Asia, Latin America and WANAto promote collaboration among partners interested in the development of livestock, plan the workon ecoregional characterisation, and make arrangements with partner institutions.

ILRI is also participating in the CGIAR initiative on Central Asia and the Caucasus and willattend planning meetings, which are being organised by ICARDA.

ReferencesDevendra C. and Gardiner P. (eds.) 1995a. Global Agenda for Livestock Research. Proceedings of the Consultation for

the South-East Asia Region, IRRI, Los Baños, The Philippines, 10–15 May 1995. ILRI (International LivestockResearch Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 280 pp.

Devendra C. and Gardiner P. (eds.) 1995b. Global Agenda for Livestock Research. Proceedings of the Consultation forthe South Asia Region, ICRISAT Asia Center, Patancheru, India, 6–8 June 1995. ILRI (International LivestockResearch Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 146 pp.

Devendra C. Smalley M.E. and Li Pun H. (eds.) 1998. Global Agenda for Livestock Research. Proceedings of a Conference on Development of Livestock Research Priorities in Asia, 13–15 May 1997, National Institute of AnimalHusbandry, Hanoi, Vietnam. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 49 pp.

Gardiner P. and Devendra C. (eds). 1995. Global Agenda for Livestock Research: Proceedings of a Consultation, ILRI,Nairobi, Kenya, 18–20 January 1995. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairbi, Kenya. 114 pp.

Ruiz M.E., Sere C., Li Pun H. and Gardiner P. (eds). 1995. Latin American and Caribbean Livestock ResearchPriorities, San Jose, Costa Rica, 16–20 October 1995. Summary Report. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 33 pp.

Thomson E. F. and Lahlou-Kassi A. 1995. Report about a Workshop on Future Livestock Research Priorities in WANA. held in Amman, Jordan, 9–10 November 1995. (unpublished).

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Small ruminant research in the Medium-TermPlan of ICARDAE.F. ThomsonInternational Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria

IntroductionSmall ruminants are found throughout the world, with particular concentrations in dry areas such asthe subtropics and seasonally dry tropical regions. They make a significant contribution to the farmeconomy in mixed systems. In areas too dry for cropping, where steppes and ranges are found, they arethe sole source of income for the population. Poverty is often greatest in the marginal cropping anddriest areas (Rodríguez 1997), giving small ruminants increased significance as living capital, in addition to being multi-purpose animals.

Small ruminants are primarily known for the production of milk, milk products, meat, wool,skins and manure. Milk products and meat have high nutritional value for human consumption,particularly for infants and children and for women during pregnancy and lactation (Pellett andGhosh 1999). They add value to low-quality feeds such as crop residues and agro-industrialby-products to produce high-quality foods. The negative role of small ruminants in environmentaldegradation tends to be highlighted, whereas their positive contribution is often ignored (Steinfeld etal 1997).

The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) has givenresearch on small ruminants prominence in its 1998–2000 Medium-Term Plan (ICARDA 1997) forthe reasons outlined above. The centre’s aim is to ‘improve the welfare of people through researchand training in the dry areas of the developing world, by increasing the production, productivity andnutritional quality of food, while preserving and enhancing the natural resource base. Thegeographic scope of ICARDA’s research covers the countries of West Asia and North Africa(WANA), including the Central Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union, as well as developingcountries with subtropical and temperate dry areas’ (ICARDA 1997).

This paper expands on the sections on small ruminant research described in the 1998–2000Medium-Term Plan (MTP), rather than giving a comprehensive overview of the significance ofsmall ruminants in the dry areas and the place of livestock in the Consultative Group onInternational Agricultural Research (TAC/CGIAR 1993; ILRI 1997). It starts, however, with anoutline of the importance of small ruminants in WANA and indicates the emerging feed deficitsfacing the region.

Small ruminant populations and feed deficitsWANA, which includes the centres of origin of domesticated sheep and goats, has one of the highestconcentrations of breeds in the world and a large population of small ruminants. It contains 26% and 37% of the global sheep and goat genetic resources, respectively (FAO 1995), and about 54% and26% of sheep and goats in developing countries. The overall ratio of sheep to goats is 2:1.

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These figures mask significant differences between the countries. Iran, Pakistan, Sudan andTurkey have large populations of both sheep and goats, whereas the small but often rich countries inthe region have relatively few small ruminants. Although there has been a global decline in sheepnumbers since the 1990s, a steady growth in numbers in WANA is apparent, although it may haveslowed somewhat since the mid-1980s (Figure 1). In contrast, goat numbers have maintained a steadygrowth rate in the developing countries, but in WANA this has slowed, largely because of a 10 million fall in numbers in Turkey since the early 1980s. The proportional drop in sheep numbers between1971 and 1972 is due to a huge fall in numbers in Afghanistan.

Ruminant diets in the countries of WANA consist of various proportions of range grazing, cropresidues and concentrates, including agro-industrial by-products (Nordblom et al 1995). At the oneextreme are Afghanistan, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen, where grazing accounts for at least 75% of thediet, most of the remainder being crop residues (Figure 2). At the other extreme are Syria, Turkey andEgypt, where grazing provides less than 10% of the diet and crop residues at least 70%, withconcentrates making up the difference. In contrast, ruminant diets in the oil-rich countries contain ahigh proportion of concentrates. The percentages for Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan are surprising, andin Jordan, the contribution from concentrates has probably declined because subsidies on barleygrain have been removed. Expressing these percentages in energy or protein units wouldapproximately double the contribution of concentrates at the expense of range grazing and cropresidues.

The data in Figure 2 mask an alarming situation in WANA. It continues to be the world’s largestimporter of grains (Nordblom et al 1995), although China may displace it in the future, and the

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61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 950

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Figure 1. Population of sheep (a) and goats (b), and proportional changes in population of sheep (c) and goats (d) in WANA,1961–95. (1961=1).

dependency on these imports is growing in many countries in WANA (Figure 3). In 1990, five out ofthe 18 countries in the analysis had feed surpluses, whereas only Ethiopia, Sudan and Turkey areprojected to have surpluses by 2020 if crop yields grow at 1% per annum. The projected deficits forIran and Pakistan are noteworthy. In total, the feed deficit for the countries of WANA, excludingCentral Asia, is expected to be between 135 and 44 million tonnes in 2020, if crop yields improveannually by 1% or 2%, respectively. This contrasts with a surplus of 88 million tonnes in 1988–1992.This forecast is the major justification for the continued attention to research on the optimalutilisation of locally produced feed resources, particularly crop residues, which are increasing as grainyields improve.

Small ruminants in ICARDA’s medium-term planThe research strategy of ICARDA recognises its comparative advantage, the strengths of the nationalprogrammes, and the need to have strong links between projects, with applied research conducted

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Figure 3. Feed surpluses and deficits in 18 countries of WANA in 1990 and projection to 2020, assuming a 1 per cent annualgrowth in crop yields.

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mainly with the national programmes and strategic research linked to advanced research institutes. In small ruminant research, these links include, in particular, the use of ranges, annual forage crops andcrop residues, and studies on the adoption and impact of new technology.

The project on small ruminants is one of 18 described in the MTP (Table 1). The MTP (page 15)states that ‘increased emphasis will be placed on efficient use of feed resources by small ruminants inboth the rangelands and cropped areas. Research will be conducted on local breed characterisation,particularly for the efficiency of conversion of feed into high quality livestock products. In manyrangeland settings, particularly in the dry seasons, the only way to provide a steady supply of nutritionand micronutrients for humans, particularly infants, is through milk and other animal products. Thevalue added by livestock will be increased by incorporating crop by-products in multinutrient blocksthat are enriched with vitamins targeted at known diseases. Traditional techniques of milk processing will be studied as a step toward identifying more efficient processing methods that add value to theproducts and thereby enhance pastoralists’ income.’

In 1998–2000, resources will be concentrated on three research activities: 1) Adoption oftechnologies, 2) Feeding strategies and resources and 3) Genetic characterisation of breeds as listedbelow. If further resources are available, other activities will be considered. The activities outlinedhere are listed in the MTP (ICARDA 1997).

Table 1. Projects in the 1998–2000 ICARDA Medium-Term Plan.

Projectnumber Project name

1.1 Barley enhancement1.2 Durum wheat enhancement1.3 Spring bread wheat enhancement1.4 Winter and facultative bread wheat enhancement1.5 Food legume enhancement1.6 Forage legume enhancement2.1 Integrated pest management2.2 Agronomic management of cropping systems2.3 Sown pasture and forage production2.4 Native pasture and range improvement2.5 Small ruminant production3.1 Water resource conservation and management3.2 Land management and soil conservation3.3 Biodiversity, collection and conservation3.4 Agro-ecological characterisation4.1 Socio-economics of natural resource management4.2 Socio-economics of agricultural production systems4.3 Policy and public management research

Research activities

Adoption of technologiesAlthough research on technology for increasing small ruminant productivity started several decadesago in WANA, sustained adoption by farmers has generally been poor. One example is theinvestment by research and development projects in methods to upgrade the feeding value of cerealstraws using ammonia and urea. A notable success, however, has been the expanding use of cropresidues and agro-industrial by-products in multinutrient blocks in Iraq. ICARDA will give greaterattention to involving farmers, researchers and extensionists in the identification of problems and inthe testing and verification of new methods, building on experience gained in the IFAD/AFESD-

funded project, which started in 1994 in the Mashreq and Maghreb countries. The output of thisactivity will be the enhanced diffusion and adoption of appropriate technology.

Feeding strategies and resources

Poor nutrition, including shortage of energy and protein and lack of a balanced diet at critical times in the breeding cycle, such as mating, late pregnancy and early lactation, is the primary factor limitingthe productivity of small ruminants in dry areas. While forage and pasture breeders, agronomists andrange scientists will continue to conduct research that aims at increasing the supply of good qualityfeeds, ruminant nutritionists will be concerned with their optimal use. Attention will be given tousing the increasing quantities of crop residues and industrial by-products available in WANA and tobalancing these feeds to meet livestock requirements for energy, protein and micronutrients. Thelarge and expanding volume of feed grain imports into the region has been highlighted by Nordblomet al (1995). Research will be conducted, in collaboration with the International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI), on the utilisation of fodder shrubs, with particular attention being given tominimising the detrimental effects of anti-nutritional factors.

This activity has three outputs: 1) reliable methods for quantifying intake and digestibility ofpastures, stubble and browse, 2) methods, which can be transferred to the International Center forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) breeders, national programmes and other centresof the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), for identifying cropgenotypes combining straw quality and yield with high grain yield, and 3) guidelines on dietformulation and nutrient requirements that optimise the use of crop residues, agro-industrialby-products, pastures and fodder shrubs.

Genetic characterisation of breeds

The WANA region is rich in animal genetic resources, in particular small ruminants. Although thephenotypic characteristics of these breeds have been recorded, few national programmes in WANA have had efficient selection programmes. The descriptors of economically significant traits arelargely known. Documentation of the region’s animal genetic resources has started (Scherf 1995),and more detailed surveys are needed to describe their distribution and genetic characteristics. It isparticularly important to identify the genetic basis of the adaptation of local breeds to extremes ofheat and cold, shortages of nutrients and water and diets containing anti-nutritional factors, and oftheir resistance to helminths and infectious diseases. Genetic markers will be used, whereappropriate, in this work.

ICARDA will broaden its already established role and comparative advantage as a regionallocation for the collection, conservation and management of plant genetic resources, to include themanagement and regional coordination of animal genetic resources. In July 1997, the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) and ICARDA held a workshop for an Initiating Group for theImplementation of Animal Genetic Resources Management for the Near East (FAO/ICARDA1998). The activities will be conducted in close collaboration with ILRI, the International PlantGenetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), FAO, the Arab Centre for Studies in the Dry Areas (ACSAD)and national programmes.

This activity has two outputs: 1) documentation on the distribution of small ruminant breeds inWANA, and 2) methods for identifying species and breeds of small ruminants that make efficient useof locally available feeds and that are adapted to the local nutritional and disease environment andharsh climatic conditions.

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Micronutrients in balanced dietsUntil recently, ICARDA gave priority to energy and protein nutrition since these are still consideredthe first nutrients that limit animal productivity in the dry areas. Micronutrients, however, also havean essential role in ensuring optimal animal performance, even when the energy and protein supply is balanced. Selenium and vitamin E, for example, are important in feedlot fattening of lambs. A recentstudy in Jordan, Syria and Turkey showed that sheep in some flocks were deficient in vitamins A, B12

and E and in copper, selenium and zinc (White 1994). In studies of flocks in selected Mashreqcountries, ewe fertility improved slightly following prophylactic injections of a cocktail of vitamins A,D3 and E (Al-Haboby et al 1997).

Research on micronutrients will be directed to determining threshold levels in blood plasma,wool, milk, etc., seasonal changes in their concentration and the extent to which they are dependenton diet composition. The research will eventually focus on appropriate feeding practices to alleviatedeficiencies, where there is clear evidence of effects on animal performance. The output of thisactivity will be guidelines on appropriate practices to prevent and remedy micronutrient deficiencies.

Decision support modelsWith increasing competition between humans, crops and animals for scarce land and waterresources, it is essential that these resources be used for livestock with optimal efficiency. It ishypothesised that, in the dry areas, indigenous breeds of goats or cattle, selected for betterperformance, would make more efficient use of local feed and water resources to produce milk thanimported breeds. Indigenous breeds are better adapted to the prevailing harsh climatic, nutritionaland disease environment, and their populations usually contain sufficient genetic variation to allowrapid improvements in performance through selection.

Research will focus on using existing or new decision support models that enable researchers toadvise policymakers on the use of appropriate livestock species for different farming systems and ondiseases that require particular attention. The models will take into account factors such as theadaptation characteristics of the different species and breeds of the region, the quality and quantity offeed resources, the proximity of local markets and the costs of production. The activity will be linkedto activity 7, Epidemiology of diseases, testing models that set priorities on diseases of economicsignificance, and linked to other MTP projects at ICARDA. The output of activity 5 will be guidelines for policy advisors on the use of adapted ruminant species that make optimal use of natural resources.

Processing and added valueRuminants add value to low quality feeds by converting them into high quality milk and meatproducts (Pellett and Ghosh 1999), wool, skins and pelts, and manure. Some of these products areprocessed on the farm before being sold. In West Asia, for example, ewe milk is processed intoyoghurt, cheese and clarified butter, or ghee. Wool is processed by sheep owners throughout WANAand made into carpets, whereas live animals, skins and pelts are sold before processing. Littleattention, however, has been given to the quality of the products for sale and to the efficiency ofprocessing methods. Consequently, prices to producers are often low. Individual producers often sellthese products to merchants and agents at a price lower than if the producers sold them through acooperative. There is considerable scope for improving the quality of products before sale, whichcould bring much-needed additional income to poor rural areas.

The research will initially investigate steps in the marketing chain of different small ruminantproducts and establish the relative margins made by producers and agents. Later, processing of the

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different products on the farm or in the household will be studied, to identify changes needed to addvalue to the products, and thereby increase producers’ incomes. The output of this activity will bemore efficient processing methods, added value to animal products to enhance the income of therural poor, and better incentives for livestock owners to market good quality products.

Epidemiology of diseasesIndividual parasitic and infectious diseases continue to receive substantial attention in nationalprogrammes, but few studies have attempted to assess their economic importance as a whole. Such anassessment would help to focus scarce resources on the most significant diseases. This activity, whichwill be conducted in close collaboration with ILRI, will review the current state of knowledge aboutthe different diseases in the region and use simple empirical models to rank the diseases in terms oftheir economic importance. This activity will be linked to those under activity 5, Decision supportmodels, and its main output will be methods for quantifying and ranking the economic significanceof diseases.

Rangelands in feeding cyclesAlthough its contribution is gradually declining, range grazing in 1995 still accounted for about 42%and 46% of livestock diets in WANA and Central Asia, respectively (Nordblom et al 1995). It isimportant to understand the contribution of rangeland, which varies with season and system, toanimal diets, in order that these diets can be balanced with other feedstuffs. Surveys are proposed todescribe feeding calendars and determine the composition of range plants consumed by livestock inthose countries where this has not yet been done. The output of this activity will be estimates of thecontribution of rangelands to the seasonal feed requirements of small ruminants.

Collaboration with other centresSpecial attention will be given to strengthening collaboration with other centres in the CGIAR,particularly ILRI. The jointly organised Consultation on Setting Livestock Research Priorities inWANA held in Aleppo in November 1997 was a significant milestone in cooperative activitiesbetween the two centres. This collaboration in research and training will be strengthened by:• the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement• closer links through the System-wide Livestock Programme (SLP), in particular the implementation

of the project, Fodder Shrubs and Trees in West Asia, North Africa and the Sahel, which is fundedby the SLP, and active participation in the Livestock Programme Group of the SLP

• implementation of MTP Project 17 of ILRI on Improving Productivity and Sustainability ofCrop–Livestock Systems in WANA (ILRI 1997)

• joint projects on breed characterisation and the epidemiology of diseases, outlined in this paper• organising joint training courses.

ConclusionsResearch on small ruminants at ICARDA incorporates a number of key features and retains a balance between strategic, applied and adaptive research. It is conducted in partnership with national

programmes and involves farmers in the research process. It also aims to achieve the adoption oftechnology that enhances small ruminant productivity in harmony with the sustainable use of natural resources. It designs and tests management systems that make efficient use of the increasedproduction of crop residues in arable areas and thereby helps to alleviate pressures on alreadydegraded steppes and ranges. The research is directed towards exploiting the large amount of geneticvariability within indigenous breeds and selecting species that will make the most efficient use ofscarce land and water resources. Efficiency is achieved by exploiting the comparative advantage thatICARDA has, together with the advantages of other centres, in particular ILRI, and the nationalprogrammes and advanced research institutes.

ReferencesAl-Haboby A., Abdul-Kareem T.A. and Khatab G.K. 1997. Effect of vitamin A on the reproductive

performance of Awassi sheep. In: Haddad N, Tutwiler R. and Thomson E. (eds), Improvement ofCrop–Livestock Integration Systems in West Asia and North Africa. ICARDA (International Center forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo, Syria. pp 300–315.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1995. FAO/PC-Stat. FAO, Rome.FAO/ICARDA (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/International Center for

Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas). 1998. FAO/ICARDA Workshop for an Initiating Group for theImplementation of Animal Genetic Resources Management for the Near East. Aide memoire. FAO, Rome, and ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. 9 pp.

ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas). 1997. Medium-Term Plan1998–2000. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. 38 pp and Annexe.

ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. Medium-term Plan 1998–2000. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya.75 pp.

Nordblom T.L., Goochild A.V. and Shomo F. 1995. Livestock, feeds and mixed farming systems in West Asiaand North Africa. In: Wilson R T., Ehui S. and Mack S. (eds), Livestock Development Strategies for Low IncomeCountries. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Rome, and ILRI (InternationalLivestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. pp 101–123.

Pellett P.L. and Ghosh S. 1999. Global nutritional problems with special attention to the role of animal foodsin human nutrition. In: Proceedings of the ILRI/ICARDA Consultation on Setting Livestock Research Priorities inWest Asia and North Africa. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. [this volume]

Rodríguez A.R. 1997. Rural poverty and natural resources in the dry areas: The context of ICARDA’s research.Working paper. ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo, Syria.20 pp.

Scherf B.D. 1995. World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity, 2nd ed. FAO (Food and AgricultureOrganization), Rome, Italy. 769 pp.

Steinfeld H., de Haan C., and Blackurn H. 1997. Livestock–Environment Interactions: Issues and Options.Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium. 56 pp.

TAC/CGIAR (Technical Advisory Committee of the Consultative Group for International AgriculturalResearch). 1993. Priorities and Strategies for Livestock Research in the CGIAR. AGR/TAC. IAR/93/6. TACSecretariat, Rome, Italy.

White C. 1994. A study of the vitamin and mineral status of sheep in West Asia (Syria, Jordan and Turkey).Unpublished report. ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo,Syria. 36 pp.

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Global nutritional problems with specialattention to the role of animal foods in humannutritionP. Pellett and S. GhoshDepartment of Nutrition, School of Public Health and Health SciencesUniversity of MassachusettsAmherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA

IntroductionAlthough cereals have become the major source of food energy and protein in the world since thedevelopment of agriculture, animal foods—milk, meat, fish and eggs, as well as foods originating fromnon-vertebrates—have been consumed in all societies throughout human history. Quantities andproportions vary enormously among cultures, and consumption levels are conditioned bytraditional, religious, social, climatic and economic factors. These factors are more the concern ofgeography, anthropology, sociology and other sciences than of nutrition, but they have hadenormous nutritional implications. In this review, the nutritional implications of animal foodconsumption are central to the discussion.

Health has been defined by the World Health Organization as a state of complete physical,mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity. It is also described as a fundamental human right, whose realisation requires the action of many other social and economicsectors in addition to the health sector. Good nutrition is an essential component for optimal health.Deficiencies in foods and nutrients were originally perceived as the major factors causingmalnutrition (Lusk 1928). It is only in more recent times that a number of fundamental interactionshave been recognised and that the importance of infection, disease, water and sanitation in causingmalnutrition has been emphasised.

Factors that affect nutritional status, in addition to nutrient supply and nutritional needs, nowinclude health status, which involves consideration of sanitation, infections and infestations together with the availability of health services. More recently, the roles of the family and the community innutritional care have been formally recognised. Key global priorities, as defined by the InternationalConference on Nutrition (FAO/WHO 1992), now include nutritional care for the vulnerable,increased household food security, reduced micronutrient deficiencies, improved food quality andsafety, and the availability of healthy diets, as well as national and international nutritionalmonitoring and surveillance.

The global nutrition situationCurrently, 760 million people in the developing world are chronically undernourished and 192million children suffer from protein-energy malnutrition. In addition, an estimated 2 billion adultsand children suffer from micronutrient deficiencies (FAO/WHO 1992). Diet-related chronicdiseases such as cardiovascular disease are a new problem in some developing countries, as activityand dietary patterns change and smoking continues to increase. Despite these large numbers of the

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malnourished and the humanitarian tragedy that they represent, some progress is being made. Thenumbers and percentages of the undernourished have dropped from 920 million (35%) in 1969–71to 840 million (20%) in 1990–92. These data, together with the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO) projections for 2010, are illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Number and proportion of undernourished.

Number(millions) Percentage

1969–71 920 351990–92 840 202010 680 12

Undernourished are defined as below the populationspecific threshold for light activity.Source: FAO (1996b).

The availability of dietary energy worldwide is also increasing, albeit slowly, and infantmortality rates have declined, although they are still unacceptably high in poorer countries. Therehave been significant decreases in the under-5 mortality rates in all regions of the world in the past30 years (Table 2). The proportional decreases for developing and least developed countries have,however, been much less than for industrialised countries.

Table 2. Comparison of number of deaths below the age of 5years per 1000 live births in 1960 and 1995.

Year Industrial Developing LDCs1

1960 37 216 2831995 8 99 173

1. LDCs – less-developed countries.Source: UNICEF (1997).

Despite progress, the numbers are still alarming, and hunger and malnutrition remain themost devastating problems in the world today. Poverty is the major determinant and conditionsassociated with malnutrition are most prevalent in the less wealthy regions of the world. Under-5mortality rates and the percentages of children with low birth weight (LBW), which are indicatorsof malnutrition, are highest in countries with a low GNP (Table 3). The most affected are in theleast developed countries (LDCs), numbering nearly 600 million in all, whose per capita GNPaverages less than US$ 1 per day.

Table 3. Wealth and health data.

Countrycategory

Total population(millions)

GNP(US$) U5 MR

Low birth weight(%)

Life expectancy (years)

Industrial 830 24,300 8 6 77Developing 4526 1,023 99 19 62Less developed 586 233 173 23 52

Source: UNICEF (1997).

The number of wasted, stunted and underweight children is also highest in low-income countries (Table 4). South Asia has the largest proportion and the highest numbers of malnourished children(Table 5), followed by East and South-East Asia, with the Middle East–North Africa and LatinAmerica being relatively less affected. Nutritional problems are not restricted to the children in theseareas; undernutrition is also prevalent in adolescents and adults in many developing countries. FromFAO estimates, 12.5% of the Chinese population and 48.6% of the Indian population have bodymass index (BMI) values (wt/ht2) below 18.5, which is considered the lower limit of normality.

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Table 4. Estimates of the number of wasted, stunted and underweight children under 5 years of agein different economic classes in developing countries.

Wasted Stunted UnderweightEconomic class % Millions % Millions % MillionsLow 10.3 40 45.2 174.4 38.2 147.6Middle and high 5.6 8 28.7 40.8 22 31.2Total 9.1 47.9 40.7 215.2 33.9 178.8Source: FAO (1996b).

Table 5. Estimates of the number (millions) and percentage of wasted, stunted and underweight children under 5 years of age by region.

Wasted Stunted UnderweightRegion millions % millions % millions %Sub-Saharan Africa1 6.1 7 33.7 38.8 26.2 30.2Near East and North Africa2 4.4 8.8 16 32.4 12.5 25.3South Asia3 26.6 17.1 92.7 59.5 90.7 58.3East and South-East Asia4 9.4 5.2 59.8 33.3 42.5 23.6Latin America and Caribbean5 1.5 2.6 12.7 22.7 6.7 12Total 47.9 9.1 215.2 40.7 178.8 33.91. Sub-Saharan African countries: Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cen. African

Rep, Chad, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia PDR, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia,Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Uganda, United Rep. of Tanzania, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

2. Near East and northern African countries: Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, LibyanArab Jam., Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey, UAE, Yemen.

3. South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan. Sri Lanka.4. East and South-East Asia: Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Korea, Dem. People’s Rep. Korea, Laos,

Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand ,Vietnam.5. Latin America and Caribbean: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican

Rep., Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama,Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela.

Source: FAO (1996a).

The most vulnerable population groups are women, infants and children. In absolute terms,because of their small body size, infants have the lowest requirements for energy, protein and othernutrients, but the greatest requirements per unit of body weight, because of the rapid growth thatoccurs during this phase. With increasing age, the absolute requirement increases.

The causes of malnutritionOnly in relatively recent years have the causes of malnutrition been seriously discussed and factorsthat lie beyond the immediately obvious considered. As illustrated in Table 6, determinants ofmalnutrition can be recognised at three key levels—the immediate, the underlying, and the basiccauses (UNICEF 1990; Jonnson 1995).

Table 6. Levels of determinants of malnutrition.

Immediate causesFood intake and health

Underlying causesIncome, land, education, water, fuel, healthservice availability

Basic causesResources, economics, politics

Source: Adapted from UNICEF (1990).

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Nutritionists have in the past limited themselves to discussing the immediate causes, mainly thelack of food or nutrients, and have been less concerned with underlying and basic causes. Immediatecauses, nonetheless, should also include the health status of the individual. Decreased intake,absorption or utilisation, increased losses through diarrhoea or increased requirements such as inpregnancy and lactation are all significant. Any of these immediate causes could lead to depletion ofessential nutrients. This depletion in turn is affected by income, education and the availability ofwater and sanitation, which themselves are determined by politics and economics.

Specific deficiencies of energy, protein, essential amino acids, vitamin A, iodine and iron,considered to be the most widespread, have been found to be associated with malnutrition andgrowth impairment (FAO/WHO 1992). More recently, the roles of zinc and copper in growth andtheir possible limitation in diets in developing countries have been given greater recognition.

The major underlying causes of malnutrition include poor food production or supply; poor fooddistribution, both between families and within families; poor education; and finally, poor sanitationand health. The latter consideration, linking malnutrition to health and the environment, includinginfectious disease, was itself a major breakthrough and resulted from a review article on theinteractions between nutrition and infection (Scrimshaw et al 1968). The review demonstratedconclusively that a wide range of factors beyond mere food or nutrient availability could precipitatemalnutrition. The interaction between malnutrition and infection is complex, but the rathersimplistic circular approach illustrated in Figure 1 can be used to demonstrate the relationships.

The basic causes of malnutrition, however, remain related to poverty, as a consequence of theuneven distribution of resources brought about by worldwide economic and political forces (UNDP1996). There are very large differences in food availability and dietary patterns between rich and poorcountries. Rich countries have more food energy available per capita and also consume higher levelsof protein, especially of animal origin. These dietary differences are accompanied by large differencesin the availability of water, sanitation and health care.

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Breast feedingLand, income and food

Malnutrition

Reducedintake andabsorption

Reducedresistanceto disease

Synergisticattack

on health

InfectionWater, sanitation and health

Breast feeding

Figure 1. The relationships between malnutrition and infection.

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Anthropometric criteria for nutritional assessmentNutritional assessment can be defined as the interpretation of information obtained from dietary,biochemical, anthropometric and clinical studies. Assessment is used to determine the health statusof individuals or population groups as influenced by their intake and utilisation of nutrients. Thewhole field of clinical and biochemical assessment has been extensively reviewed by Heymsfield andWilliams (1988). Such individual assessment is far more complex and time consuming than isgenerally possible for within-country field activities. Major methods available for field surveys aredivided into two key categories: those that are food related and those that are health or people related. The latter includes the major assessment technique of anthropometry.

Anthropometric indices provide measurable reflections of nutritional status and can helpdifferentiate between chronic and acute malnutrition or stunting and wasting. The indicators mostoften used are body weight and height, in relation to age and sex. Other, less frequently usedindicators include arm, head and thigh circumferences and skin-fold thickness. The mainanthropometric indices used for children are weight-for-height, height-for-age and weight-for-age.Body Mass Index (BMI) is the main index used for adults and is defined as the weight in kilogramsdivided by the square of height in metres. The World Health Organization (WHO) uses data of theNational Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), USA, as a reference standard, since many studies have shown that the growth of normal, healthy and adequately nourished children almost alwaysapproximates these reference values irrespective of racial or genetic background. Previously,anthropometric data for children were reported as percentages of the reference median but now theyshould be quoted in ‘Z-scores’, based on standard deviations (SDs) above or below the medianreference value for a person of a given age (WHO 1986, 1995). At any age the level of median minus 2SDs is usually taken as the threshold below which undernutrition exists.

Weight for heightThe weight-for-height index is used for both adults and children in relation to accepted referencevalues. In the acutely undernourished, those who have had inadequate dietary intakes or an acuteinfection within recent weeks, decline in body weight is relatively rapid, but height remainsunchanged in adults and changes very slowly in children. Weight for height is a measure of acuteundernutrition or wasting and is the index most used in nutritional emergencies as well as forlong-term situations of undernutrition, such as famine. In children, weight-for-height data can beused to assess malnutrition without accurate knowledge of the individual’s age.

Height for ageThe height-for-age indicator is used for assessing chronic undernutrition in children. Prolongedundernutrition causes retardation of growth in both height and weight to a roughly comparabledegree. Impaired height gain is called ‘stunting’. Height gain is most affected by long-standingenvironmental and socio-economic factors; hence, it reflects general socio-economic conditions.

Weight for ageThe proportion of children under five years of age in many developing countries who are below theweight-for-age reference median minus 2 SDs ranges from 10% to 50%, with an average of around20% to 30%. The weight-for-age indicator is often easier to determine and is hence more readily

available than weight for height or height for age. It can, however, be more difficult to interpretbecause it is a consequence of either acute or chronic undernutrition or, indeed, of both.

Present procedures for using the above indicators and for evaluating results obtained with them wereprescribed following a major survey in Egypt (USAID 1978), which involved 8600 children from thewhole country. According to the usual criteria for malnutrition, 47% were considered malnourishedusing weight for age, 22% using height for age, but only 3% when using weight for height. Body-sizeadaptation to poor nutrition and poor health was recognised, and many arguments developed as to howmany children were really malnourished and who were those at most risk. Currently we usually assessmalnutrition by using all three criteria and base action accordingly. Highest priorities for action are givenfor acute malnutrition, i.e., those with weight to height that is more than 2 SDs below the median. If5–10% of the population group is below this level, the degree of acute undernutrition may be described asmoderate; if the proportion is more than 10%, the situation is generally considered severe.

In developing countries, widespread chronic undernutrition (stunting) is common. Theproportion of individuals below the median minus 2 SDs is often in the range of 20% to 60%, with an average near 40%. Populations in which height for age of 25% to 50% of the children under five is 2SDs below the median are commonly considered to be moderately affected while those with morethan 50% are considered severely affected.

Body-mass index

Body-mass index, or BMI, provides a measure of body mass ranging from thin to obese. A proposedclassification for body-mass index for adults is shown in Table 7. There is no firm agreement on thecited cut-off points and discussion continues. Despite the ongoing arguments (FAO 1994; James1994) involving the validity of the index, causes of low BMI and the cut-off levels to be used, there isgeneral agreement that adults with low BMI generally have lower work capacity and limited socialactivity. They also generally have lower incomes and more sickness, and women have a higherproportion of LBW babies.

Table 7. A proposed classification using body mass index(BMI, weight in kg/height2 in m).

Chronic energy deficiency, Grade 3 <16.0Chronic energy deficiency, Grade 2 16.0–16.9Chronic energy deficiency, Grade I 17.0–18.4Normal 18.5–24.9Overweight 25.0–29.9Obese 30.0–40.0Morbidly obese >40.0

Source: USDHHS (1988) for normal and obese: for normaland for chronic energy deficiency from James (1994) andFAO (1994).

Validity considerations include consideration of cut-off levels and sex specificity, whether thecut-off levels should be age dependent, whether there are cultural or ethnic differences in bodycomposition and energy stores and also whether there are a number of other important interactions(FAO 1994; James 1994).

Severe adult undernutrition, now termed ‘chronic energy deficiency’ (CED), is of majorconsequence worldwide and can be assessed by the use of BMI. Some of the causes of chronic energydeficiency are inadequate food energy intake, though care should be taken to note whether there aresignificant seasonal variations in energy availability. Anorexia from intestinal parasites together withchronic infection and trace element deficiencies can also cause CED.

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Global nutrient distributionDisparity in the availability of food and the dietary patterns between the rich and poor, especiallywhen associated with different health conditions, is a major cause of malnutrition. In Figure 2,distributions of population and of selected nutrients are depicted for developed and developingnations.

Seventy- six per cent of the world population lives in the developing regions. In terms of nutrientdistribution, however, 29% of total food energy is available to developed areas as compared with 71%in developing areas. Total protein availability is higher at 34% for the developed areas compared with66% for the developing areas; total lysine and fat availability are 41% and 43%, respectively, for thedeveloped areas, leaving only 59% and 57% for the much larger population of the developing areas.

Dietary energy supply (DES) has always been higher in developed countries. In the late 1960s,their average food energy supply was 3190 kcal/day, compared with 2140 kcal/day in the developingworld. Since then there has been an increase in both groups. Because the level was already more thanadequate in the developed regions, the rate of increase has been much higher for the developingworld, but, as illustrated in Table 8, a gap still exists between the two. More detailed information forregional groupings is shown in Table 9.

Table 8. Per capita dietary energy supply (kcal/day) for developedand developing countries in 1969–71, 1990–92 and estimated for2010.

Region 1969–71 1990–92 2010Developed 3190 3350 3390Developing 2140 2520 2770World 2440 2720 2900

Source: FAO (1996a).

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Source: Adapted from FAO (1996a).

Figure 2. Population and nutrient distribution in developed and developing nations.

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Population Kcal Protein Lysine Fat

Developed Developing

Percentage

Table 9. Per capita dietary energy supply by region in 1969–71 and1990–92.

Region 1969–71 1990–92Latin America and Caribbean 2510 2740Sub-Saharan Africa 2140 2040Near East and North Africa 2380 2960East and South-East Asia 2060 2680South Asia 2060 2290

Source: FAO (1996a).

Developed countries have a greater availability of per capita DES and of total protein, lysine andfat (Figure 2) and a much greater proportion of the protein is animal in origin (Table 10). Althoughthere has been a significant increase in the total protein supply for both developing and developedareas, a great difference remains in the total amount available. For the developed countries more than 50% of the total protein was of animal origin in both 1969–71 and 1990–92. For the developingareas, however, animal protein is a much smaller portion of the total protein supply (Table 10).

Table 10. Total protein and animal protein supplies (g/capita per day) by region in 1969–71 and 1990–92.

Total protein Animal proteinRegion 1969–71 1990–92 1969–71 1990–92Developed 95 102 51 59Developing 53 62 10 15World 65 71 22 25

Source: FAO (1996a).

Animal protein in the diet is important, as it is usually highly digestible and provides higher levelsof essential amino acids, especially lysine, as well as useful levels of several micronutrients in highlybioavailable forms. The distribution of protein from various food groups, calculated using data from

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Syria USA World

Cereal

Meat

Pulse

Milk

Other

Egg/fish

Percentage of protein

Data source: FAOSTAT (1996).

Firgure 3. Distribution of protein from selected food groups (data for 1994).

FAOSTAT (1996) for Syria, the USA and the world for 1994, is shown in Figure 3. There is a cleardifference in the apparent consumption of cereals and animal foods between Syria and the USA.Cereals contribute a much larger percentage of protein (approximately 65%) in the Syrian diet. Incontrast, animal foods including meat, fish, milk and eggs make up approximately 70% of the totalprotein in the American diet.

Figure 4 shows the major sources of protein in Syria from1961 to 1994. Cereal proteinconsumption has increased over the years, the increase being marked from the early 1980s. Animalprotein availability, while increasing steadily until the early 1980s, has since declined. As a result ofthese changes, the estimated average lysine availability for Syria increased from about 2700 mg/day in 1961 to 3900 mg in the early 1980s and then declined to about 3300 mg/day in 1994.

The pattern for the per capita supply of fat is similar to that of protein. Developed countries hadmore than twice as much fat available per capita compared with developing countries in both1969–71 and 1990–92 (Table 11). Developing countries had much lower levels of available animalfat, which, although higher than in 1969–1971, were still only 26% of the level of developedcountries. The disparity is much sharper with respect to protein and fat supplies than energy, becausefoods that are rich in protein and fat are normally more expensive than basic energy-rich foods.

Table 11. Total fat and animal fat supplies (g/capita per day) by region in1969–71 and 1990–92.

Total fats Animal fatRegion 1969–71 1990–92 1969–71 1990–92Developed 108 125 68 73Developing 33 51 12 19World 55 69 28 32Source: FAO (1996a).

33

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995Years

Meat Milk Eggs

Cereal AP Total Pulse

Gramme protein/day

Source: FAOSTAT (1996).

Figure 4. Major sources of protein Syria: 1961–1994.

The dietary role of animal foodsAnimal foods contribute significantly to the protein and fat in the diet. Legumes are also a majorsource of dietary protein, but the nutritional quality of animal protein is superior to that of cookedlegumes because of the somewhat better balance of essential amino acids (Pellett and Young 1988,1990; Briggs and Schweigert 1990; Young and Pellett 1990). Animal foods also provide significantquantities of vitamins, including the B-complex vitamins, vitamins A, D, E and K, and mineralssuch as calcium, copper, iron, manganese and zinc. Usually these are in a highly bioavailable form.There are a number of major nutritional advantages as well as some disadvantages in theconsumption of animal foods, as shown in Table 12.

Table 12. Advantages and disadvantages of animal foods in the diet.

Advantages DisadvantagesHighly desired and digestible High in saturated fat and cholesterolGood quality protein Low levels of complex carbohydrates

and fibreHighly bioavailable micronutrients Expensive and perishableSmall amounts required to nutritionally

transform cereal-based dietsHigh cost of production

Good source of fat in the diet

Animal foods are highly digestible and contain protein that is usually, but not always (hair, skinand connective tissue are exceptions) of high nutritional quality. They contain good levels of all theessential amino acids and are significantly higher than most other foods in their content of lysine.They are, however, low in complex carbohydrates and fibre and high in cholesterol and saturated fat,which can be a problem in developed countries, with an increased risk of cardiovascular and othernutritionally related chronic diseases.

For many people in developing countries, animal products do not contribute significantly to thediet and hence to the risk of chronic diseases due to overconsumption of animal fat. Problems liemore in the lack of fat in the diet, since lipids are required for a number of important metabolic andphysiological functions as well as being a source of energy. Some of these functions are shown inTable 13. Fat is involved in cell structure and hormone production, as well as being a source ofcholesterol for hormones and essential fatty acids, required for the production of prostaglandins.Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are better absorbed in the presence of fat. Fat also makes foodmore palatable and increases the energy density of the diet. Body fat deposits insulate and cushionimportant organs and are a readily available energy store.

Animal foods are, however, expensive and often perishable. Their production often means thatthe animal has to consume large amounts of food energy to build body tissue. Only very smallamounts of food of animal origin, however, are required to improve the nutritional quality ofcereal-based diets.

Table 13. Importance of fat in the diet.

Energy, structural and hormonal rolesSource of essential fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic and

arachidonic) and cholesterolVehicle for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and KIncreases palatability of foodProvides high-energy densityInsulation, cushion and energy store in body

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Protein and essential amino acids

The role of protein in the diet cannot be overemphasised, since protein is the basis of life. Proteindeficiency along with energy deficiency has been recognised for more than a century as a majornutritional problem in the world. Since 1936, a number of international groups, including theLeague of Nations, FAO, WHO, the United Nations University (UNU) and the InternationalDietary Energy Consultative Group (IDECG), have made recommendations on the proteinrequirements of infants, children and adults (Pellett 1990).

Protein requirement is defined by the FAO/WHO/UNU (1985) group as ‘the lowest level ofdietary protein intake that will balance the losses of nitrogen from the body in persons maintainingenergy balance at modest levels of physical activity. In children and pregnant or lactating women, theprotein requirement is taken to include the needs associated with the deposition of tissues or thesecretion of milk rates consistent with good health.’ Recommendations on protein requirements forchildren have changed significantly over the years. In 1953, 3–4 g/kg per day of protein wererecommended for children between about six months and three years of age (NAS-NRC 1953),whereas now the recommended level is about 1 g/kg per day (IDECG 1996). These changes havesignificantly affected views on the causes of child malnutrition in developing countries.

Besides total protein requirement, protein quality and hence essential amino acid requirementsare also important. There is evidence that lysine may be the key limiting amino acid in the human diet(Young et al 1989; FAO/WHO 1991; Pellett 1996) and lysine intakes have been shown to be themost variable of all the essential amino acids, whether expressed as milligrams per gram of foodprotein or as milligrams per day (Pellett and Young 1990; Pellett 1996).

Lysine levels vary with the composition of the diet and are positively correlated with the amountof animal protein present. Cereals, which are the major source of food energy and protein in many ofthe diets of the developing world, are not a good source of lysine (Young and Pellett 1994). Legumeproteins, however, are good lysine sources.

Table 14 shows that the availability of total food energy, total protein, animal protein and lysineincreases with an increase in GNP. Average daily lysine values differ considerably between the richestand the poorest groups. At the same time, child mortality rates decline. No direct correlation between mortality rates and diet is implied, but both are significantly correlated with wealth. Between 1961and 1994, lysine levels in Syrian diets first rose and then fell, corresponding to the decrease in animalprotein and the steady increase in cereal protein (Figure 4) over that period.

Table 14. Total population, nutrient availability, mortality rate, and life expectancy in relation to economic class (data from 122countries world-wide).

GNP class US$per person peryear

Coun-tries (no.)

Totalpopn.

(millions)

Foodenergy

(kcal/d)

Totalprotein(g/d)

Animal protein

(%)

Cerealprotein

(%)

Pulsesoy protein

(%)Lysine(mg/d)

Lysine(mg/g

protein)

Lysine(mg/103

kcal)Under5MR1

Lifeexpc2

(yr)<500 37 2990 2070 51 20 53 11.4 2405 47 1174 171 52500–2,000 41 862 2570 65 31 50 7 3270 50 1268 76 642,000–10,000 21 548 2913 78 45 39 5.6 4484 58 1544 39 69>10,000 23 806 3335 101 61 24 2.7 6555 65 1966 9 771. Number of deaths below the age of 5 years per 1000 live births.2. Life expectancy in years at birth.Source: Pellett (1996).

A number of options exist for increasing the lysine value of cereal-based diets, includingincreasing the amounts of cereals consumed, consuming greater amounts of foods high in lysine andfortifying with the synthetic amino acid. The latter procedure is frequently used for animal feeds inthe developed regions of the world. The first option is often not feasible, as people may not be willingor able to eat the extra bulk of food. This is especially true of young children, who have small somachs.

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The option of increasing the availability of animal foods will be highly constrained by socialand economic factors. Only small quantities, however, are required to improve quality, whichmay be economically possible. Lysine can be added in synthetic form, together withmicronutrients, to improve the quality of the protein, especially with wheat-based diets whereflour is centrally milled.

Micronutrient deficienciesThe most prevalent micronutrient deficiencies are iron, affecting over 2 billion people; iodine,affecting 1 billion; and vitamin A, affecting 40 million (FAO/WHO 1992). More recently, zincand copper deficiencies have been identified as being of greater importance in children than waspreviously considered. Zinc deficiency in diets with low levels of animal protein may increasinglybecome a major public health problem. Allen (1994) has extensively reviewed the role of theseand other micronutrients in growth faltering.

IronIron-deficiency anaemia is a major problem worldwide, especially in women and children (Table 15).Both low iron intakes and the lack of factors such as vitamin C that enhance the utilisation ofnon-haem iron contribute to deficiency. The absorption of non-haem iron from most foods is poor,sometimes as low as 2%. Only animal foods, especially meat products, provide haem iron, of which20–30% is absorbed. Table 16 shows the iron content of selected foods.

Table 15. Prevalence of anaemia and iron deficiency in the world.

WHO region

Number of anaemicor iron deficient

people (millions)

Prevalence ofanaemia in

pregnant women (%)

Africa 206 52Americas 94 40Europe 27 18Eastern Mediterranean 149 50South-East Asia 616 74Western Pacific 1058 40Developed countries na1 18Developing countries na 56Total 2150 51

1. Figures not available.Source: WHO/UNU/UNICEF (1993).

Anaemia in children and infants may retard physical and cognitive development. In adults it cancause fatigue, reduce work capacity and impair reproductive function. In pregnancy it is associatedwith reduced foetal growth, low birth weight, and greater perinatal mortality. Twenty per cent ofmaternal deaths may be associated with anaemia as it predisposes to haemorrhage and infections(FAO/WHO 1992). The role of iron in the growth and development of children has been extensivelystudied. Improved weight gain in infants and children under 3 years of age has been observed (Aukettet al 1986). Indonesian children showed increased height and weight when their diet wassupplemented with iron for 12 weeks (Chwang et al 1988). Kenyan children showed improved weight and appetite though no increase in height (Latham et al 1990).

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Table 16. Iron content (mg/100 g of edibleportion) of selected foods.

FoodTotaliron

Haemiron

Non-haem iron1

Beef 2.62 1.05 1.57Lamb 1.88 0.75 1.13Liver 6.82 2.73 4.09Chicken 1.17 0.47 0.7Crab 0.59 0.23 0.36Milk 0.05 – 0.05GLV 2.71 – 2.71Rice 4.36 – 4.36Wheat flour 3.88 – 3.88White flour 1.17 – 1.171. Calculated by the method of Monsen et al (1978).Source: USDA (1976–1994).

Vitamin A

At least 190 million children (Table 17) live in areas where consumption of foods containingvitamin A is low (FAO/WHO 1992). Of these, 40 million are deficient in available vitamin A and14 million have clinical signs of deficiency. Every year a quarter to half a million children becomepartially or totally blind due to vitamin A deficiency. Two-thirds of these children die within a fewmonths of becoming blind. Vitamin A deficiency reduces resistance to infection, causes nightblindness and eventually xerophthalmia, affects physical growth and increases morbidity andmortality in children (FAO/WHO 1992).

Table 17. Population (millions) at risk and affected byvitamin A deficiency.

Region At riskAffected

(xerophthalmia)Africa 18 1.3Americas 2 0.1South-East Asia 138 10Europe – –East Mediterranean 13 1Western Pacific 19 1.4Total 190 13.8Source: FAO/WHO (1992).

Vitamin A is fundamental to the development and function of tissues and plays an importantrole in cellular differentiation, in the immune system and in vision. Vitamin A deficiency is causednot only by the low content of retinol or beta-carotene or both in the food supply but also by their lowabsorption and utilisation. In addition, diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases can precipitate deficiency. Vitamin A is present as retinol in animal foods but as beta-carotene in plant foods. Beta-carotene isless efficiently absorbed than the retinol from animal foods. Most of the population in developingcountries obtain their vitamin A from plant foods.

Associations between linear growth stunting and night blindness or xerophthalmia have beendemonstrated (Brink et al 1979; Muhilal et al 1988; Mele et al 1991). Indonesian children withsubclinical vitamin A deficiency showed improvements in linear growth when their diet wassupplemented with vitamin A (Muhilal et al 1988). Rahmathulla et al (1991), however, reported no

37

improvement in growth or weight in Indian children whose diet was supplemented with vitamin Afor one year.

Zinc

Zinc deficiency was described nearly three decades ago among the poor of the Middle East (Halsteadet al 1972; Prasad et al 1972; Ronaghy et al 1974). Manifestations of the deficiency include severegrowth retardation, delayed sexual maturation and an increased incidence of pregnancycomplications. Other manifestations include suppressed immunity, poor healing, dermatitis andimpairments in neuropsychological functions. Zinc deficiency was found to be associated with dietshigh in phytate and fibre and low in protein, which were common in much of the Middle East region.Other conditions such as hookworm and schistosomiasis, which lead to blood loss, increase theincidence of zinc deficiency. Geophagia, commonly practised in Iran, was also cited as leading to zincand iron deficiency (Sandstead 1991).

Animal foods are a significant source of zinc. While cereals can also apparently be good sources,they are high in fibre and phytate, which causes much of the zinc in cereals to be unavailable. Formany foods, there is a rough correlation between the zinc content and the protein content. The zinccontent of selected foods is shown in Table 18. It is interesting, but not very relevant, that the amountof zinc in oysters is exceptionally high. In addition to the zinc content of foods in the diet, thepresence of other dietary components can affect its bioavailability and hence may be involved in thepathogenesis of zinc deficiency. These can be both inhibitors and facilitators. Inhibitors includephytate, oxalate, dietary fibre, products of Maillard browning, phosphopeptide products of thedigestion of casein, ferrous iron, calcium, copper and cadmium. Facilitators for zinc absorptioninclude digestible dietary proteins, histidine, cysteine, citrate, picolinate and EDTA (Sandstead et al1990; Sandstead 1991).

Table 18. Zinc content (mg/100 g ofedible portion) and protein content(g/100 g of edible portion) of selectedfoods.

Food Zinc ProteinOysters 91 7.1Beef 5.9 25.9Lamb 4.5 24.5Chicken 2 27.3Lentils 3.6 28.1Milk 0.4 3.3Rice 1.2 6.6Wheat flour 2.9 13.7White flour 0.7 10.3Source: USDA (1976–1994).

Zinc deficiency can impair growth. Experimentally, zinc supplementation for low-incomepreschool children in developed countries improved growth (Krebs et al 1984; Gibson et al 1989);breast-fed or low-weight infants showed improved height and weight gain (Walravens et al 1992) on dietary supplementation with zinc. In developing countries, growth-retarded children in Ecuadorshowed improved height and weight (Dirren et al 1994), and malnourished Jamaican and Chileanchildren showed improved weight gain when their diets were supplemented with zinc (Golden andGolden 1981; Castillo-Duran et al 1987). Improved linear growth with zinc supplementation hasalso been demonstrated by Behrens et al (1990) in Bangladeshi children recovering frommalnutrition and diarrhoea.

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39

IodineIodine deficiency is also a major public health problem (FAO/WHO 1992), leading to goitre and toimpaired physical and mental development. Iodine deficiency in pregnancy can lead to irreversiblefoetal brain damage as well as stillbirths, spontaneous abortions and congenital abnormalities. Itsmain cause is an iodine-depleted soil and it can be alleviated by increasing levels of seafood in the dietor by the use of iodine-fortified salt.

CopperCopper deficiency has been documented in infants recovering from malnutrition as well as in LBWinfants and in adults receiving long-term total parenteral nutrition. Copper is found in animalproducts, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds (Johnson and Nielsen 1990). Severe deficiencysymptoms include anaemia, inability to produce white blood cells such as the leukocytes and theneutrophils and osteoporosis with increased susceptibility to bone fracture. Mild copper deficiencyover a long period may be associated with arthritis, arterial disease, myocardial disease and neurologic effects. Children recovering from severe malnutrition have been shown to have low copper stores and benefit from copper supplementation, especially if they have been fed high-energy, low-copper diets(Castillo-Duran et al 1983). Delayed bone maturation has also been observed in such infants; coppersupplementation relieved the condition (Cordano et al 1964). A beneficial effect on weight gain andweight for height was reported by Castillo-Duran and Uauy (1989) when 11 children suffering frommalnutrition received a copper supplement of 80 mg/kg per day for one month.

Type I and Type II nutrient deficienciesA new classification of nutrients based on the response to deficiencies has been proposed byGolden (1995). The first type of response is that of a reduction in the bodily functions involving the deficient nutrient with little effect on growth until the deficiency becomes severe. Such nutrientsare referred to as Type I. The second type of response involves early reduction in growth with anavid conservation of the nutrient within the body to make it more internally available and tomaintain the cellular concentration of the nutrient. Such nutrients are referred to as Type II.Golden considers that Type I nutrients are required primarily for specific metabolic functionsrather than for metabolism in general. They include most of the nutrients that have had traditionaldeficiency syndromes associated with them, such as iron, iodine, thiamin, folate, vitamin C, andvitamins A, D, E and K. In contrast, Type II nutrients are needed for all cellular functions butdeficiencies are not associated with characteristic signs or symptoms. Nevertheless, deficiency iseventually indicated by poor growth, leading to stunting and wasting. These nutrients includeprotein and specific amino acids, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and sodium. The roleof food energy is somewhat equivocal. Major differences between Type I and Type II nutrientdeficiencies are shown in Table 19.

Type I nutrient deficiencies can be identified by biochemical tests appropriate to the specificpathway or storage site involved, whereas Type II deficiencies can only be identified by growthfaltering and anthropometry. In many cases such deficiencies remain unobserved or are associatedwith environmental factors that also cause growth faltering. Golden (1995) claims that it is importantto be aware of these differences and to provide the undernourished not only with Type I but also withType II nutrients. In many cases, patients are treated with a diet that provides adequate energy andType I nutrients but without additional Type II nutrients. Deficiency of the latter may have causedstunting and wasting in the first place. Type II nutrient deficiencies may remain uncorrected and the

40

condition is often unalleviated. While there are a number of loose ends in the Golden hypothesis,which is not universally accepted, the concept is useful and may explain some of the causes of growthfaltering in children in developing countries. Micronutrient deficiencies such as zinc may be far morewidespread than previously supposed.

Table 19. Type I and II nutrient deficiencies.

Type I nutrient deficiency Type II nutrient deficiencyGrowth continues Growth failureSpecific signs No specific signsBody stores are used All cells are depletedSpecific enzymes are affected General effect on metabolismNot anorexic AnorexicBiochemistry abnormal Biochemistry normal Source: Golden (1995).

Strategies for interventionWhile many people in poorer countries may be meeting their food energy needs, or may have adaptedtheir body size and patterns of activity to the food energy available, their diets may still be lacking inmany of the key nutrients needed for growth in children and for the special needs of pregnancy andlactation. The majority of deprived and undernourished people in the world are subsisting on dietsheavily based on cereals, which are bulky and are low in high-quality protein and lysine as well as in anumber of micronutrients including iron, zinc, vitamin A and copper. Strategies are available foralleviating these deficiencies.

Dietary diversity

The first approach involves improving dietary diversity by stimulating the production andconsumption of protein- and micronutrient-rich foods. Foods of animal origin can frequently fulfilthis role. Not only are they generally highly desirable but they can provide good quantities of thenutrients likely to be low or non-existent in cereal-based diets. The addition of even small amounts ofanimal foods to the diet can improve dietary quality significantly, information that nutritioneducation programmes should make more widely known.

Animal foods have been considered above as a group with similar nutritional composition.While this is true for their content of lysine when expressed as milligrams of lysine per gram ofprotein, it is far from true for other micronutrients. Table 20 shows how far white wheat flour,lean lamb meat, whole milk and chicken eggs meet the needs of a young child for food energy,protein, lysine and a number of micronutrients. One hundred kilocalories of all four foodssupply about 8% of the daily food energy needs (1300 kcal/day) of a child aged 1 to 3. Lean meat,providing the same amount of energy, provides almost 100% of protein needs and exceeds lysinerequirements. White flour provides negligible amounts of lysine. The 100 kcal of whole milkcontains more fat than the lean meat and provides calcium and riboflavin, but is a poorer sourceof protein and lysine than the meat. Milk, however, is not a good source of zinc or iron while leanmeat provides these as well as riboflavin. Eggs are a good source of protein, lysine and riboflavin.The degree to which nutritional needs are met would, of course, differ significantly ifwhole-wheat flour, fatty meat and skim milk were used instead. The diet should, wheneverpossible, include a variety of animal foods.

Food fortificationA complementary approach is food fortification by adding micronutrients to common foods. Thisfortification is especially applicable to cereals when used in a milled form. Fortification is moredifficult where there are many small-scale producers, but it can be very effective where large,centralised milling facilities exist. Staple foods can also be enriched through plant breeding (Bouis1995). This technique may become a major strategy in the future.

Table 20. Percentage of young child’s (1–3 years) nutrient requirement provided by 100 kcal of flour,meat, milk or egg.

Food

Freshweight

(g)

Totalenergy

(%)

Totalprotein

(%)

Totallysine(%)

Calcium (%)

Ribo-flavin(%)

Zinc(%)

Iron(%)

Flour1 28 8 21 7 0.5 1 2 3Meat2 74 8 95 144 1 22 31 13Milk3 164 8 34 46 24 33 6 0.8Egg4 67 8 52 65 4 43 7 101. White, unenriched wheat flour. 2. Lean lamb meat.3. Whole cow milk.4. Whole chicken egg without shell.Source: Nutrient composition, USDA (1976–1994); child requirement, NAS-NRC (1989).

SupplementationSupplementation is the direct individual supply of the nutrient, orally or by other means, such asinjection. This option is generally applicable only as a temporary measure until long-term dietarysolutions can be implemented, usually because of economic improvements. Supplementation,nevertheless, has been and remains very successful in alleviating the problems of iron-deficiencyanaemia and vitamin A deficiency.

Public health measuresAdditional strategies require public health measures and legislation to address critical environmentalfactors such as water quality, sanitation and food hygiene, and to promote essential services such asimmunisation programmes, control of endemic diseases, maternal and child health, primary healthcare and health education and information (FAO/WHO 1992). The UNICEF/WHO ChildSurvival Strategy, which includes growth monitoring, oral rehydration, breast feeding andimmunisation, is used widely and has been a major factor in reducing infant and child mortality ratesworld-wide.

Summary and conclusionsMalnutrition, in both its acute and chronic forms, and most micronutrient deficiencies mainly affectpoor people who have no access to adequate food, clean water, basic services or appropriate education and information (FAO/WHO 1992). The consequences of malnutrition are varied and far reaching.In infants and young children, undernutrition and growth retardation are associated with reducedphysical activity, lowered resistance to infection, impaired intellectual development and increasedmorbidity and mortality. Low birth weight, itself commonly a result of maternal malnutrition, isassociated with impairment of subsequent growth and high neonatal and infant mortality.

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In women, poor nutritional status is linked with an increased prevalence of anaemia, problemsduring pregnancy and childbirth, poor intra-uterine growth, low birth weight and perinatal mortality. In adults, undernourishment and anaemia can lead to poor health and productivity, resulting inimpaired physical and intellectual performance, which can also constrain community and nationaldevelopment.

Nutritional care is also of supreme importance. This care includes the role of women and theirability to allocate time to child care and breast feeding. Factors that affect the role of women includemale and female participation in economic activities, family size, time spent on food preparation, percapita expenditure on food, parental education, the number of children under six years, and the ageand sex of the child (Chaudhury 1984; 1985; 1986).

All the above factors are important in determining nutritional status as they affect the availabilityof different foods. Consumption of expensive animal foods is excessive in developed countries andlow in developing ones. Animal foods contain good-quality protein, essential amino acids such aslysine, and micronutrients such as iron, zinc, copper and vitamin A in highly bioavailable forms. Theprovision of small quantities of these foods can significantly improve diets in the developing world.

Until relatively recently, only the immediate causes of malnutrition were discussed, mainlyrelated to deficiencies of food and nutrients. The underlying and basic causes, which were consideredas being outside the concern of nutritionists, are now, however, more widely accepted. It is nowrecognised that, no matter how desirable the role of animal foods in improving nutritional status,greater consumption will not occur in poor countries unless either purchasing power increases orproduction costs are reduced. The crux of the problem is poverty, which is and will remain for theforeseeable future the root cause of malnutrition. The political will must be found in all societies togive a much greater priority in global development to the alleviation of poverty.

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Prasad A.S., Halstead J.A. and Nadimi M. 1972. Syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hepatosplenomegaly,hypogonadism, dwarfism and geophagia. American Journal of Medicine 31:532–546.

Rahmathulla L., Underwood B.A., Thulasiraj R.D. and Milton R.C. 1991. Diarrhea, respiratory infections and growth are not affected by a weekly low dose of vitamin A supplement: a masked controlled field trial inchildren in southern India. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54:568–577.

Ronaghy H.S., Reinhold J.G., Mahloudji M. et al. 1974. Zinc supplementation of malnourished boys in Iran:increased growth and other effects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 27:112–121.

Sandstead H.H. 1991. Zinc deficiency: a public health problem? American Journal of Diseases of Childhood145(8):853–859.

Sandstead H.H. Darnell L.S. and Wallwork J.C. 1990. Role of zinc and the contribution of meat to humannutrition. In: Pearson A.M. and Dutson T.R. (eds), Meat and Health: Advances in Meat Research, vol. 6.Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York. pp 237–274.

Scrimshaw, N.S., Taylor, C.E. and Gordon, J.E. 1968. Interactions of Nutrition and Infection. WHO MonographSeries No. 57. World Health Organization, Geneva.

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1996. Human Development Report. Published for UNDP byOxford University Press, New York and Oxford. 229 pp.

UNICEF(United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). 1990. Strategy for Improved Nutrition ofChildren and Women in Developing Countries. UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). 1996. The State of the World’s Children.Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford. 103 pp.

UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). 1997. The State of the World’s Children.Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.

USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 1978. Arab Republic of Egypt: National NutritionSurvey. USAID, Department of State, Washington, DC.

USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 1976–1994. Agricultural Handbook No. 8-1(1976);8-2(1977); 8-5(1979); 8-6(1980); 8-7(1982); 8-8(1982); 8-9(1982); 8-10(1983); 8-11(1984); 8-12(1986);8-13(1986); 8-14(1986); 8-15(1987); 8-16(1986); 8-17(1989); 8-18(1994); 8-19(1991); 8-20(1989);8-21(1988). Agriculture Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Walravens P.A., Chakar A., Mokni R., Denise J. and Lemonnier D. 1992. Zinc supplements in breast fedinfants. Lancet 340:683–685.

WHO (World Health Organization). 1986. WHO Working Group on the Use and Interpretation ofAnthropometric Indicators of Nutritional Status. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 64:929–941.

WHO (World Health Organization). 1995. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry. Report ofa WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series No. 854. World Health Organization, Geneva.452 pp.

WHO-UNU-UNICEF (World Health Organization–United Nations University–United Nation’s Children’sEmergency Fund). 1993. Population Studies of the Relative Effectiveness of Weekly and Daily Iron Supplementationin Pregnant Women, Adolescent Girls and Preschool Children. Master Protocol. WHO, Geneva.

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Young V.R. and Pellett P.L. 1990. Current concepts concerning indispensable amino acid needs in adults andthe implications for international nutrition planning. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 12(4):289–299.

Young V.R. and Pellett P.L. 1994. Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition.American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59 (5S):1203S–1212S. May suppl.

Young V.R., Bier D.M. and Pellett P.L. 1989. A theoretical basis for increasing current estimates of the aminoacid requirements in adult man with experimental support. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition50(1):80–92.

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Country papers

Cyprus country paperS. EconomidesAgricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus

IntroductionCyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, with a total area of approximately 9250 km2,of which 63% is under the control of the Cyprus government. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 250to 500 mm, with large year-to-year variations and with some years almost completely dry. Wintertemperatures vary from 0 to 20°C and summer temperatures reach 40°C. Natural vegetation iscomposed mainly of short-lived annual plants that dry out in late spring and no crop can grow insummer without irrigation. Soils are poor and shallow in many areas.

Crops There are three main categories of agriculture: dryland farming, irrigated farming and animalhusbandry. The main rainfed crops are cereals, vines, carob, olive and legumes. Forage crops, barley,wheat, oat, vetch and fodder pea are the most important sources for grazing and making hay, butyields may vary from 3 to 8 t dry matter per hectare.

Although irrigated farming occupies only 13% of the total cultivated area, its contribution to thegross value of crop production is about 60%. The main irrigated crops are potato, citrus, vegetables,watermelons and other melons and flowers. About 3% of the total irrigated land is used for theproduction of irrigated fodder crops.

Between 1975 and 1995, the area of fallow land decreased from 29,400 to 7100 ha, and irrigatedland increased from 25,700 to 40,000 ha, 47% in temporary and 42% in permanent crops. Totalagricultural land decreased by 13% to 200,000 ha, because of roadbuilding and the expansion oftowns and tourism.

Livestock productionAgriculture contributed about 6% to GDP in 1994–95 and employed 10% of the economically active population. The contribution of livestock production alone was 1.4% of GDP or 23% of thecontribution of the agricultural sector. The total value of livestock products in 1995 was 120,840Cyprus pounds (US$ 242,000), with 22% from dairy cattle, 25% from sheep and goats, 21% frompigs and 28% from poultry. The value added from ruminants was higher than that fromnon-ruminants.

Between 1980 and 1995, the cattle population increased from 19,900 to 68,800 head. Sheep andgoat populations declined slightly during the same period, to 250,000 and 220,000 head,respectively.

In 1975, milk production from cattle was 12,500 t, from sheep 12,000 t and from goats 18,000 t.By 1995, the total production had increased to 139,000 t from cattle, 19,000 t from sheep and 23,000t from goats. During the same period, meat production from ruminants increased from 4979 to12,850 t, representing 17% of total meat production.

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Animal production systems Until 30 to 40 years ago, sheep and goats were the most important livestock in Cyprus. Local breeds of goats and fat-tail sheep were kept in traditional extensive systems. The productivity of the fat-tailsheep was low. Milk yield after weaning was 60 kg/ewe; 0.6 lambs per ewe were reared per year, andfemale lambs lambed for the first time at two years of age (Christodoulou 1958; Papadopoulos 1958).The new sheep and goat systems are semi-intensive and intensive, with housing, limited grazing anduse of concentrates.

Main constraints on production

Feed and water resourcesIn 1995, a year with normal rainfall, local feed resources supplied 41% of total dry matter and 32% oftotal metabolisable energy intake of ruminants in Cyprus. In low rainfall years, the deficit is larger and consumption of concentrates is higher (Economides 1985). Expansion of irrigated forage crops isdifficult because of the competition from food and cash crops. A shortage of drinking water foranimals and for cleaning reduces productivity and increases production costs on the farms, becausewater has to be transported, particularly during periods of drought.

HealthDisease and parasites result in high mortality rates, loss of condition, inefficient utilisation of feedand condemned carcasses. Intensification of production, however, has led to an increase innutritional diseases and the need for more veterinary inputs.

ManagementSemi-intensive and intensive systems need better management, particularly to ensure correct feeding,and increased investment in housing and facilities.

Training and dissemination of informationLow levels of education inhibit the adoption of research results and new methods. Livestockproducers and extension workers need training and mechanisms for disseminating research resultsneed to be improved.

Support servicesFurther improvement of veterinary and extension services will increase productivity and reduce costs. Credit and marketing facilities also need further improvement.

Government policyThe Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture is responsible for education anddemonstration programmes, organising livestock shows, distributing improved animals to breeders

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and implementing development schemes and projects. These schemes have included replacing fallow land with legume crops; providing subsidies for barley grain, hay- and silage-making equipment, haystorage sheds and improvement of grazing areas; providing loans for the construction of buildings,purchase of farm equipment and animals; and demonstrating the use of sewage effluent for forageproduction.

The Veterinary Department, operating through district veterinary offices and rural stations, usesmobile clinics, laboratories, sprayers and dips to implement programmes for disease prevention andparasite control.

Loans and other inputs to livestock producers are channeled through the Central CooperativeBank. The Cyprus Milk Industry Organization is responsible for the collection of cow’s milk and,more recently, sheep and goat milk in some districts, and for its distribution to pasteurising plants orcheese-making factories.

Research and development priorities

Conservation and storage of roughages and by-productsActivities include baling cereal straw, making hay and silage, ensiling agro-industrial by-products withhigh moisture content, improving communal grazing areas and improving the nutritive value of poorquality feeds.

Feeding and forageResearch is needed to gain information on protein degradability in ruminant feeds, by measuringanimal responses, substituting soybean meal for other protein sources, evaluating complete feedingsystems for dairy cows, using sewage effluent to produce forage and providing supplementaryirrigation of winter forage crops.

ManagementManagement includes increasing productivity by culling unproductive animals; early weaning andslaughtering of lambs and kids at the optimum live weight; breeding females earlier; improvingrumen function by supplementation with nitrogen, carbohydrates, vitamins and trace elements; andimproving the efficiency of the utilisation of imported grains by feeding balanced diets at appropriatelevels, with the correct proportion of roughage, at different stages of the reproductive cycle.

Animal healthActivities include prevention and control of diseases by vaccination; controlling ecto- andendoparasites; improving housing; and implementing proper weaning, nutritional and managementsystems to reduce mortality of lambs, kids and calves.

MarketingStandardisation and grading of sheep, goats and cattle carcasses should be instituted, and paymentintroduced based on quality criteria for both milk and carcasses.

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Resource requirementsThe percentage of funds for research on animal production in Cyprus is approximately 0.75% of theGDP, which is low compared with many countries and needs to be increased. The relationshipbetween research and extension officers needs improving, to aid the transfer of results to livestockproducers, who need continuous training. In addition, credit and marketing facilities for livestockproducers need improving.

National research capacity and existing internationalprogrammesThe Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), a Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, NaturalResources and Environment, is responsible for agricultural research. The Animal ProductionSection has well-trained research and technical staff; experimental units for Friesian cows, Chiossheep and Damascus goats; an Animal Metabolic Unit for digestibility and balance studies; andanalytical and radio-immunoassay laboratories. The Veterinary Department has laboratories fordisease diagnosis, public health and the production of vaccine.

There are joint international programmes at ARI with ICARDA, and at the VeterinaryDepartment with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Cyprus can now participate inEuropean Union research, technology and development projects.

ReferencesChristodoulou J. 1958. Sheep and goats and their place in the economy of Cyprus. Countryman 12:23–35.

Department of Agriculture, Nicosia, Cyprus.Economides S. 1985. The Roughage Situation in Cyprus in Relation to Animal Health and Productivity. Miscellaneous

Reports 18. Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus. 13 pp.Papadopoulos J.C. 1958. Sheep and goats in Cyprus. Countryman 12:6–11. Department of Agriculture, Nicosia,

Cyprus.

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53

Iraq country paperA.R. Al-RawiIPA, P.O. Box 39094, Baghdad, Iraq

IntroductionIraq is situated in southwest Asia, between latitudes 29°N and 37°N and longitudes 38°E and 48°E,with an area of 440,000 km2. The country has a great diversity of climate, soil types and naturalresources. Most of the area is very cold in winter and very hot in summer. Average rainfall varies from100 to 1200 mm, but in 63% of the area the precipitation is between 100 and 300 mm. It has about 21 million inhabitants, of whom 70% live in urban areas. The average population growth rate is 3.1%.Animal production contributes 30% of the total agriculture income. Average animal proteinconsumption per capita is estimated at 2 g/day, with mean annual consumption per head of 2 kg ofmilk, 1.5 kg of meat, 1 kg of poultry, 1 kg of fish and 10 eggs (FAO 1995). Iraq, like many other WestAsia and North Africa (WANA) countries, is unable to meet internal demand for animal productsand there is growing interest in improving productivity in sustainable intensive systems. There are anumber of constraints on livestock development, such as shortage of feed, lack of veterinary andextension services and unsatisfactory marketing and pricing policies. Several institutions are involved in livestock research, but few are directly responsible for on-farm application of results. Priority isgiven nationally to the improved production and utilisation of feed resources in mixedcrop–livestock systems in both dry and irrigated areas and regionally to the performance of livestockfor meat and milk production.

Agro-ecological zonesFive agro-ecological zones have been identified (Al-Khafaji 1996).

MountainsThe mountains are situated in the north and north-east, with annual rainfall between 400 and 1200 mm,formed from limestone and separated by deep fertile valleys, where crops are grown.

FoothillsThe foothills are a transitional zone, between 200 and 1000 m above sea level, between the plains tothe south and the mountains to the north. Average rainfall is between 800 and 900 mm. The soil isformed from sandstone and gravels and there is good natural range in these areas.

Northern dry farming beltThe northern dry farming belt comprises an area of 4 million hectares, with rainfall ranging from200 to 500 mm. The area includes the Al-Jazera, the upper part of the region between the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers. This region is used mainly for wheat and barley production and for grazing.

Alluvial plainThe alluvial plains of Mesopotamia have a mean annual rainfall of 150 mm and summertemperatures rising to 44°C. Soils are calcareous and agriculture depends on irrigation. Agriculturalproduction in this area, which was once very fertile and productive, is now limited by soil salinity.

DesertThe deserts are usually divided into the northern, or steppe, desert and the southern desert.Precipitation is between 100 and 200 mm. Temperatures rise to 50°C in summer, while in winter afew degrees of frost may be recorded. These areas provide some grazing for sheep, goats and camels.

CropsEight million hectares are used for rainfed and irrigated agriculture, and 3 million for grazing andforestry. Seventy per cent of the total area is unsuitable for agriculture. In irrigated areas, the averageproduction of wheat is 1227 kg/ha and barley 966 kg/ha; in rainfed areas, wheat production is 963kg/ha and barley 900 kg/ha. This low productivity is the result of many factors, including the lack ofsuitable cultivars for the different areas, poor management and failure to adopt modern agriculturalmethods.

WaterThe main water resources in the country are the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and their tributaries,which provide 42 billion cubic metres annually. Underground water resources provide a further 2million cubic metres per year.

Livestock systems Animal populations are estimated at about 6.3 million sheep, 1.05 million goats, 1.12 million cattle,98,000 buffalo and 10,000 camels. Sheep and goats are the main livestock in areas with an annualrainfall of less than 300 mm, while the majority of cattle and buffaloes are raised in the alluvial plain.Local breeds of livestock are kept in extensive production systems with minimum inputs. Livestocksystems are generally similar to others in the WANA region, where animal production lags behindcrop production in development and in the standard of management and husbandry. Traditionally,crop farming and livestock production have been carried out as separate activities. A large proportionof feed grains and other concentrated feeds are used for poultry, while roughages are the main sourceof feed for ruminants.

Native pasture is used primarily for grazing small ruminants. Where rainfall exceeds 250 mm, itincludes land that is too steep or too stony, or soil that is too shallow for arable agriculture. Suchpastures usually exist on the foothills and slopes of mountain ranges. Where rainfall is below 200mm, especially in the steppe, native pastures cover most of the area. The vegetation is dominated byannual grasses, legumes and herbs. Generally, there are no specific property rights assigned to therangelands and all flock owners have open access, as tribal control has been replaced by communalownership. Stocking rates are low, approximately 1 sheep per hectare. Native pastures are grazed

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mainly in spring and rarely support livestock for the whole year. Smaller flocks use local grazing areasand weedy fallows, while larger flocks use the steppe.

Crop-based livestock systems exist in the dry farming zone in the north and in the central andsouthern plains. Wheat and barley are the main crops in the northern dry farming belt, with a limitedarea of about 35,000 ha, devoted to pulses, lentil and chickpea. Wheat or barley were generally grownin rotation with fallow but now are often in continuous cultivation (Adary and Kasim 1997). Barley isgrown with minimum inputs, with yields ranging from 260 to 1380 kg/ha, and is more adapted tomarginal land with rainfall below 350 mm. Sheep and goats are integrated into the system throughstubble grazing and feeding barley grain and straw, especially during winter. Forage legumes, mainlyvicia (Vicia sativa) and annual medics (Medicago spp), have been introduced in Al-Jazera to increaseforage production and a wider introduction of forage legumes into barley rotation might be a usefulalternative to either fallow or continuous cultivation.

Barley is not cut for hay, although mowers and balers supplied to farmers participating in theICARDA Mashreq–Maghreb project have been used recently to make hay from a mixture of barleyand vicia. More research is needed on suitable barley cultivars for hay.

In the central and southern plains of Iraq, about 80% of the 3.5 million hectares allocated forsmall grain winter production are used for irrigated barley, with low average yields, from 600 to 800kg/ha, mainly because of the salinity of the soil. Dual-purpose barley cultivars have recently beenintroduced, which can be grazed directly by sheep or cattle and then left for grain production, ormown twice. Green forage production is estimated at 16 t/ha and grain production at 3.5 t/ha.Alfalfa and clover are also grown in a limited area in the plains.

Animal productionThere are four distinct types of animal production in Iraq:

1. Traditional nomadic, transhumant and sedentary systems—flocks of sheep and goats are grazedextensively on natural vegetation in communal rangelands in the foothills, mountains and steppeduring spring. During summer, flocks graze stubble in Al-Jazera; during autumn and winter theyare generally fed crop residues supplemented with grain. Productivity is generally low.

2. The household system—sheep, goats and cattle, in both rural and urban areas, are kept near thehouse to provide milk for the family. Productivity is extremely low, as most farmers are moreconcerned with minimising costs and risks rather than maximising profits.

3. The lamb-fattening system—1 million lambs from the range are fattened for 3 months, from the age of 4–5 months (18–20 kg) until slaughter at 40 kg.

4. The modern or semi-intensive system for dairy cattle projects—green fodder is produced inirrigated areas in an integrated crop–livestock system.

Constraints to productionThe main constraints are• shortage of feed; Shideed and Salman (1996) calculated that currently, available feed is sufficient

for only 80% of the calculated total dry matter requirements, resulting in reductions in animalnumbers

• the harsh, arid climate with extremes of temperature, strong, hot winds and sand storms• lack of effective management of feeding, breeding and reproduction

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56

• high incidence of disease, resulting in high mortality rates and reduced productivity; thecontinual movement of livestock makes veterinary services difficult to use

• lack of applied research and technology transfer, because of lack of co-ordination betweeninstitutions responsible for research and extension

• unsatisfactory organisation of marketing• lack of incentives for producers, including poor ratio between feed and livestock prices, and

inadequate credit facilities, particularly for smallholders.

Research prioritiesResources for agricultural research are limited and unlikely to increase. Therefore, priorities need tobe established that take into account food security, the alleviation of poverty and the protection of the environment. Previous research has failed to generate substantial technical and economic returns forseveral reasons, including:• lack of understanding of livestock production systems and of the development of systems to suit

local conditions; a systems approach by multidisciplinary teams is needed to conduct on-farmresearch

• failure to carry out diagnostic studies to identify problems• research planned without reference to national agricultural policy and strategy• no integrated plan for livestock research related to resources, with subsequent setting of priorities• no links with the extension system.

Livestock research priorities should not only contribute to improving the efficiency of livestockproduction and to integrating livestock into sustainable systems but must also take into account ruraldevelopment, equity, food security, social development and institution building, and gender issues, aswell as better use of financial resources (ILRI 1997). Making choices on research issues in livestockdevelopment is difficult and complex. Kirschke (1993) suggests that the marginal benefit of researchshould be considered to focus on the crucial elements, which include increased production, the impactof research or potential change, the efficient use and optimisation of resources. A multicriteriaapproach is necessary, which should include the probability of success and a time limit when severalgoals are being pursued. Table 1 shows a livestock research activity matrix with priorities for Iraq.

Resource requirementsAlthough new vaccines and high-yielding genotypes have been developed and nutrition hasimproved, there is still a severe shortage of animal products. More funds should be made availablefor applied research and development, especially in crop–livestock systems, feed production,genetics and health. Product and market research are needed to improve the efficiency of milk andmeat production and for financial security. Such research should be initiated into these priorityareas.

The traditional crop rotation of wheat or barley and fallow has been replaced, because of sanctions,by continuous wheat or barley cultivation, although yields are low. Before the Mashreq–Maghrebproject was established, forage legumes were not used in rotations with barley in Al-Jazera. The gapbetween researchers and farmers is a limiting factor in conducting on-farm trials. Funding and supportfrom international organizations such as the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) andICARDA are vital both for basic research and for initiating new diagnostic research.

Table 1. Research priorities.

SpeciesAgricultural zone Range of applicationDry Irrigated National Regional Internat’l

Nature of research SCGBAdaptive . . . ***** ***** *****Applied . . . *** *** ** * *Strategic . . . * * * * ***Basic . . . * * ** * **

Strategy SGCBShort term . . . * **** *** ** *Medium term . . . ** ** * ** *Long term . . . **** * * ** ***

Mixed crop–livestockProduction and utilisation of feedresources

SG ***** ** **** * ***

CB * ***** *** * **Legumes for smallholderdual-purpose cattle production

C * *** **** * **

Feed resourcesEffect of diet composition,supplementation and feed supplyon performance

SCGB **** ** *** ** *

Estimation of quality of forage,crop residues and agro-industrialby-products

SCGB *** *** *** * *

Natural resource management SG *** * * *** **Rumen microbes with enhancedability to degrade fibre

SCGB * *** ** * ***

HealthProduction and evaluation ofvaccines for theileria andrinderpest

C * *** * ** ***

Enterotoxaemia S ** * * ** ***Diagnosis and treatment ofbrucellosis

SG *** *** * *** **

Fertility SCGB **** *** *** ** *Genetics

Indigenous breed characterisation SCGB **** ***** * ** *****Disease and heat tolerance SCGB **** *** * ** ***Meat production SCGB ***** *** * ***** **Milk production SCGB *** **** * ***** **

***** high priority; * low priority; S – sheep; G – goat; C – cattle; B – buffalo.

National research capacityAgricultural research in Iraq started in 1952, with the establishment of the Directorate General ofAgricultural Research and Projects. Institutions currently involved in livestock research are the IPAAgricultural Research Centre, the State Board for Agricultural Research (Ministry of Agriculture),the Biological Sciences Research Centre of the Department of Atomic Energy, faculties of agricultureof the universities of Baghdad, Basrah, Mosul, Tikrit and Enbar, and colleges of veterinary medicinein the universities of Baghdad and Mosul.

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International co-operationSince 1990, the IPA Research Centre has participated in the ICARDA Mashreq project fortechnological development and transfer, to promote the development of integrated crop–livestockproduction in low rainfall areas. In 1995, it joined the new Mashreq and Maghreb project, whichextended the work to include property rights research. A programme on water-harvesting techniquesis being conducted in the marginal rainfed area, 200–250 mm, where the land is mainly used forbarley and sheep production.

ReferencesAdary A. and Kasim K. 1997. Forage production technologies in Iraq. ICARDA Consultancy Report. ICARDA

(International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo, Syria.Al-Khafaji A.A. 1996. Prospect for Utilization of Water Harvesting Techniques in Marginal Rain-Fed Area in

Iraq. A study presented to the regional project, On-farm water husbandry in WANA. ICARDA(International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Aleppo, Syria.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1995. Evaluation of the State of Food in Iraq.FAO, Rome, Italy.

ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. Medium-Term Strategy 1998–2002. ILRI, Nairobi,Kenya.

Kirschke D. 1993. Research priority setting for livestock development in developing countries. In: Richter J.,Peters K.J. and Franzen H.(eds). Livestock Development in Developing Countries: Development Issues and ResearchNeeds. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at Weilhein, Germany, 17–20 May, 1993. DSE (GermanFoundation for International Development).

Shideed K.H. and Salman A.D. 1996. Producion, utilization, economic assessment and adoption of by-product feedblocks in Iraq. ICARDA Consultancy Report. ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research inDry Areas), Aleppo, Syria.

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Jordan country reportM. Abu-ZanatFaculty of Agriculture, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan

IntroductionJordan is a small country of 8.93 million hectares, situated near the south-eastern coast of theMediterranean, with a population of approximately 4.1 million. The annual growth rate is 3.4%. Ithas limited natural resources and is classified by the World Bank as a lower-middle-income economy.The country can be divided into three regions: the highlands, which run from north to south, withaltitude varying from 600 to 1600 m above sea level and a generally wet and cool climate; the JordanValley, which forms part of the Great Rift, stretching 104 km from the Yarmouk River in the north tothe Dead Sea in the south, and lying between 200 and 400 m below mean sea level; and the desert inthe east, which is an extension of the Arabian Desert and covers nearly two-thirds of the country.

The agricultural sector plays a significant role in the economy, contributing about 8% of the GDP and 15% of export earnings, and employing approximately 10% of its labour force. In 1996, the valueof the livestock subsector was estimated to be around 450 million Jordanian dinar (US$ 1 = JD 0.7),and its contribution to the agricultural sector was more than 55% (MA 1997). Only about 330,000 ha of the 890,000 ha of cultivable land, 10% of Jordan’s total area, are used for agriculture, for reasonsthat include lack of rainfall, insufficient water for supplementary irrigation, lack of finance for landrehabilitation and the encroachment of urbanisation. Range covers 78% of the total area and forests1.5%.

Rapid population growth and the improvement in the standard of living have increased thedemand for milk and meat, but there has been little improvement in productivity or in the efficientutilisation of resources. An analysis of current livestock production systems within each agroecologicalzone is expected to yield valuable information on existing constraints to production, which can be usedto define research strategies and priorities and to identify opportunities for improving the efficiency ofcurrent systems. This step is essential for allocating resources for research, building research teams, andencouraging appropriate livestock production within each agro-ecological zone.

Agro-ecological zonesThe different agro-ecological zones in Jordan have been described by Abu-Zanat (1995).

Semi-desertThe semi-desert zone covers about 8 million hectares of rangelands, or Badia, divided into two maincategories, desert and steppe. The desert rangelands, in the east and north, occupy 75% of the totalarea, with less than 100 mm of annual rainfall, while the steppe rangelands lie mainly east of thedesert road, with annual rainfall between 100 and 200 mm. Sheep production is the main activity inthese areas. Sheep and goats graze the forage produced on desert rangelands during short periodsfollowing rainfall. Steppe rangelands are generally used for grazing, although sizeable areas are nowcultivated.

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Under the 1973 Agricultural Land Law, over 90% of the rangelands in the steppe are privatelyowned and continuous ploughing has resulted in serious degradation and erosion of the soil. Theremaining 10%, which are state owned, are normally grazed by local sheep flocks. Adjacent to the steppe rangelands, a strip between 10 and 25 km wide is privately owned and mostly used for opportunisticcereal production; a parallel area, 15 to 30 km wide, is owned by the tribes and is partially cultivated.The rest of the rangeland in the desert, with rainfall of 80 mm, although claimed by the tribes, is open toall Jordanian and non-Jordanian flocks (FAO 1991; Juneidi and Abu-Zanat 1993; Khalidi 1993).

Approximately 100,000 ha of rangeland are irrigated, mainly in the north, between the Mafraq to As-Safawi road and the Syrian border, and in the south, between Al-Mudawarrah and Wadi Rum.Water from artesian wells is used to grow cereals, vegetables and fruit trees.

Forage production is estimated to average about 340,000 t dry matter (DM) but is highly variablefrom year to year. Forage from desert rangelands is available between mid-January and early April, and from the steppe between January and mid-April and again between mid-September andmid-November, when it is mostly browse from shrubs.

AridThe arid zone covers about 560,000 ha east of a line from Mafraq in the north to Ma’an in the south,excluding the semi-humid and semi-arid zones. It includes most of the villages where settled ownerskeep their flocks during winter. Barley, with an average grain production of 300–700 kg/ha, is themain crop in areas where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 mm. In areas with 300-350 mm ofannual rainfall, cereals, mainly barley, and some types of fruit trees are cultivated. Sheep and goatflocks graze most of the vegetation around the cultivated areas and return to them after harvest tograze the stubble at a cost of JD 20–30/ha. In dry years, the sheep and goats graze immature greenbarley at a cost of JD 30–50/ha. Estimated production is 60,000 t of barley grain (25% x area of aridzone x 500 kg/ha), 80,000 t of straw, and 10,000 t DM forage.

Semi-aridThe semi-arid zone covers approximately 130,000 ha, between the Yarmouk River in the north andMadaba in the south, the northern valleys in the west, and Jerash and Amman in the east. Areas withslopes of less than 9% are usually cultivated with wheat followed by summer vegetables, and thosewith slopes between 9% and 25% are used for fruit trees, mainly olives. Areas where the average slopeexceeds 25% are used for grazing, forestry and fruit trees. Estimated forage production from themountainous areas is about 13,500 t DM.

Semi-humidThe semi-humid zone of about 980,000 ha is located around Irbid and Ajloun in the north, andaround Salt in the centre. Wheat is cultivated on flat areas, olive and fruit trees in areas with slopebetween 9% and 25%. There are about 40,000 ha of forest in areas where the slope exceeds 25%.Estimated forage production is about 12,000 t DM.

The GhorsThe Ghors, covering around 100,000 ha, comprises the Jordan River Valley and the southern Ghors.It is the most important zone in Jordan for vegetable, citrus and banana cultivation, because of its

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tropical climate and the availability of water for irrigation. There is also some small-scale productionof forage crops, mainly alfalfa.

CropsCrop production can be grouped into four main types—field crops, grown on 39% of the totalcultivated area, vegetables on 15%, olive trees on 32% and other tree crops on 14%. Field cropsinclude wheat, barley, lentil and chickpea grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Wheatand barley are grown in southern Jordan and in the Jordan Valley, but the total area of cropsgrown under irrigation is small compared with that in rainfed areas. Vegetables are mainly grownin plastic houses in the Jordan Valley; they include tomato, cucumber, squash, potatoes, cabbage, eggplant, onion, mallow and watermelon. Other tree crops are grape, citrus, apple and stonefruits.

WaterThe total surface water, groundwater and wastewater resources are about 950 million cubic metres,insufficient to meet demand. Available surface water is estimated at 692 million cubic metres peryear, of which only 475 million cubic metres can be developed economically. The main sources areflood water (334 million cubic metres), river baseflow and spring water (358 million cubic metres)and waste water. The safe yield of renewable groundwater is about 277 million cubic metres peryear, and fresh fossil aquifers yield about 143 million cubic metres per year. Over 50% of the totalwater used is pumped from both renewable and non-renewable resources (Ghazawi 1992). Most ofthe 52 million cubic metres of treated waste water is used for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation uses73% of all water, while 22% is used for public supply in towns, 4% for industry and 1% forlivestock.

Average annual rainfall is about 8.5 billion cubic metres, ranging from a minimum of 6 billioncubic metres in dry areas to over 12 billion cubic metres in wet years. More than 85% of rainfall is lostby evaporation and only 5% recharges underground aquifers. Only 8.6% of Jordan receives averageprecipitation in excess of 200 mm/yr, sufficient for some rainfed agriculture. Rainfall is a crucialfactor in determining the area that can be cultivated and the type of crops to be grown. Low rainfallreduces yield in rainfed agriculture, the supply of irrigation water, and the area under cultivation, bymaking it necessary to increase the area of fallow (Ghazawi 1992).

LivestockThe current livestock population is about 2.375 million sheep, 807,000 goats and 47,358 cattle (MA1996). The main sheep breed is the fat-tailed Awassi; 92% of the goats are of the indigenous blackBaladi breed and 8% are Shami and crossbreds.

The total production of red meat in 1996 was estimated to be 21,350 t, meeting 43% of thecountry’s consumption, to which sheep contributed 66%, cattle 23%, goats 9% and camels 1%(MA 1996). The estimated total production of milk in 1996 was 165,100 t, with approximately65% coming from cows, 23% from ewes and 12% from goats (MA 1997). Thirty per cent of sheepand goat’s milk was processed to produce ghee and dried buttermilk, or jameed, 10% wasconsumed as fresh milk and 60% was made into white cheese. Jordan is about 50% self-sufficient inmilk.

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Animal production systems within the agro-ecologicalzones

Pastoral

Pastoralism is the main system prevailing in the semi-desert and arid zones, which are characterised by erratic and localised rainfall. In high rainfall years, flocks of sheep and goats are moved within thesemi-desert zone, outside tribal boundaries, wherever forage is available. After exploiting most of therangeland vegetation, the flocks are moved to flat wadi beds, or marabs, to graze barley stubble afterharvest. The estimated area of these marabs is 200,000 ha. Grazing fees range from JD 20 to 30 perhectare. Productivity is high because of flood water, which comes from watersheds inside and outsideJordan’s borders. When the rains are poor, flocks are moved to cultivated areas in the arid zone tograze barley, for which the flock owners pay between JD 20 and 30 per hectare. These cultivated rangeareas are state owned and remote, which encourages the tribes to put them into continuous barleycultivation to secure a source of forage for livestock and to claim ownership of the land in the future.Continuous cultivation of the rangelands has resulted in the destruction of native vegetation and thegradual shift from a nomadic system to a pastoral system with cropping. In both high and low rainfallseasons, a substantial number of sheep and goat flocks are moved to the semi-arid and humid zones tograze stubble. Feed sources in the pastoral production system include native vegetation, green barley,stubble, barley grain and wheat bran. Animal products are usually sold at a low price to travellingmerchants.

AgropastoralBetween 10% and 20% of sheep flocks are kept in an agropastoral system, found mainly in highrainfall areas in the semi-arid and semi-humid zones. Cereals and legumes are produced for humanand animal consumption, and animals, mostly sheep, remain near the village or cultivated areas mostof the year. Barley grain, vetch, stubble, wheat bran, crop residues and agro-industrial by-productssuch as olive cake and tomato pulp are used, while the rangelands contribute up to 20% of the feedresources. Veterinary services and markets in small towns and villages are accessible. Animalproducts, fresh milk, white cheese and dried buttermilk are a major source of income for flockowners.

Constraints to productionThe major constraints are:

• lack of a well-defined national policy

− agricultural policies should be clear; they should be regularly monitored and adjusted ifnecessary

• shortage of feed resources

− local feed resources are limited, and there is a large gap between available resources andlivestock requirements

− efficient use should be made of locally available conventional and non-conventionalfeedstuffs, and of any that can be imported at a reasonable price

− indigenous resources need to be protected and developed

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− poor utilisation of feeds—there is an urgent need to improve rations for ruminants (GTZ1993), to

− eliminate the use of expensive but unbalanced feeds

− increase farmer income

− increase animal production nationally

− reduce the time needed to rear and fatten young animals; reduce high costs andunnecessary waste of resources

− reduce the large number of animal diseases and the very low fertility rates

• animal health—increased importation of live animals and animal by-products from different parts of the world, and movement of livestock within and across the borders of Jordan can increaseepizootic diseases

• lack of management skills for an intensive livestock industry• lack of field-trained veterinary personnel and of sophisticated diagnostic laboratories• lack of infrastructure for processing and marketing• flock owners are scattered throughout the different ecological zones, making the marketing of

animal products, especially milk, difficult or impossible for a high percentage of small-flockowners

• marketing, especially of lambs, to the Gulf area or Saudi Arabia is controlled by large-scalefarmers or dealers and it is very difficult for small-flock owners to sell or export their animals andmilk products at reasonable prices

Researchable issues and priorities

Feed resourcesIncreasing the production and utilisation of local feed resources is essential. Feed resources aremainly derived from rangelands, field crops and agro-industrial by-products, and research is neededon the following issues:• increasing rangeland production and integration of barley and fodder shrub cultivation• using treated sewage water for forage production, taking into account the possible danger of

accumulation of organic pollutants and heavy metals in animal products• using agro-industrial by-products in feed blocks and silage making

Animal nutritionLittle has been done in Jordan to develop a technical package for the nutrition of sheep, goats andcows at different stages of their productive cycle. The following issues need to be studied:• livestock requirements in the prevailing climatic conditions• feeding value of main feeds, using standardised techniques• establishment of guidelines for supplementary feeding and formulating balanced rations• effect of anti-nutritional factors such as tannins on the utilisation of browse• mineral deficiencies in livestock diets

Land tenureThe present land tenure system is the result of a long conflict between pastoral groups and theadministration, and it is the main reason for the destruction of natural vegetation in the steppe anddesert rangelands. Failure to enforce existing laws has encouraged the cultivation of the mostproductive rangelands, resulting in desertification. It is a complex issue, and one that needs carefulstudy to avoid social and political crises. The following aspects could be considered:• having traditional range users participate in the development and management of selected areas

of the rangeland to produce forage for their livestock and to stabilise production systems• privatising the use, but not the ownership, of state rangelands, with strict rules to ensure their

proper use and management under government supervision• organising range users in cooperatives or associations to improve dialogue between users and

officials

Animal health• determining the economic impact of major livestock diseases.

Feed resources• integrating barley and fodder shrubs on rangelands• utilising by-products in feed blocks• using treated sewage water to produce forage crops

Research requirementsThe major research requirements, besides generous finance, are:• training for researchers, research assistants and field technicians on• the design of questionnaires, tabulation of collected data and proper statistical analysis• the design of experiments• advanced chemical analysis• modern equipment for chemical analyses of feed, soil and water• networks for disseminating information and results of research on the nutritive value of

feedstuffs and range vegetation• the establishment of multidisciplinary teams from national research centres to formulate a

research programme and priorities, and to be responsible for conducting and evaluating researchin collaboration with international organisations.

National research capacityJordan University has two research stations, one at Muwaqqar, 40 km south-east of Amman, with anarea of 200 ha. Nine research assistants with BSc or MSc degrees are responsible for projects on waterharvesting, on the establishment and production of forage crops, and for evaluating seedbanks. Alivestock unit will be established soon for grazing trials.

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The other research station is in the Jordan Valley, 45 km west of Amman, with an area of 100 ha.It is divided into three sections—for fruit trees, vegetables and livestock (goats, sheep, dairy cattle andpoultry). The animal research is mainly on formulating rations for dairy cattle and small ruminants atdifferent stages of production, using agricultural and industrial by-products, such as tomato pulp,banana leaves, olive cake and poultry litter.

The university also has two laboratories for feed analysis, using proximate analysis, Van Soest,and in vitro digestibility. The laboratories are used for teaching, training and research.

The National Council for Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer has three researchstations for livestock and range activities, seven stations for forage and crop production, and a smalllaboratory for feed analysis.

The Forestry and Rangeland Department of the Ministry of Agriculture has a seed centre, 15 kmwest of Amman, for collecting, evaluating and distributing seeds of shrubs and trees; it also has 23range reserves.

Regional and international collaborationJordanian institutions are involved in collaborative work with the International Centre forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) and the Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD).

ReferencesAbu-Zanat M. 1995. Production systems of small ruminants within the different agroecological zones of Jordan.

Paper presented at Livestock Research Priorities Workshop, 9–10 November, Amman, Jordan.Ghazawi A. 1992. Land and Water Policies in the Near East Region: Case Studies on Egypt, Jordan and Pakistan. FAO,

Rome, Italy.Juneidi M. and Abu-Zanat M. 1993. Low rainfall zone sub-sector review. Agricultural Sector Review and Policy

Implementation Plan. United States Agency for International Development, Amman, Jordan.Khalidi N. 1993. Jordan agricultural sector review: synthesis. Agricultural Sector Review and Policy Implementation

Plan. United States Agency for International Development,. Amman, Jordan.MA (Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan). 1996. Annual report. Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture,

Amman, Jordan.MA (Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan). 1997. Regional report for agricultural development in Jordan. Department of

Economics and Agricultural Policy, Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan.

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Lebanon country paperC. HilanAgricultural Research Institute, Fanar LaboratoryBeirut, Lebanon

IntroductionThe Lebanese government has set itself the major goal of improving livestock production. This willraise livestock farmers’ income and living standards, guarantee food security in animal products andat the same time develop the local food industry and reduce dependence on imported products,which now are often cheaper than those produced locally. An increase in self-sufficiency in foodwould help build the national economy.

Livestock accounts for one-third of the gross national product (GNP) of the agricultural sector inLebanon. Between 1993 and 1995, milk and dairy products accounted for 40% of the GNP fromlivestock, of which 63% came from cows, 10% from sheep and 27% from goats; meat accounted for24% of the GNP, with 32% from cattle, 47% from sheep and 21% from goats. Poultry productsrepresented 32% of the total, 84% as meat and 16% as eggs.

Lebanon imports 82% of its requirements for meat, 100% of its milk powder and 53% of itscheese and butter. A survey conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with the Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), published in 1990, showed that in theshort term Lebanon will find it difficult to attain any appreciable level of self-sufficiency as far as meatfrom cattle and sheep and milk and dairy products are concerned.

In view of this, it is necessary to set priorities for animal research, particularly on cattle, based on adetailed study of the country’s agricultural and economic situation, on identifying the constraints ondevelopment of livestock production and evaluating local research capacity and livestock researchareas, to foster long-lasting and sustainable agricultural development.

Livestock productionThere are, according to recent statistics from the Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture, 80,000 cattle,including 65,000 dairy cows, 350,000 sheep, including 315,000 milk sheep, and 450,000 goats,including 400,000 dairy goats. Of the dairy cows, 40% are of the local Baladi breed, 34% are crossesbetween Baladi and Canadian Holstein, and 26% are purebred Friesian imported from Germanyand Holland. The Friesian and the crossbred Holsteins are generally good milk producers and arekept, for the most part, on small farms, with an average of five cows per farm. Most of the sheep areAwassi and goats are local Baladi. Both are kept in extensive and semi-sedentary systems, whereproductivity is low.

The annual averages of animals slaughtered and weight of carcass produced between 1994 and1996 were 38,000 and 8000 t for cattle, 270,000 and 3000 t for sheep, and 175,000 and 3000 t forgoats. The estimated average annual output of milk during the same period was 200,000 t for cows,32,000 t for sheep and 46,000 t for goats. The average annual individual milk production was 300litres for cows, 110 litres for sheep and 115 litres for goats.

The natural pastures in Lebanon are poor, and seed production is low. Livestock nutrition,therefore, relies on expensive imported feeds.

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Constraints on livestock productionThe major constraints on livestock production are as follows:• nutrition

− limited local feed resources, lack of crop residues and high cost of imported feed− poor, unbalanced, livestock diets during winter

• health− low resistance to diseases such as enterotoxaemia, foot-and-mouth disease, colibacillosis and

sheep pox, to internal and external parasites, contagious diseases, brucellosis and otherzoonoses

− inadequate veterinary services, lack of vaccination campaigns, high cost of medication andlack of hygiene

• genetics− lack of nationwide programme for selection and cross-breeding− problems relating to artificial insemination in cattle

• socio-economics− lack of extension programmes to improve traditional practices and popularise new

production methods− poor communication between farmers, veterinarians and the Ministry of Agriculture− lack of an official pricing policy and problems with availability of credit for farmers− low prices of imported milk and dairy products − lack of milk collection, storage and marketing centres− lack of meat quality control, including in slaughterhouses

• environmental− poor organic waste disposal− destruction of bushes and woodlands.

Research prioritiesA programme was implemented in accordance with guidelines of the International Service forNational Agricultural Research (ISNAR) to determine priorities for livestock production research,taking into account four key factors: efficiency, equity, security and the environment. Animalproducts were ranked in order of importance, with poultry meat as the most important, followed, inorder of priority, by goat milk, eggs and sheep meat, cow milk, honey, goat meat, cattle meat andquail, sheep milk, turkeys, pigeons and pheasants, horses, rabbits, frogs and snails, and pork.

Studies were also conducted on livestock farm management, breeds, animal health, nutrition,the marketing of animal products, the impact of livestock production on the environment, and thesocio-economic situation of livestock farmers. This programme highlighted the following priorityareas:• improving the output, hardiness and reproductive performance of both local Baladi and Chami

goats, and cross-breeding to improve prolificacy• improving the productivity of Awassi sheep and of dairy cows• Establishing standards for housing, hygiene and quality control of milk and dairy products.

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Studies will be carried out on the prevalence and methods of control of diseases such asbrucellosis, peste des petits ruminants (PPR), enterotoxaemia and sheep pox, and of internal andexternal parasites. Research will also be conducted, with international institutions, on improvingnutrition and balanced feed rations, and on new types of feed and pastures.

This programme will need adequate financial resources for research, training and extension.

Research capacityLivestock research is conducted by the following:• The Institute of Agricultural Research, which has 5 stations for livestock and veterinary research,

at Fanar, Tal Amara, Terbol and Tyr in South Lebanon and Abdeh in North Lebanon• Departments of Animal Resources and of Animal Health in the Ministry of Agriculture• The American University of Beirut, and the Lebanese universities of St Joseph in Zahlé Bekaa

and St Esprit in Kaslik.Although the government institutions have, for the most part, the space, premises and basic tools

to conduct research, both the numbers of scientists and finance are inadequate.

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Syria country paperA. SwaidLivestock Research Department, Directorate of Scientific Agricultural Research, P.O. Box 113, Douma, Syrian Arab Republic

IntroductionSyria covers an area of 185,000 km2, of which about 65% has less than 200 mm of rainfall annually.There are about 8.3 million hectares of steppe and pasture—45% of the total land area—3.5 millionhectares of uncultivated land (rocks, sand and marshes) and 0.5 million hectares of forest. Of the 6.2million hectares of arable land, 4.21 million hectares are cropped annually and 1.8 million hectaresare in rotation with annual fallow. Agricultural production is mainly based in rainfed areas, whererainfall fluctuates widely from year to year. The production of industrial crops such as cotton,sugar-beet and tobacco is less affected by erratic rainfall as these crops are mainly produced underirrigation. About 50% of the value of crop production is derived from 0.6 million hectares of irrigated areas. Cotton is the major agricultural export and the second largest net earner of foreign exchange.Agriculture could make a greater contribution to the economy if it were more efficient in, forexample, water use. The agricultural sector contributes 20% of value added to the economy, employs30% of the labour force and contributes about two-thirds of non-oil exports. It provides raw materialsfor the food, tobacco, textile and leather industries, which employ half the industrial workforce.

Agro-ecological zonesThe country is divided into five agricultural zones, based on annual rainfall, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean annual rainfall andland area in the agro-ecological zonesofSyria.

ZoneRainfall(mm)

Land area(× 103 ha)

1 <350 27012 250–350 24503 >250 13304 200–250 18505 <200 10187

CropsWheat, legumes, tobacco, sesame and unirrigated vegetables are grown in zone 1, which has morethan 350 mm of rainfall, and wheat, barley and forage in zone 2, with between 250 and 350 mm. Inzone 5, which has less than 200 mm annually, only irrigated crops are grown.

The most important irrigated crops are cotton, wheat, sugar-beet, citrus and other fruits, andvegetables. About 85% of irrigated wheat is planted to high-yielding varieties. The most importantrainfed crops include wheat, barley, tobacco, legumes and tree crops, mainly olive and grape. The use

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of machinery and of chemical fertilisers and pesticides has expanded rapidly, with a tripling offertiliser use during the last 10 years.

There are about 440,000 families engaged in crop production and another 40,000 engaged onlyin livestock production. Approximately 80% of farmers have farms of less than 10 ha, and averagefarm size ranges from 3 ha in high rainfall and irrigated areas to about 45 ha in areas of low rainfall.

Animal production systemsThere are about 11.4 million sheep, 1.0 million goats, 780,000 cattle, 7000 camels and 2500buffaloes in Syria. The local, unproductive Akshi is the main breed of cattle; Shami comprise10% of the population and imported high-yielding dairy breeds 20%. All the sheep are of theAwassi breed, and goats are mainly mountain, with a small proportion (6%) of Shami, orDamascus.

In arable areas with between 200 and 350 mm of winter rainfall, where barley is the main crop,the grain, straw and residues are used for feeding livestock. Adjacent to the barley zone are vast areas of rangelands, which are an important seasonal grazing resource for small ruminant flocks based inthe barley zone, as well as for nomadic flocks. The movement of transhumant flocks wastraditionally regulated by seasonal availability of grazing. Animals moved regularly between winterand spring grazing areas in the rangelands, and summer grazing on cereal and irrigated cropresidues in the wetter zones. Nomadic flocks moved continuously within the rangelands in searchof pasture and water.

Both systems have been transformed by recent developments. The rapid adoption of vehiclesby flock owners in the rangelands has disrupted the traditional grazing cycle and intensified theexploitation of natural grazing. Animals can now be transported quickly over long distances totake advantage of fresh pasture, and water can be transported to the flocks so that they can staylonger in any given area. The quality and quantity of pasture is rapidly deteriorating as a result ofearly grazing and overgrazing. The possibility of transporting supplementary feed and the drilling of wells has encouraged some owners to keep their animals in the rangeland throughout the yearand to increase the size of their flocks while obtaining as much free grazing as possible. Therangelands are now occupied for a long period each year by a larger number of animals than in the past.

Government policyThe main objectives of government policy for livestock are to increase production, to achieve greaterself-sufficiency and maintain low consumer prices, by:

• promoting cooperatives to improve grazing practice and protect natural pastures

• improving local breeds and developing breeding centres, particularly for dairy animals

• improving veterinary services

• improving the availability and quality of feeds, including crop residues

• providing additional credit for the development of livestock production.Resources have been directed mainly towards cattle, sheep and poultry production, with

investment in water points for livestock, improved support services such as veterinary care andextension services, and provision of additional credit for feedstuffs. Pricing and marketing policieshave been established for livestock products and animal feeds.

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Research issues and prioritiesIn general, research priorities are determined by policies and programmes for nationalsocio-economic development, the need to import certain foods and future agricultural requirements.

Plans are prepared for present and future research activities, based on the long-term agriculturalstrategy research plan, the five-year agricultural research plan and the annual agricultural researchfinance plan. They include research activities, and labour and financial resources.

National research capacityThere are a large number of directorates within the Ministry of Agriculture, of which the directoratesof Agricultural Scientific Research, Extension, Steppe and Rangeland, Animal Production, andVeterinary and Vaccine Production have the greatest importance for livestock production.

The Directorate of Agricultural Scientific Research, near Damascus, is the main institution foragricultural research; it has departments for crops, horticulture, vegetables, plant protection, foodtechnology, pesticides, socio-economics and animal production.

The Directorate of Animal Production (DAPR) has 46 technical staff working in 12 stations andresearch centres, representing different agro ecological zones, in the provinces of• Damascus

− Deir Al-Hajar Research Station, for improving Shami cattle− Karahta Research Station, for improving Shami goats− Camel and Rangeland Research Centre

• Sweida− Aura Mountain Goat Research Station− Koneitra− Kodane Shami Goat Research Station

• Homs− Jusiat Al-Khrab Animal Genetic Complex and Rangeland Research Centre

• Hama− Ghab Centre for Buffalo Research and Development− Hama Sheep Research Centre− Jedrin Sheep Research Station

• Aleppo− Homima Shami Goat Research Station

• Raqqa− Beir Al-Hashem Sheep Research Station

• Hassaka− Heimo Research Centre for Mixed Farming Systems.DAPR also organises activities with farmers, such as on-farm trials, field days, field tours and

participation in national and regional projects.The major priorities of the DAPR research plan are to improve the productivity of local breeds

and the quality and quantity of feed resources, to develop animal production systems in arid andsemi-arid areas, and to develop mixed farming systems in zones 1, 2 and 3 (see Table 1).The reasons for choosing these priorities are:

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• to increase self-sufficiency and reduce imports of animal products, especially milk and milk fromlocal dairy animals

• to insure production of enough good quality animal feed for livestock, especially during yearswith low rainfall

• to increase livestock populations, especially sheep and goats, in crop-producing areas to reducethe grazing pressure on pastures in zones 4 and 5

• to make better use of crop residues, especially cereals, and prevent the burning of stubble.There are faculties of agriculture in the Universities of Damascus, Teshrin (Lattakia), Aleppo and

Al-Baath (Hama), which also has a Faculty of Veterinary Medicine.Some agricultural research is also carried out in the Department of Applied Agriculture of the

National Atomic Agency and in the Remote Sensing Agency.There are two regional and international centres in Syria, the Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid

Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), near Damascus, and the International Center for AgriculturalResearch in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), near Aleppo. There is also international co-operation inresearch networks for small ruminants, buffaloes and camels, and with the Food and AgriculturalOrganization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

Conclusion and recommendationsLivestock research in Syria still lags behind plant production research because of insufficient support. The country is self-sufficient in crop products, but there is a gap of 25% to 30% between demand andsupply of animal products. The development of livestock research and production could be improved by a clear definition of policy and priorities, which takes into account national needs and thetechnical and financial resources available. Research needs to be independent and to have strongerfinancial and technical support. Greater collaboration and exchange of information is necessarybetween those working in research and those teaching in veterinary and agricultural faculties, andwith regional and international research institutions.

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Egypt country reportF. Al-KerabyAnimal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research CentreDokki, Egypt

IntroductionEgypt has a total area of about one million square kilometres, of which only 3% is used for agricultural production. The population is increasing at an annual rate of 2.5% and is expected to reach 70million by the year 2000. Food consists predominantly of cereals—wheat, maize, rice andsorghum—which provide 72% of the energy and protein supplies. The per capita consumption ofanimal products is very low, approximately 16 g/day. Mean annual per capita consumption is 9.7 kgof red meat, 48 kg of milk, 6 kg of white meat, 4.9 kg of fish and 4 kg of eggs. The annual growth rate of animal production has remained around 4%. The continuing economic boom and an economicpolicy that favours consumers have greatly increased the standard of living of the population,particularly in the food sector. Over recent years, the demand for meat has grown and imports of meat have increased. Milk and meat prices have increased substantially. The government has committeditself to a phased withdrawal from direct intervention in the market, the abolition of governmentcontrol of the prices of most products, and a gradual reduction in the number of public sectoremployees.

LandEgypt is divided topographically into four regions: the Nile Valley and Delta, occupying 3.3% of the total area, the Western Desert 67.0%, the Eastern Desert 22.5%, and the Sinai Peninsula 7.2%.Ninety-seven per cent of the agricultural land lies within the Nile and Delta region, a third of it newland reclaimed since 1952. It is highly productive and ideally suited to intensive agriculture. Since1887, the area of cultivation has increased by 49% and the population by 470%. With thecontinuing loss of agricultural land to urban encroachment and the limited water available forirrigation, any future growth in agricultural production will have to come from more efficient useof resources.

WaterExcept for a small rainfed area along the north desert coast, crop production is dependent on waterfrom the River Nile provided by the Aswan Dam, which amounts to 55 billion cubic metres annually.In addition, about 3 million cubic metres of groundwater are extracted annually from the Nile Valleyand Delta, the Western Desert and Sinai, for agriculture and for municipal and industrial use.Average annual rainfall varies from almost zero at Aswan to 24 mm in Cairo and 192 mm on thenorth coast; it occurs mainly during a short period in winter. The harvesting of this rainwater isimportant for cultivation in rainfed areas.

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CropsCotton, wheat, rice, maize and berseem, or Egyptian clover, account for 80% of crops. Wheat andberseem are the main winter crops; in summer, cotton and rice are important cash crops, and maizeand sorghum the subsistence crops. Levels of production are relatively high, compared with countries with similar agroclimatic conditions, and yields have increased significantly in the last five years.There is considerable potential for growth, particularly in the approximately one million hectares ofreclaimed land, which represent 25% of the total agricultural area.

Forage resourcesThe main winter and spring forage is berseem, while wheat straw, rice and concentrates are used insummer. The feed gap in 1992 was 3.1 million tonnes total digestible nutrients (TDN), and it isexpected to increase to 4.5 million tonnes by the year 2000.

LivestockAnimal production in Egypt represents about 30% of total agricultural production. The majority offarms are family farms of less than one hectare, with mixed livestock and crop production. The averagenumbers of adult livestock per farm are 1.02 buffalo cows, 0.94 cows, 1.14 sheep and 1.06 goats.

There is a large ruminant population of 3 million buffaloes and 3.2 million cattle, providing 2.8million tonnes of milk annually. In spite of a 3% annual increase in production, this meets only 72%of demand.

Water buffaloes are well adapted to the subtropical environment and account for 66% of thetotal national production of milk and 45% of the meat. Buffalo cows generally have a longerproductive life than the native Baladi cows or Friesian cows. Under good management, milkproduction ranges between 1000 and 3000 kg per lactation, two to three times higher than that ofnative cows. They tend, however, to have lower rates of reproduction than dairy cattle. It is likely thatthese low rates could be improved through better nutrition, health care and management, rather than genetic manipulation.

Milk yield of the native Baladi cows is low, about 800 kg per lactation, and is used mainly fornursing the calf. Because of increased demand for milk, Friesian cattle were introduced to study theirperformance in local conditions and investigate the effects of cross-breeding on milk production. Itwas found that the cross-bred cows lactate longer and have a shorter dry period.

The 4.22 million sheep and 3.13 million goats in Egypt are raised mainly in three regions: theNile Delta, Upper Egypt and in the desert rangelands, particularly in the north-west coastal zone.Production systems and breeds in the three zones are different. There are about one million sheepand 700,000 goats in the Nile Delta, where agriculture is very intensive. Sheep are raised either bysmall-scale farmers or in village flocks managed by shepherds, and goats are kept mainly as householddairy animals. There is scope in this region for intensive lamb production. In Upper Egypt, which ischaracterised by mild, dry winters and very hot summers, agriculture is less intensive. There are about1.5 million sheep and 1.7 million goats, mainly in mixed flocks, with some goats kept as householdanimals. In the desert rangelands, 1.4 million sheep and goats are kept in extensive systems.

Sheep are mainly of the fat-tailed, coarse-wool Ossimi, Rahmani and Barki breeds, with thethin-tailed Seidi breed in the far south. The large, brown Rahmani are mainly kept in the north andmiddle Delta region; the Ossimi, which are probably descended from the Awassi, in the south Delta;and the lighter Barki breed in the north-west coastal area.

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Goats are mainly hairy and of medium size, and they vary greatly in type and productivity. TheEgyptian Nubian, or Zaraibi, goat, which is kept in the north Delta, is believed to be the ancestor ofthe Anglo-Nubian.

There are also 131,000 camels and 1.35 million donkeys and horses.

Constraints on livestock productionThe main constraints on production are the shortage of local feed resources, particularly in summer,limited water and cultivable land, and the poor quality of local breeds of livestock.

Research issuesResearch is needed on the following:• Buffaloes

− genetic and environmental factors influencing the performance of the Egyptian buffalo,including low fertility, particularly in summer, and causes of calf loss

− production of progeny-tested bulls to improve buffalo milk production, use of artificialinsemination and introduction of exotic germplasm

• Cattle− selection to increase milk production from native and Friesian cattle, establishment of an

elite herd and conservation of native breeds− effects on milk production of crossing native and Friesian cattle− causes of calf mortality in Friesian cattle, their productivity in desert conditions, and use of

artificial insemination and embryo transfer techniques• Sheep and goats

− evaluation of milk and kid production from goats in different systems and the effects ofcrossing with the Damascus, Alpine and Anglo-Nubian breeds, selection to improveprolificacy and milk production in Zaraibi goats

− improvement of fertility and reproductive performance of local and cross-bred sheep, embryo survival and its relationship with litter size, and adaptation of Romanov and cross-bred sheepand of local and cross-bred goats to prevailing climatic conditions

− on-farm studies to evaluate the performance and optimal flock structure of local andcross-bred sheep and goats in different regions, and systems model analysis of existing andproposed production systems in the desert and Delta regions

• Feed resources− increase in forage production through selection and better management of berseem,

improvement of alfalfa production in reclaimed land, and replacement of forage maize bynew, multicut forage crops

− increase in the production of white and yellow maize grains, which are the main energysource in animal feeds.

Current research and research capacityThe Animal Production Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for a projecton the development of nutritional resources using ammonia, urea and molasses, financed by the

European Economic Community, and, in co-operation with the Finnish government and theInternational Development Research Centre (IDRC), a programme to increase lamb production onsmall farms in some Delta provinces. There are also projects to develop sheep and goat production inthe desert area of the western coastal zone and to improve feed resources for livestock.

Ranking of researchThe priorities for research on livestock production in Egypt can be ranked according to discipline,severity of the problem and species. By discipline, the priority for animal nutrition is 30%, for animalbreeding 25%, animal husbandry 20%, animal reproduction 10%, animal health 8%, extension 4%and fisheries 3%.

By severity of the problem, animal nutrition, animal breeding, waste utilisation and animalhealth rank highest; animal husbandry, animal products and socio-nutrition rank next; andsocio-economic aspects need the least attention.

Priority for research on species should be ranked in the following order: cattle, buffalo, chickens,sheep, goats, rabbits, fish, turkeys, ducks, camels.

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Sudan country paperB. Fadlalla1 and F.A Ahmed2

1. Agricultural Research Council, Wad Medani, Sudan2. Animal Resources Research Corporation, P.O. Box 8067 (Al Amarat), Khartoum, Sudan

IntroductionSudan is the largest country in Africa, with an area of 2.44 million square kilometres, extending from4°N to 22°N. It has a population of 25 million, mostly living in rural areas. Climatic conditions arediverse, with average rainfall varying from less than 25 mm in the north to 1500 mm in the south. The main rainy season is between July and September. Mean daily temperatures vary from a maximum ofmore than 40°C in the north to a minimum of 6°C in Jebal Marra in the west. There are extensiveplains of ironstone in the south, clay soils in the central plains, and sand in the north and west, with afew mountainous areas in the south, east and west. The River Nile runs through the country fromsouth to north, a distance of 2258 km. In 1996, agriculture, which provides employment for about75% of the population, contributed 48% of GDP and 73% of export earnings. Most importantindustries depend on agricultural products as raw materials.

Agro-ecological zonesSudan can be divided into six agro-ecological zones, whose major plant communities have beendescribed by Harrison and Jackson (1958) and by Wickens (1991).

DesertThe desert, with rainfall of less than 75 mm, covers 27% of the country. Vegetation, which is virtuallyabsent except on water courses, consists essentially of ephemeral grasses and herbs known as ‘gizu’,following rare rain showers in winter. These succulent plants provide grazing, mainly for camels,during the dry period from November to February.

Semi-desertThe semi-desert, covering 18% of the country, extends along a wide belt from the border with Chad to the Red Sea coast. Rainfall is between 75 and 300 mm, and vegetation is mainly scrub and grassland.Dominant trees and shrubs include Acacia tortilis, Capparis decidua, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Maeruacrassifolia and Salvadora persica with Acacia mellifera, Balanites aegyptiaca, Capparis decidua and Ziziphusspina-christi on clay soils and water courses. Herbaceous species include Aristida spp., Blepharis spp.,Cenchrus spp., Cymbopogon nervatus, Panicum turgidum and Schoenefeldia gracilis. Because of successivedroughts and overgrazing, some desirable species such as Blepharis linarifolia and Cadaba farinosa havedisappeared in many areas of the range

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Low rainfall savannahThe low rainfall savannah, with rainfall between 300 and 500 mm, covers 24% of the country, with340,000 ha on clay and 240,000 ha on sandy soils. It is characterised by open woodland in some areasand by open grassland in others. The dominant trees are Acacia spp. such as A. mellifera, A. nubica, A.seyal, A. senegal and A. tortilis. Other species include Anogeissus leiocarpa, Boscia senegalensis, Cadabaglandulosa, Capparis decidua, Commiphora africana, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Faidherbia albida, Grewiatenax, Indigofera oblongifolia, Tamarix articulata, Terminalia spp. and Ziziphus spp. Herbaceous speciesinclude Aristida spp., Blepharis spp., Cyperus rotundus, Shoenefeldia spp. and Zornia spp.

High rainfall savannahThe high rainfall savannah, which covers 11% of the country, has rainfall from 500 to over 1000 mm.Acacia species such as Acacia polyacantha and A. seyal are dominant, but broadleaved trees are alsofound, including Anogeissus spp., Combretum spp., Dichrostachys cinerea, Lonchocarpus laxiflorus,Sclerocarya birrea, Sterculia setigera and Terminalia spp. Herbaceous plants include tall grasses such asBrachiaria spp. Cymbopogon spp. and Hyparrhenia rufa, and the shorter Aristida spp., Blepharisspp., Cenchrus biflorus, Ipomoea spp., Setaria spp. and Zornia spp. on sandy soils.

MountainsThe mountain zone covers 6% of the country and includes Jebel Marra, the Nuba and ImatongMountains, and the Red Sea Hills. The vegetation in these areas is quite diverse.

The flood zoneVegetation in the flood region, 14% of the country, is dominated by Cyperus papyrus, with associated Echinochloa pyramidalis, Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia.

Livestock resourcesSudan has the second largest animal population in Africa. In 1997, the contribution of livestock toGDP was estimated at 20%, representing 42% of the contribution of the agricultural sector (Ministryof Finance and National Economy 1997). Earnings from the export of live animals and meat in 1996were US$ 135.7 million.

In 1994–95, there were 103 million livestock, of which 30 million were cattle, 37 millionsheep, 33 million goats and about 3 million camels. Western Sudan has the most livestock (40%), followed by southern Sudan (27%) and central Sudan (23%). The majority of breeds are raisedwithin tribal groups and often carry the name of the tribe. They are well adapted to the harshenvironment and often trek long distances in search of feed and water. Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable conditions. Cattle are mainly descended from Bos taurus, or zebu. In central Sudan they are generally kept for milk, and in western Sudanfor meat production. Sheep are of the Sudan Desert type, with live weights up to 70 kg andexcellent meat and carcass characteristics. Goats, mostly of the large, black Nubian type, arefound in central Sudan and are kept for milk. There are two types of the single-humped camel,one kept for riding and the other as a pack or baggage animal. Camels are exported mainly formeat.

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Feed resourcesAbout 90% of livestock are raised in traditional pastoral systems, mainly in the western states ofKordofan and Darfur, and in the southern states. Rangelands occupy an area of 110 millionhectares. Sudan also produces about 18.6 million tonnes of crop residues (AOAD 1994). Greenfodder cultivation, however, is less than 126,000 ha. Rangelands provide about 86% of feed forlivestock, crop residues and agricultural byproducts 10%, and irrigated forage and concentrates4%. The rangelands suffer from overstocking in some areas and understocking in others, frombush fires, deforestation, uneven distribution of water sources, and the encroachment of bothtraditional and mechanised agriculture.

Animal production systemsThe major production systems are described here:

NomadicLivestock, mainly camels and sheep, with some goats, are raised entirely on natural rangelands.Households move with their animals and have no permanent base on which to grow crops. They spendthe rainy season in the northern, semi-desert zone and during the dry season, move further south intothe savannah. Income is derived from the sale of animals, meat and milk in the form of white cheese.

TranshumantIn the transhumant agropastoral system, households depend mainly on livestock, mostly cattle, withsome sheep and goats, although there is some cropping. In western Sudan, households migrate northduring the rainy season and return to the savannah during the dry season. In the central and easternstates, migration is towards the Nile during the rainy season and back during the dry season.

SedentaryThe sedentary system exists where there is rainfed, arable farming in settled villages. Some livestock,mainly small ruminants, are kept, but the animals are less important than the crops. Sorghum, sesame and cotton are grown on clay soils, and millet and groundnuts on sandy soils.

Migratory agropastoralA migratory agropastoral system is found in southern Sudan, where livestock are raised in traditionalrainfed agricultural systems in settled villages. Livestock are moved away from the Nile in the periodof flooding and back when the floods recede.

Sedentary irrigated crop–livestock systemPermanently settled farmers in the irrigated areas of central Sudan grow cotton, sorghum,groundnuts and wheat, and also raise livestock, especially small ruminants. Livestock, although lessimportant than crops, are a supplementary source of income, which is used to hire labour for

agricultural work before the harvest. Productivity is low and animals depend heavily on crop residues, industrial by-products and the grazing of limited areas of fallow and the sides of canals. Intensivecow’s milk production is becoming more common within the large irrigation schemes, and theseareas are seen as promising for future expansion of livestock production.

Other systemsOther animal production systems include ranching, feedlot operations and peri-urban backyardlivestock production. Ranching is a recent trend in Sudan. Animals are raised for meat on naturalrangelands in western Sudan in Kordofan and Darfur, and in Butana in Kassala State. Poor rangemanagement within the ranch is, however, a major constraint. Feedlots have existed for over 30 years.Animals, mainly beef cattle, are brought on the hoof from western Sudan and fattened in KhartoumState on sorghum grain, oilseed cakes and roughage, with gains of up to 1 kg/day in cattle and 0.35 kgin sheep. Near and within urban areas, goats and poultry fed on household waste are kept fordomestic supply.

Constraints on productionIn spite of the great potential of livestock and Sudan’s self-sufficiency in meat and other livestockproducts, the following constraints on production are important:• Overgrazing in some areas, particularly around settlements, while vast areas are undergrazed

because of lack of water for the animals• The great distances that animals often have to walk from water points to graze; Fadlalla (1987)

estimated that walking required 30% of the daily energy intake of lactating sheep during the dryseason

• Expansion of agriculture, particularly mechanised farming, into traditional grazing land, whichhas led to reduction in grazing areas and in many instances to the blocking of traditionalmigration routes and water points, causing conflicts between transhumant and settled farmers

• Seasonal nutritional deficiencies• Prevalence of disease, particularly tickborne diseases, and parasites, leading to early culling of cattle• Poor veterinary services• Poor husbandry• Inefficient utilisation of crop residues, including poor integration of livestock in the rotation of

acacia (A. senegal) and arable crops• Lack of processing of feeds and export of by-products• Difficulty of marketing and processing milk from 90% of the milking animals in nomadic and

traditional systems, far from the centres of consumption• Lack of infrastructure such as research, extension, roads, education, health services and livestock

markets.

Government policies for the livestock sectorThe Ten-Year National Comprehensive Strategy plan for 1992–2001 aims to ensure food securityby increasing livestock production. The key elements for livestock development are:

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• a threefold increase in livestock production and major increases (× 20) in the export of animalsand meat

• diversification, intensification and integration of animal and crop production, with cautiousencouragement of a gradual shift towards permanent settlement of migrant pastoralists

• protection of the traditional sector from marginalisation and resource degradation• development of extension, training and information services.

The abolition of controls on the price of local and imported commodities and the privatisation of public enterprises are expected to increase livestock production, lower prices and encourage theprivate sector. The policy also includes• the improvement of veterinary services, the control and eradication of diseases and parasites, and

the development and production of veterinary drugs• the improvement and expansion of fisheries and aquaculture industries• improvements in marketing.

Research issues and prioritiesResearch can be divided into the following major categories:

Natural resourcesAbout 90% of animal production is in rangeland. Research on communal grazing lands has itslimitations, but this should not prevent scientists from addressing some of the following:• classification of the large number of plant species, both woody and herbaceous, in the rangeland,

according to livestock preference, other economic uses, nutritive value, role in preventing windor gulley erosion, tolerance of fire and grazing pressure, and suitability within the system, usingboth previous research data and indigenous knowledge

• use of plant species in range rehabilitation, methods of propagation, water requirements andproductivity

• identification of plants containing anti-nutritional factors• investigation of water-harvesting techniques in soils with problems of crust formation.

Farming systemsResearch, particularly into rainfed and irrigated sedentary systems, should include• introduction of legumes into crop rotations to improve both soil fertility and human and animal

nutrition• effects of planting legumes or gum arabic trees on fallow land• selection and introduction of winter forage legumes to bridge the feed gap during the dry season

and make efficient use of irrigation. At present, most legumes, apart from perennial lucerne, aregrown during the summer, when they compete with other crops for land and water

• the grazing tolerance of A. senegal at different stages of growth, and the productivity of crops sownunder or with it

• use of other trees, including Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Grewia tenax, Tamarindusindica and Ziziphus spina-christi

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• use of trees and ground cover to improve soil-water status• more efficient utilisation of crop residues, including varieties, handling, processing and storage,

and the addition of a nitrogen source to improve quality.

Animal husbandry• management of mating to concentrate births when grazing is adequate• effect of strategic feeding of different species before mating to enhance conception, and before

parturition to improve the chances of survival of both dam and offspring and to increase milkproduction

• energy cost of walking for different animal species, assessment of the efficiency of newmanagement systems, in which water is transported to livestock at grazing, and optimumwatering frequency for various livestock species

• effect of supplementary feeding on dairy camel performance• mineral deficiencies in the rangelands and the economics of mineral supplementation.

BreedsThe performance of indigenous breeds under optimum management conditions should be studied.

Socio-economicsStudies should be made to describe and evaluate existing systems, define constraints and developappropriate methods to alleviate them.

DiseasesStudies are needed on• impact and costs of control of tick-borne diseases, internal and external parasites• diseases transmitted by biting flies.

Processing• need to improve efficiency and hygiene. At present, for example, because of poor road conditions

and the remoteness of grazing areas, surplus milk has to be processed into cheese or ghee.

National research capacityIn 1996, the Ministry of Animal Resources was given a mandate to oversee the development of thelivestock industry, the improvement of range and pasture, the control of disease and thestrengthening of research. Sudan is self-sufficient in vaccines. Animal production research is carriedout by a number of institutions, including the Animal Production Research Corporation, which hasfour centres—for veterinary, animal production, fisheries and wildlife—and is also responsible forregional veterinary diagnosis and research laboratories, livestock research stations, the Agricultural

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Research Corporation and the National Centre for Research. There is also some research in theuniversities, in the faculties of veterinary science, animal production and natural resources. There areabout 140 scientists, specialising in various aspects of animal production. Research is, however,limited by the lack of international contacts and access to international publications, by inadequatefinance for laboratory equipment and costs, and by the lack of external training.

ReferencesAOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development).1994. A study on the utilization of agricultural

by-products in the formulation of animal feeds in Arab countries (in Arabic)Fadlalla B. 1987. The dry season nutritional status of transhumant Baggara sheep in Sudan. In: Proceedings of the

International Conference on Animal Production in Arid Zones, Damascus, Syria, 7–12 September 1985, part 2, pp.834–844. ACSAD (Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands) and AOAD (Arab Organizationfor Agricultural Development

Harrison M.N. and Jackson J.K. 1958. Ecological classification of the vegetation of the Sudan. Forests Bulletin No.2(New Series). Forests Department, Khartoum.

Ministry of Finance and National Economy, Sudan. 1997. Report by the Committee on Macro-economy (inArabic)

Wickens G.E. 1991. Natural vegetation. In: Craig G.M. (ed), The Agriculture of the Sudan. Oxford UniversityPress, London. pp. 54–67.

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Algeria country paperM.A. NouadITEBO, BP 03 BirtoutaAlgiers, Algeria

IntroductionAlgeria is the second largest country in Africa, and the tenth largest in the world. It has an area of2,381,741 km2, 80% of which is in the Sahara Desert. The population density is 10 inhabitants persquare kilometre. Of all the sectors reflected in the various development plans implemented sinceindependence, livestock production has received the least support. Algeria is approximately 50%self-sufficient in livestock products in general, but only 40% self-sufficient in milk. Efforts havecentred mainly on expanding poultry production, and Algeria is now self-sufficient in white meat andeggs, although 90% of the inputs are imported. There are no laws or regulations governing livestockproduction, and there is a lack of understanding of livestock farming. Productivity is low, not onlybecause of environmental factors, but also because of a range of other constraints related toorganisation, nutrition and management.

Agro-ecological zonesAlgeria can be divided according to rainfall into four agro-ecological zones: the coast, with between600 and 1000 mm annual rainfall; the highlands, with rainfall ranging between 400 and 600 mm;,the steppe, with between 100 and 400 mm; and the Sahara, with less than 100 mm. The coastal andhighland regions together comprise the Tellian region.

The Tellian regionIn the north of the country, the Tellian region consists of the coastal area, the Tellian AtlasMountains and the highlands. It is characterised by the production of food crops and forage, mainly avetch–oat mixture. The mountainous part of this region covers an area of 7.5 million hectares, with40% in cultivated land, mainly cereals, 24% in forests, and 36% in rangeland and scrub. In theagrosilvipastoral areas, livestock density is higher than average for the highland region. Forestrangelands also exist, where grazing is restricted in some areas by the Forestry Department.

All three ruminant species are found in the region in varying proportions, depending on pastureavailability. It has 80% of the total national cattle population—481,200 livestock units, mainly in thecoastal area. Thirty per cent are improved cattle, managed using relatively modern methods, with anannual production of 2400 litres of milk per cow, which represents less than 50% of their potential.The remainder are from local breeds, managed traditionally, with an average annual production ofless than 500 litres per cow. They produce, however, a relatively important quantity of meat and milkand constitute an important livestock resource, worthy of further development. There are also 2.2million sheep and 0.74 million goats in this area, representing 20% and 25%, respectively, of totalpopulations.

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Sheep production occurs mainly on scrub, range and wasteland. The production system in themountain areas is extensive and traditional, and uses fallow land, mountain valleys, scrubland andforest. There is considerable interdependence between sheep and cereal production, with cereals andcereal by-products, bran, straw stubble and fallow pasture providing more than half of the feedrequirements.

Goats graze forest and scrub areas. Forestry legislation, however, is unfavourable to goats, whichare often wrongly accused of being agents of forest degradation.

The steppeThe Algerian steppe, which occupies an area of about 20 million hectares, extends from east to west,covering a strip of 100 to 300 km in the high plateaux, with rainfall between 100 and 400 mm. It isbounded in the north by the Tellian Atlas Mountains and in the south by the Saharan Atlas. The flora are of two types—a spontaneous annual grass cover, acheb, which appears within a few days of the firstrains and, provided the rains are adequate, lasts for about a month, and perennial plants, which formthe permanent flora of the steppe pasture. The most widespread of these plant species areAmpelodesmos tenax specific name not verified; genus name changed from Amelodesmum toAmelodesmos(diss), Aristida pungens (drin), Artemisia herba-alba (chih), Atriplex halimus (gueffaf) andStipa tenacissima, (alfa).

The SaharaVegetation in the arid zone of the Sahara, with less than 100 mm annual rainfall, varies according torainfall and rock cover. In the sand dunes it consists of retama bushes and some Aristida grasses; in the stone dunes there are clumps of asphodel and anabasis bushes; and in the rocky desert plateaux, theHamadas, a sparse cover of anabasis. In the oases, there is irrigated production of lucerne, greenbarley and other forage crops.

Land useOf the total area of 2,381,741 km2, 3.2% is arable land, 13.1% is in pasture and rangeland, 2% isforest, and 81.7% is classed as other land, mainly desert. Most of the arable area (83%) is used forcereals or fallow after cereals, with 10% used to grow fodder crops.

Feed resourcesThe total area of forage crops is estimated at 976,784 ha, with 78% in dry forage, consisting ofoats or a mixture of vetch and oats, and 22% in green forage, predominantly barley. Resources for grazing consist of approximately 12 million hectares of rangeland in the steppe, 5 millionhectares in forests and scrubland, 3 million hectares of cereal residues, and 3 million hectares offallow.

Calculations of the total feed units (FU) available for ruminants and equines in Algeria indicate atotal production from forage of 4.870 billion FU, 80% derived from pastures and rangeland. Afurther 1.357 billion FU are derived from concentrates. These amounts meet only 65% of thecalculated feed requirements of the ruminant and equine populations.

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Animal population and productionAlgeria has 11.1 million sheep, 1.2 million cattle and nearly 3 million goats. Sheep are kept mainly inthe steppe and cereal-growing areas and cattle in the coastal areas, on the plateaux and in themountainous northern regions. Cattle are mainly from the small local breeds, with live weights of 250 to 350 kg, annual milk production of 500 litres per cow, and 70 kg of meat per breeding cow. Thegoats are kept in the steppes (51%), 23% in the Sahara zone and 26% in the mountains and near thecoast.

There are also 136,000 camels, 85% of which are found in the Sahara region, 135,000 horses and210,000 asses.

Milk productionMilk production rose between 1986 and 1996 from 0.75 to 1.1 million tonnes, approximately 40% of consumption. Production is mainly from cattle, with very small amounts from sheep, goats andcamels.

PoultryPoultry production increased from 162,000 t in 1985 to 270,000 t in 1995, largely through statesubsidies for credit and importation of inputs; it provides 10 kg of poultry meat annually perinhabitant. Algeria is self-sufficient in fresh egg production. Poultry production has made up for thedeficit in milk and red meat, albeit at a very high price, since most inputs, including 80% of the feed,are imported.

FishApproximately 160,000 t of fish are caught annually, providing 3.4 kg per inhabitant per year. With acoastline of 1200 km, of which 750 km constitute a coastal fishing zone, the present production levelis very low.

Red meatRed meat production in 1995 was estimated at 320,000 t, 55% from sheep, 37% from cattle and 7%from goats.

Livestock systems

CattleBoth intensive and extensive cattle production systems exist in Algeria.

Intensive System

Approximately 30% of the total cattle population is kept in an intensive system, which produces 40%of total milk consumed and 23% of bovine meat. All the cattle are from imported, improved breeds.

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Extensive System

The traditional extensive system uses both indigenous and cross-bred animals and provides about40% of total milk and 77% of total beef production. It is found in the poorer areas of the countrywhere vegetation is sparse. Herds generally migrate between the highlands and the foothills, wherethey obtain much of their forage.

SheepA description of sheep production systems in Algeria traditionally falls under three headings, relatedto mobility: nomadic, semi-sedentary and sedentary. These categories also relate, to a lesser extent, tofeeding strategies: grazing only, grazing with stall feeding, or zero grazing. This results in fiveproduction systems—extensive nomadic, semi-sedentary migratory, semi-sedentary, semi-intensivesedentary and intensive sedentary.The distribution of animal species is related to the geographical nature of the country:• the highlands, with cattle production for meat and goat production for milk• the plains, with dairy cow production• the steppe, with sheep production for meat and goat production for milk• the desert, with camel production for meat and milk.

The socio-economic situation of livestock producers differs from one area to another,influencing production, management and systems. Production systems vary widely, ranging from afew intensive holdings to extensive systems with low productivity. They are also conditioned by feedresources:• pastoral system, using spontaneous vegetation, with no forage crops or purchased feed

supplements• pastoral system, using forage crops in some periods• pastoral system, in which pasture satisfies a small fraction of livestock requirements and feed is

based mainly on cultivated forages, cereals and crop by-products, including stubble• feeding based on cultivated crops and crop by-products• all feed purchased and consisting mainly of hay and concentrates.

Constraints on livestock productionProduction constraings can be classified as feed related, management related, and organisational;they include:• Feed

− lack of irrigated land for forage production− forage production based predominantly on a vetch–oat mixture and inefficient conservation

of forage as late-cut hay with low nutritive value− high costs in milk production systems as a result of high levels of concentrate use− importance of off-land milk production systems

• Management − unexploited potential of indigenous, low-yielding cattle breeds− low herd growth rate through failure to produce breeding heifers

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− unproductive dairy cows and low productivity within herds− small number of high-performance dairy cows− poor management, resulting in low fertility, a high rate of mortality and long calving intervals− poor technical knowledge of livestock producers, lack of a tradition of intensive production

and technical difficulties in tapping genetic potential• Organisation

− lack of credibility of the few associations that exist− weak chambers of agriculture− lack of laws and regulations governing livestock production and related activities.

Researchable issues

In the Tellian region

Cattle

• Development should be pursued through development of forage production, with cereals andprotein-rich plants being used for the production of compound feed to supplement forage

• A shift to intensive irrigated forage production is essential.

Sheep

• Production should be organised to ensure that livestock producer groups are professional• Sheep production should become increasingly integrated with the agricultural system through

− concentration of lamb fattening in the agricultural regions of the north− an intensive sheep production system in cereal-growing areas based on forage cropping,

primarily of medicago or subterranean clover, with the gradual phasing out of fallow periodsand the introduction of a wheat–legume rotation

− establishment of seed production units for medicago, fescues, sulla clover, orchard grass,crested wheat grass and similar forage crops in seed multiplication farms in the high plains

− agro-food strategies to produce by-products for intensified livestock production.

In the mountain areasThe determining factor in any action to encourage livestock production in the mountain areas should be organisational, allowing access to their silvopastoral and pastoral resources. Theseoften-marginalised areas would benefit from modest investment.Three areas of action are needed:• Improvement of extensive meat production from local breeds of ruminants• Introduction of dairy goats for milk production• Improvement and preservation of rangelands.

Dairy goat production should be promoted, as it has good feed efficiency and favourabletechnical and economic performance. It is important also not to overlook goats in any action

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designed to increase meat production. The development of local goats with poor milk yield couldhave a significant impact on overall red meat production.

In the steppeSheep are an important asset, relative to cattle, in the development strategy for red meat production,because• the sheep population, in livestock units, is greater than the cattle population• sheep production has a short cycle• at equivalent stocking rates, sheep production requires less investment than cattle production• the turnover of capital is faster than in cattle production.

Research prioritiesThe main objectives for the development of livestock production in Algeria are• to increase production while maintaining product quality• to guarantee adequate income for livestock producers.

Development objectives should be oriented to the potential of the area and should take accountthe balance between forage resources and rangeland-based livestock production. The primary focuswill be on milk, meat and eggs. To attain these objectives, the status of livestock production must beimproved, as it is currently characterised by inadequate forage resources, poor management, lowproductivity and poor organisation of the production chain at every level. This improvement willhave to be achieved partly by a rational utilisation of the meagre resources available, throughwell-designed technical action, and partly by increasing resources. The following research priorityareas are relevant:• feeding• preservation and genetic improvement of livestock resources• reproduction• health• housing for animals• improvement of the performance of livestock systems• technical and economic evaluation of livestock systems.

FeedingIn view of the size of the national animal feed deficit, it is essential to address this problem at variouslevels, including agroecological region, production type and production system. It will be necessary,first, to make an inventory of feed resources and their nutritive value. In addition to research ontraditional feedstuffs, such as forages and cereal grains, the work should also focus on all types ofby-products and new plant resources, likely to both widen the range of feed sources and increase theirquantity.The research topics identified are:• inventory and nutritional value of livestock feeds and agro-industrial by-products• feed utilisation

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− feed formulation− rations, in relation to production system− pasture and range management, such as stocking rate− harvesting, conservation and distribution of forages and other feeds.

Preservation and improvement of livestock genetic resourcesSome research has been carried out to assess the genetic potential of local breeds, but the results haveyet to be translated into practice. Action is needed to identify existing animal populations anddevelop genetic improvement programmes relevant to national or local economic conditions.Priority research topics are:• inventory of livestock resources and their genetic potential

• genetic improvement, related to the production system and region.

ReproductionReproductive efficiency is important in all production systems. A comprehensive review is requiredof current techniques and their shortcomings, to assist in developing improved management ofreproduction.

Animal healthDisease is a crucial factor in determining livestock productivity, and the prevention and control ofzoonoses are important for public health.The research topics identified are:• animal pathology• zoonoses• epidemiology and treatment• manufacture of vaccines and reagents.

Housing for farm animalsHousing is an important factor in livestock production, and it should be adapted to animalrequirements and the production system, to reduce production costs.Priority research topics are:• use of local materials and methods in constructing the housing• definition of the environmental conditions necessary for animals to express their potential• infrastructure and design of appropriate equipment.

Improvement of the performance of livestock systemsThe priority is to develop management systems that increase the performance of cattle, smallruminants, camels, horses and non-conventional livestock systems.

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Technical and economic evaluation of livestock systemsDecision-making depends on the availability not only of information on farm management but alsoof technical and economic data. Technical and economic evaluation is necessary to improve theprofitability of livestock systems.The priority areas are• cattle, sheep and goat production• camel and horse breeding• non-conventional livestock production systems• livestock production in steppe and mountain areas• livestock production in desert areas.

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Libya country paperM. Al-MasriAgricultural Research Centre, Tripoli, Libya

IntroductionLibya lies along the southern coast of the Mediterranean, in North Africa, between latitudes 18° and33° north and 9° and 25° east. It has a total area of about 1,759,540 km2

, of which more than 90% isdesert, and a population of about 4.5 million. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean, with erraticrainfall. Agriculture is limited to a narrow strip along the Mediterranean coast, mountain areas andscattered oases in the desert. It is mainly crop production, which contributes 5% of the gross domesticproduct (GDP) and employs about 13% of the total labour force. There are about 2.2 million hectaresof arable land, of which 1.3 million are in rangeland, 355,000 in permanent pasture and 320,000 inforest and woodland. Production is mainly in the private sector, with some government projects, mainly irrigated cereal and forage production in the desert. Animal production contributes approximately30% of total agricultural production, providing meat, milk, dairy products and eggs.

Agro-ecological zonesThere are four agro-ecological zones in Libya.

Coastal zoneThe coastal zone occupies a narrow strip between 5 and 25 km wide along the sea, extending in thewest to more than 100 km in the form of an arc, to form the Jeffara Plain. Average annual rainfall isbetween 200 and 250 mm. Supplementary irrigation, using underground water, is common, but itsexpansion is restricted because the water table is lowering by 1 to 5 m/yr, which is causing infiltrationof seawater. The soils in the western part are neutral to slightly alkaline sandy or sandy loams, very lowin organic matter, while soils in the eastern part are heavier, mainly sandy or clay loams.

Mountain regionsThe two mountain areas, the Green Mountain in the east and the Western Mountain, lieimmediately south of the coastal area. In the Western Mountain, average annual rainfall is between200 and 300 mm, and soils are much lighter and more variable than those of the Green Mountain.

Semi-desert zoneThe semi-desert zone lies immediately south of and parallel to the mountain regions, with averageannual rainfall between 50 and 150 mm. Most of the large flock owners use the rangeland to grazesheep, goats and camels. Seventeen government projects were established in the area to reclaim about800,000 ha of land and plant them with fodder shrubs (Atriplex) and annual medics. Nomads havetraditionally grown crops in the wadi beds in this zone.

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Desert zoneThe desert zone consists of sand dunes and barren hills, with almost no rainfall. Agriculture hastraditionally been confined to a few scattered oases. Recently, due to the discovery of vast quantities ofunderground water in parts of the desert, some government-sponsored projects have been establishedto reclaim the land and settle nomadic people. About 100,000 ha are now under permanent irrigation.

CropsThe main farming systems in the rainfed areas are as follows:• rotation of cereal, mainly barley, with fallow in the coastal plains, marginal lands and wadi beds,

in rangeland areas with less than 250 mm rainfall• continuous cropping in areas with more reliable rainfall, mainly in the Green Mountain• olive plantations in the coastal area, especially in the west, with barley and vegetables grown

between the olives if irrigation is available• fruit farms in about 2% of the total rainfed area, with rainfall above 350 mm. Irrigation is used for

fruit trees (mainly citrus in areas with rainfall above 350 mm) and vegetables in the westerncoastal area, with supplementary irrigation for cereal and forage crops.

The main crops are• cereals: wheat, barley, maize and millet• pulses: dry beans, broad bean, pea, chickpea and groundnut• vegetables: potato, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin, squash, cucumber, eggplant, onion,

garlic, green pea, carrot, watermelon, cantaloupe and muskmelon• fruits: grape, dates, olive, apple, pear, peach, plum, orange, lemon, apricot and almond• industrial crops: tobacco• forage crops: Alfalfa, oat, sorghum and sudan grass.

Animal population and productionSheep, goats and camels are the main livestock species. In 1992, there were 5.60 million sheep, 1.25million goats, 155,000 camels and 135,000 cattle. In the last 30 years, the number of sheep hasincreased by 30%, goats numbers have remained almost constant, cattle have increased by 30% andcamels have decreased by 40%. Calculations in feed units of the balance between total feedrequirements of ruminants and estimates of the total production of feed from rangeland, straw,forage crops and concentrate feeds indicate a major deficit in feed supplies.

Animal production systems in the agro-ecological zones

The coastal zoneThe coastal zone has 29 major dairy cattle projects to supply the cities of Tripoli, Khomis, Zawia,Misurata, Sirt and Benghazi. There are also four large projects for dairy cattle and poultry meatproduction in Hira and Twisha south of Tripoli, Tawerga, and Goth Sultan in Benghazi region. Thetotal production of poultry meat from these centres is 23 million birds per year. There are also

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small-scale flock owners with sheep and goats, and private milk and poultry meat producers in thisarea.

The mountain regionsLarge-scale and small-scale flock owners use both the Green Mountain and the Western Mountain areasfor grazing sheep and goats. There are also two dairy cattle stations in each area.

The semi-desert zoneThe semi-desert rangeland is grazed by large flocks of sheep, goats and camels.

The desert zoneIn Fezzan and Kufra regions there are four stations for dairy cattle and poultry production. Smallflocks of goats and sheep graze wheat and barley stubbles on government projects and private farms.

Constraints to development of livestock productionThe supply of animal products does not meet demand, for several reasons:• climate

− high temperatures and humidity result in reduced feed intake, low milk and meat yields, andreproductive problems

• limited feed resources− limited rainfall affects the growth of natural pasture and the availability of forage and

roughage− in spite of improvements in feed manufacturing, the supply of concentrates is directly

affected by the availability of raw materials imported from abroad• decreases in government finance for projects in recent years• shortage of equipment and farm machinery• poor organisation of collection, storage, marketing and distribution of livestock products• lack of collaboration between farmers associations• lack of technical administration• insufficient planning of research in animal production, coupled with limited finance for

equipment and machinery; little participation in international meetings and conferences; andvery limited access to international periodicals, published research and the Internet.

Researchable issues and research prioritiesThe need is great for both short- and long-term research on nutrition, management, breeding, diseaseand health in sheep, goats and camels, with the following priorities:• estimation of daily feed consumption and stocking rates on rangeland pastures for Libyan

Barbary sheep and goats

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• improvement of reproductive efficiency and reproduction• development of economic, balanced rations from available feed resources• examination of alternatives to concentrate rations, including ammonia-treated straw,

urea-treated barley grain and straw, feed blocks of agro-industrial by-products and urea• improved utilisation of grazed wheat and barley stubble.In rangeland and pasture research the priorities are• the classification of plants that are palatable to animals• improvement of rangelands, including developing rotations to avoid overgrazing and using

fencing to protect the pasture• the cultivation of shrubs (Atriplex), medic and spineless cactus.

National research capacity and existing internationalprogrammesResearch on livestock production is carried out in the Agricultural Research Centre, animalproduction departments in the faculties of agriculture in Tripoli, Sebha and Beida, and the LivestockProduction Research Centre. There is also a Camel Research Centre and a School of VeterinaryMedicine. The Agricultural Research Centre collaborates with the Mashreq/Maghreb Project, whichorganises field days, training programmes and the distribution of extension leaflets.

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Morocco country paperB. Boulanouar1 and A.M. Matthess-Guerrero2

1. BP 6570, Rabat Institute, Rabat, Morocco2. INRA/GTZ-Project Viande Rouge, BP 258, Meknès, Morocco

IntroductionMorocco has an estimated population of 27 million people, of whom 40% are involved in agriculture. The total surface area is 70 million hectares, approximately half of which are used for agriculture andgrazing. Eleven per cent of the total area is arable land, of which 50% is in barley, 40% in bread anddurum wheat and 9% in maize; 7% is forest and 30% is rangeland. The climate is Mediterranean,with hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. The growing season lasts generally for six months.Water flow in most rivers is small and irregular, and is mostly captured by large dams to irrigate nineareas that total approximately 800,000 ha.

Unreliable rainfall, fragmented land ownership patterns, generally poor integration of crop andanimal production, lack of cultivated forage crops, and inadequate or non-sustainable resourcemanagement have been the major impediments to improved agricultural production. Inefficientresearch services, inadequate transfer of information to farmers, and farmers’ inability to buy inputshave impeded the adoption of new methods. The contribution of agriculture to GDP has declinedfrom 30% in the 1970s to the present 20%. Morocco began to import corn and wheat in the 1960s,and these imports rose considerably after abnormally dry conditions between 1979 and 1985.Agricultural products now make up 20% of imports.

Agro-ecological zonesThere are four main agro-ecological zones in Morocco:

The high plateaux on the east of the middle Atlas, with annual rainfall of 250 mm. Some barley isgrown, but yields are very variable. The production system is nomadic, although some settlement isnow taking place.

The middle Atlas region, where common range is grazed in summer by transhumant sheep flocks.Crop and livestock production systems are integrated and some settlement is now taking place.

The Rif, high Atlas, small Atlas and the southern oasis. Although seemingly very distinct, these zoneshave in common agricultural systems that are settled, diversified, relatively intensive and usuallyirrigated. Sheep raising is common, although flocks are small. Forage production and conservationhave existed for a very long time.

The coastal plains, Chaouia, Doukkala, Abda, Chiadma, Gharb, Moulouiya and the plateaux of the westand of the Sais. These are the areas of large-scale cereal cultivation associated with sheep and beef cattleproduction, which are increasingly intensive.

The Rif and Atlas Mountains have a profound influence on climate and rainfall and, therefore,on agricultural activity. The Rif and the middle Atlas separate the plains and the coastal plateaux from the vast eastern plateaux. The high and the small Atlas together constitute a natural barrier severalhundred kilometres long that protects the north-west part of the country from the harshness of theSahara. Winter snows in the two mountain chains provide important water resources.

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Land useBecause of its geographical location, Morocco is relatively more humid and its vegetation is probablymore varied than in the other countries of the Maghreb. Intensive agriculture exists in irrigated areasand along the Atlantic coast. East of the middle Atlas and on the high eastern plateaux, farming isreplaced by vast areas of steppe covered mainly by Stipa tenacissima and Artemisia herba-alba.Approximately 800,000 ha (10% of the arable land) are irrigated, mainly for wheat. Agro-industrialby-products are used for livestock, mainly dairy cattle.

Rangeland, which occupies about 30% of the total area, is deteriorating, because of populationgrowth and encroachment, increased grazing pressure and mismanagement.

Feed resourcesFeed resources in Morocco are mainly rangeland, cereal crop by-products, forage crops andagro-industrial by-products. Rangeland contributes, on average, 36% of the animal feedrequirements. Although declining, it is the chief feed resource in extensive production systems,particularly for sheep. Cereal grains, mostly barley, provide 11% of the livestock feed requirements,and cereal production, which occupies 80% of cultivated land, is expected to increase. Straw andstubble provide 30% of the total livestock feed requirements and are fed mainly during late summer,autumn and early winter. Other cereals, such as sorghum and oats, make a small contribution tolivestock diets, and maize is mainly used in poultry production. Agro-industrial by-products provide12% of the total feed resources; forage crops, irrigated lucerne and clover, and vetch–oat from rainfed areas contribute 10%; and weedy fallow 10%.

Animal population and productionLivestock production in Morocco, in addition to meat and milk, provides income, employment andby-products. Recent estimates indicate that the contribution of livestock production to totalagricultural production declined from one-third in 1969 to less than one-quarter in 1987. The 80%of the farmers who own less that 5 ha of land each keep more than 60% of the cattle and 50% of thesheep on only 25% of the cultivable land. Farmers, particularly small-scale farmers, invest in livestockas a form of savings, to buffer against crop failure.

SheepThere are currently about 16 million sheep in the country, of which over 90% are in rainfed areas.There are six major breeds, the most important of which are Beni Guil (2.3 million head), Timahdit(1.2 million head) and Boujaâd (800,000 head). About 5000 sheep of imported meat breeds are usedin cross-breeding programmes.

While sheep production is declining in importance as an economic activity and nomadic ortranshumant systems are being replaced by sedentary systems on irrigated lands or near towns, it isstill extremely important as the main livelihood in some areas. Integration of sheep and cropproduction is increasing, with the recycling of by-products and the utilisation of fresh or conservedforage. Degradation of rangeland and forest, because of poor management and the cutting of trees for fuelwood, is a serious problem.

Traditional systems are also important in providing animals for use in cross-breedingprogrammes in other regions of Morocco.

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CattleThere are about 2.5 million cattle, of which 65% are local breeds, kept in three main systems ofproduction:

Dairy system

The dairy system is based on irrigated land, using high-producing Friesian and Holstein dairy breedsand some cross-breeds. The main product is milk, and calves are sold for fattening. Irrigated forageproduction provides 40% of the feed requirements, mainly from perennial alfalfa and berseem(Egyptian clover); concentrates such as sugar-beet pulp, wheat bran, cereal and legume grains andcommercial concentrate provide 50%; and cereal straw 10%. Annual milk production from Friesianand Holstein cows varies from 2400 to 3800 litres per livestock unit (LU), depending on the area,although some producers in the area of Doukkala get 6800 litres per LU.

Mixed system

Production of calves and milk from Friesian and local breeds and their crosses is found in the morefavourable rainfed areas and around irrigated areas. The feed base is diverse—weedy fallow, straw andstubble, agro-industrial by-products and some rangeland, with little cultivated forage. Agro-industrialby-products and other concentrates such as cereal grain and faba beans make up 30–50% of the diet.Annual milk yield for Friesians is 2000 litres, for crosses 1500 litres and for local breeds 600 litres;meat production is 190 kg live weight per LU for Friesians, 160 kg for crosses and 120 kg for localbreeds. Milk that is not consumed by the calf or the farm family is sold.

Lactating cattle (beef cattle) system

In rainfed cereal production areas, local breeds are kept to produce young calves for fattening. Strawand stubble provide about 40% of the feed requirements, and weedy fallow and rangeland another40%. In addition to producing about 110 kg of calf live weight per LU annually in local breeds, about500 litres of milk per LU is produced, mostly for household consumption.

GoatsAn estimated 4.8 million goats, mainly local breeds, are kept almost entirely in the rangeland andforest. Supplementation is rare, except when there is snow, when feed is scarce or during lactation indairy goats. Annual production varies from 8 to 16 kg of kid live weight, depending on the region.There is some semi-intensive milk production, using crop residues, some purchased concentrates and occasionally a forage crop.

OtherThere are also about 820,000 donkeys, 470,000 mules, 200,000 horses, 60,000 camels, 10,000 pigsand 37 million chickens. Poultry production provides annually 152,000 million tonnes of whitemeat—about 35% of the total meat consumption—and 1.4 billion eggs.

Sheep, cattle and goats provide 98% of the red meat production, which increased from 200,000to 300,000 million tonnes annually between 1970 and 1993, mainly because of increases in meanindividual carcass weights from 112 to 160 kg per head in cattle and from 11 to 14 kg in sheep. Of the

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total red meat produced 43% is mutton, 40% is beef and 8% is goat. Ruminants also provide annually around 15 million tonnes of wool and 60 million tonnes of skins and leather.

Red meat production is mainly from extensive systems, where feeding is based on spontaneousvegetation and crop by-products. It is subject to wide annual and seasonal fluctuations, because ofvariations in annual rainfall and because of feed shortages in late summer, autumn and early winter.

Annual milk production is about 920 million litres, 41 litres per capita, but is subject to largesupply fluctuations between seasons, because of the fluctuating feed supply.

Constraints to productionFollowing are some of the physical, social, economic and technical constraints on animal production:• extensive systems, using degraded rangeland• lack of integration between animal and crop production in agropastoral systems• inadequate levels of nutrition in intensive systems• unsustainable collective range management and utilisation• weak extension system and lack of coordination between research and extension• difficult access to certain areas• small size of farms, herds and flocks• lack of credit, particularly for landless livestock owners• illiteracy among producers• lack of producer organisations• high prices of concentrate feeds• fixed prices for meat• low levels of consumption of animal products• seasonal fluctuation in production.

Government policyStrategic goals of agricultural development in Morocco, established in the early 1990s, are to ensurenational food security, improve farmers’ incomes, integrate agriculture in the national economy andprotect the environment.

Government strategy for developing the ruminant sector and the rangelands is based onexamining different scenarios for feed availability for sheep and cattle production, on the assumption of changes in demand and improvements in productivity. It is proposed that the ruminantpopulation not be increased, but rather that productivity be improved, with specialised productionsystems developed in different regions.

Pastoral, arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas will keep breeding animals, while milk and cropproduction and fattening will take place in agropastoral areas near large urban centres. Major areas of intervention will be in• better disease control, involvement of the private sector in veterinary medicine and improved

inspection of animal products• increased forage production, with special emphasis on utilisation by cattle, and improved

utilisation of straw, stubble and other by-products• fostering of livestock owners organisations in pastoral areas

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• increased sustainability of range production, using rotational grazing, rangeland rehabilitation,planting of forage shrubs and conservation of genetic resources

• genetic improvement of dairy cattle in irrigated areas, using artificial insemination, withincreasing financial participation of producer organisations

• selection and improvement of local breeds of cattle for meat production in rainfed areas• reinforcement of sheep breeding programmes, in the prolific D’Man and other local breeds, and

evaluation of cross-breeding with imported meat breeds• evaluation of productivity of local goats within sustainable management systems, and

introduction of improved breeds for milk production• liberalisation of markets and organisation of production, processing and marketing.To contribute to these goals, national research will concentrate on ruminant production, particularlyof sheep, forage production for cattle, epidemiological studies of major ruminant diseases and ofnutritional diseases to increase productivity and competitiveness by• better management of reproduction and health• improved utilisation of crop and agro-industrial by-products• improved forage production, conservation and utilisation, particularly of summer forages• characterisation and improvement of the performance of local breeds• collection and evaluation of suitable germplasm for range reseeding• evaluation of pastoral ecosystems and development of sustainable methods to improve them• study of the productivity, efficiency and sustainability of different livestock systems, and analysis

of their response to different policy and institutional measures• analysis and improvement of marketing.

National research capacity and setting of prioritiesAt the beginning of the 1990s, there was no national research unit for the different ruminantproduction systems, research activities were scattered throughout different institutions, andcollaboration was based on the initiative of individual researchers. The Small Ruminant ResearchProgram (SRRP) of the National Agricultural Research Institute of Morocco (INRA) was started in1992, as one of five priority INRA research programmes, with support initially from the World Bankand Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau and now from the German Agency for Technical Cooperation(GTZ). The first task of the SRRP team was to elaborate a research agenda. Their mandate was limitedto five major sheep production systems, and responsibility was delegated to five multidisciplinaryregional teams. Regional mixed working groups, which included producers and extension workers,were involved at the national level to ensure coherence.

The programming-by-objectives approach, elaborated by INRA and the International Service forNational Agricultural Research (ISNAR) was adopted for the research design. This approach focuseson the technical needs of producers and on official development goals, and it takes into account thescarcity of human and physical resources. It has been used by INRA previously for researchprogrammes on crop and forage production. Its application to livestock research identified severalspecific problems related to either the discipline or the small ruminant sector in Morocco, such as thelack of delineation of production systems.

The process combines research design at the regional or the sheep production system level(Figure 1) with a supporting analysis of sector information concerning the Moroccan meat sector(Al-Balghitti 1994). At the regional level, research design comprised several phases of analysis,

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conception, priority setting and validation in the framework of the terms of references given by thesector committee. After achieving consensus on the projects to be conducted regionally, the entireresearch agenda was validated at the sector level with sector committees, and at the national level withthe Ministry of Agriculture.

Implemented by

Terms of reference (national level) for the SmallRuminant Research Project PBO

Initial workshop, constitution ofthe sector committee, keydecisions for PBO

Synthesis or analysis of sectorinformation

Based on secondary information

PBO by region and system

Contacts and visits At the farm and authority level,interviews of key informants

Collection and analysis of existingdocumentation

Based on secondary information

Constraint analysis Field surveys or subregional fieldworkshops

Validation of constraints andresearchable issueSetting of regional researchprioritiess

Workshop with regionaldecisionmakers1 and resourcepersons2

Elaboration of project proposals Review of relevant literatureworking sessions at SRRP

Validation of regional researchproposals

Workshop with regionaldecisionmakers and resourcepersons

Validation of the national research agenda by theSector Committee

National workshop

Validation of the research programme at national level by the National Technical Committee

Presentation and resolution

1. sheep producers, extension agents, breeder association, regional agricultural developmentagencies.

2. university researchers and members of the Sector Committee.Source: Adapted from Matthess-Guerrero and El-Housni 1995.

Figure 1. Stages of planning by objective (PBO) for the Small Ruminant Research Project.

As a result, a long-term research programme was designed, with 25 projects for sheep productionin five regions:• pastoral sheep production in the Oriental region, with studies of range management and

research on improved, appropriate and sustainable management models (SRRP–Regional TeamOujda 1993), in collaboration with target groups and extension services

• agrosylvopastoral sheep production in the Middle Atlas, using agrosylvopastoral feed resources(SRRP–Regional Team Meknès 1993)

• agropastoral sheep production on the central plains (SRRP–Regional Team Tadla 1993), withstudies on Boujaâd breed characterisation, reproductive potential and improvement of Boujaâd

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and Sardi sheep, the use of cereal and agro-industrial by-products, supplementation and the useof housing in winter

• agropastoral sheep production in rainfed areas on the Atlantic coast to study cross-breeding,using local and imported breeds, forage use and conservation techniques, with emphasis onsilage making, and the use of both conventional and new agricultural and agro-industrialby-products (SRRP–Regional Team El-Koudia 1993)

• settled sheep production in the remote pre-Saharan oasis, to study management of the relativelysmall population of D’man sheep (SRRP–Regional Team Errachidia 1993), improve ewenutrition and create a database for selection for a viable rate of prolificacy.The PBO approach has also been valuable both for producers to identify with SRRP and for the

future development of SRRP. Substantial knowledge of sheep production systems has been gainedwith the minimum of duplicated effort, and the capacity of SRRP staff in designing client-orientedresearch has been substantially improved in a learning-by-doing process, involving planning,budgeting, national coordination and mobilisation of external finance. A prototype of a futurenational small ruminant network has been established.

The SRRP started to implement the approved programme in May 1994, and by 1997, there were20 researchers working in five regional teams in collaboration with farmers, professionalorganizations and extension services. The future challenge will be to strengthen more clearlystructured operational linkages between national research, government development entities andNGOs.

ReferencesAl-Balghitti A. 1994. Analyse du secteur de l’élevage ovin. Rapport de Titularisation, Institut National de la

Recherche Agronomique. INRA, Meknès, Morocco. 77 pp.Matthess-Guerrero A. and El-Housni A. 1995. Programming by objective (PBO) in INRA’s Small Ruminant

Research Programme: results and management implications of a top-down/bottom-up process of researchdesign. In: Bosch M. and Preuss H-J.A. (eds), Management Issues in National Agricultural Research Systems:Concept, Instruments, Experiences. INRA, Meknès, Morocco. pp. 131–150.

SRRP–Regional Team El-Koudia. 1993. Elevage agro-pastoral ovin dans le Bour Intermédiaire Atlantique:caractéristiques du système, contraintes et perspectives de recherche. Working Paper No.7. INRA, Meknès,Morocco. 43 pp.

SRRP–Regional Team Errachidia. 1993. Elevage ovin oasien: caractéristiques et contraintes. Working Paper No. 9.INRA, Meknès, Morocco. 25 pp.

SRRP–Regional Team Meknès. 1993. Les contraintes du système de l’élevage ovin-caprin du Moyen-Atlas. INRAWorking Paper No. 4. INRA, Meknès, Morocco. 60 pp.

SRRP–Regional Team Oujda. 1993. Elevage ovin pastoral à l’Oriental: caractéristiques du système, contraintes etperspectives de recherche. Working Paper No. 5. INRA, Meknès, Morocco. 36 pp.

SRRP–Regional Team Tadla. 1993. Elevage agro-pastoral ovin dans le Bour Défavourable: caractéristiques du systèmeet contraintes majeures. Working Paper No. 8. INRA, Meknès, Morocco. 40 pp.

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Saudi Arabia country paperM.H. Al-KhameesDepartment of Animal Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

IntroductionThe Department of Animal Resources in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water was established in1976 to maintain animal resources, establish effective programmes for their development andimprove production using modern scientific methods, a comprehensive veterinary service and theresults of applied research. The ministry was also very keen to encourage the private sector to investin animal production as an important source of increased national income and to establish a highlevel of self-sufficiency and food security.

The animal resources sector has developed within the context of rapid overall development.Advanced animal production projects, using many of the most modern techniques, now exist sideby side with traditional methods of animal husbandry and production. There has been markedprogress, particularly in the field of milk, meat and poultry production. Table 1 shows theestimated numbers of ruminant animals in 1995, in nomadic flocks and herds and in farms andspecialised projects. The population of chickens in 1994 was 267 million. Research has beenconducted to evaluate local livestock breeds and there are plans to improve their geneticcharacteristics and productive potential.

There are national campaigns for the control or eradication of infectious and contagiousdiseases, and several veterinary vaccines are produced locally in a centre operated by the Departmentof Animal Resources. The further development of veterinary clinics and services is planned, as well asnew procedures and regulations for registering and handling veterinary medicines.

Livestock researchOrganised livestock research in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia dates back more than 30 years. TheKing Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) provides financial support for nationalresearch programmes. The main institutions now involved in research in the Ministry of Agricultureand Water are the Departments of Agricultural Research and of Animal Resources, the NationalCentre for Agricultural and Water Research in Riyadh, and the Range Development and AnimalResources Research Centre in Al Jouf. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water also has links withsome regional centres.

Table 1. Estimated animal populations in Saudi Arabia in 1995

Species

Specialisedprojects and

traditional farms Nomadic TotalCattle 249,000 19,000 268,000Sheep 7,752,000 2,778,000 10,530,000Goats 4,373,000 1,767,000 6,140,000Camels 421,000 359,000 780,000Total 12,795,000 4,923,000 17,718,000

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Research in the universities takes place in the Department of Animal Production, College ofAgriculture, King Saudi University, Riyadh; in the College of Veterinary Medicine and AnimalResources, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa; and in the Department of Veterinary Medicine, KingSaud University, Qssim.

Livestock research prioritiesDisease is a major factor limiting animal productivity in Saudi Arabia. The following topics have highpriority for research:• animal health

− studies of the epidemiology and control of endemic infectious diseases, includinghaemorrhagic septicaemia, clostridial enterotoxaemia, Newcastle disease andfoot-and-mouth disease

− major zoonotic diseases, including brucellosis in camels, and evaluation of plans foreradication or control

− causes of abortion in sheep in different areas− copper and selenium deficiency in pasture plants and their effect on sheep, goats and camels− serological survey of tick-borne diseases of domestic animals and methods of control− identification of bacterial agents causing multiple abscesses in camels, antibiotic treatment

and vaccination trials.• animal production

− evaluation of current livestock feeding systems and manufacture of compound feeds− use and evaluation of embryo transfer techniques in sheep− improvement of productivity of local camel breeds− machine milking for camels− genetic improvement of local sheep and goat breeds− improvement of natural pastures and grazing systems.

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United Arab Emirates country paperM. Djemali and G. AlhadramiAnimal Production Department, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, UAE University, P.O. Box 17555, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates

IntroductionThe United Arab Emirates, with a population of 1.9 million, are a federation of seven Emirates: AbuDhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al Qaiwan, Ras al-Khaimah and Fujairah. Abu Dhabi andDubai occupy 92% of the total area, have 60% of the total cultivated land and are inhabited by 68% of the population (FAO 1997).

Land useThe total area of the UAE is 8.36 million hectares, mostly sandy desert and salt marshes. The totalcultivated area in 1995 was 72,000 ha. Arable farming, livestock, fisheries, poultry and forestry are the main agricultural enterprises. Date palms occupy 53%, vegetables 24%, fodder 16% and other fruittrees 7% of the cultivated land (FAO 1997).

Animal production and researchLivestock production is based on 200,000 ha of communal grazing land. Statistics (MAF 1994) showthat, as a result of the greater availability of feed and the provision of financial subsidies for livestockowners, over 1.5 million livestock—cattle, camels, sheep and goats—are now kept in the UAE,compared with only 0.4 million in 1970. Sheep and goats are the main species, but there has been adramatic growth in dairy farming, using imported cattle, and in modern poultry farming. Mostlivestock projects are privately owned and managed.

CamelsThe single-humped camel has played an integral role in the daily life of people in the Arabian Gulf. Itis now less important for transportation and is considered of low economic value compared withimported livestock. Camel racing, however, is becoming an industry, giving the animal an importantplace in the UAE and Gulf countries. Two important private centres, the Scientific Centre for Racing Camels in Al-Ain and the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory in Dubai, are now carrying outresearch on racing camels.

The UAE University is also giving high priority to research on camel milk and meat productionand the utilisation of local feed resources, especially date palm by-products and salt-tolerant grasses,such as Sporobolus and Spartina.

More emphasis should be given to the role of the camel as a meat, milk and fibre producer underdesert conditions.

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Sheep and goatsThe UAE has a long tradition of raising sheep and goats in arid conditions. There are several different sheep and goat breeds, some native and others imported from neighbouring countries and fromAustralia and New Zealand. The native black sheep, which is mostly found in the UAE and Oman, ispreferred by consumers because it is relatively small (Djemali and Alhadrami 1997). A nucleus flockof this breed is now being multiplied in an in situ conservation programme at the Faculty ofAgricultural Sciences Farm of UAE University. Rams will continuously be disseminated from theflock. This initiative will help the country conserve animal biodiversity.

Research prioritiesA policy of tax exemption has been a key incentive for increasing agricultural production. As water isscarce and new sources are limited, emphasis has been put on water conservation and the rational useof land resources. Restoring natural vegetation cover, increasing the productive capacity of pastorallands and searching for salt-tolerant plants are national priorities. Collaborative research networkshave been established with international agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) forresearch on date palms and their protection and on using saline water for crop and fodderproduction.

To improve livestock productivity in the UAE in a sustainable way, a complete strategy, including technical and organisational components, should be implemented.

ReferencesDjemali M. and Alhadrami G. 1997. Considerations beyond breeding goals in breeding sheep in relation to the

environment. Meeting of the Sub-Network on Animal Resources, FAO-CIHEAM Network of CooperativeResearch on Sheep and Goats, 9–11 March 1997, Toulouse, France.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1997. United Arab Emirates. World FoodSummit follow-up. Draft strategy for national agricultural development, Horizon 2010. Policy AssistanceBranch, FAO Regional Office for the Near East, Cairo.

MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, UAE). 1994. Annual Statistical Bulletin. Abu Dhabi, UAE.

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Yemen country paperS.H. AhmedAgricultural Research and Extension Agency, Yemen

IntroductionYemen has a population of 15.8 million, over 75% of whom live in rural areas, and a growth rate of3.7. There are about 1.7 million hectares of cultivable land, with an average of 1.05 ha per farm.

CropsSorghum is the most important crop, occupying 43% of all cultivated land. Wheat and alfalfa aregrown mainly in the highlands, where barley is also grown as a fodder crop to be harvested greenduring winter. Cereal crop production is important for livestock and the residues of legume crops areused as fodder.

In the lowland coastal area, cotton and sesame are important crops. Cotton is grazed after harvestand cottonseed cake is used as a concentrate feed. Napier grass is cultivated both as a cash crop and for the farmer’s own animals. The indigenous cattle described by Mason and Maule (1960) are a small,shorthorn zebu type, similar to African cattle.

LivestockIn the highlands, over 75% of farmers keep a house cow to provide milk and ghee for the household.These cows are intensively hand-fed. Most sheep in Yemen are of the fat-tailed type, some with fleeceand some, in the highlands, with hair. Goats are distributed mainly in the lowland coastal areas.Donkeys and camels are used as the draft animals for cultivation and transportation. Most householdshave between 5 and 10 local, or Baladi, chickens.

Constraints to productionThe main constraints are as follows:

Forage productionLocal varieties of forage are low yielding. There are shortages of seeds or cuttings for introducedforage varieties, which are, moreover, mainly suitable only for irrigated systems. High yields can beobtained, provided the necessary inputs of water, fertiliser and disease control are available, but ingeneral they are not. Insufficient attention has been paid to rainfed forage production, and few forage varieties have been introduced that are suitable for the environment. As alfalfa has a high waterrequirement, it has not been generally adopted by farmers. Farmers seek to maximise dry matterproduction, leaving harvesting until after the time when nutritive value is optimal and harvestedforages are stored in the open with a loss of nutritive value.

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Range

Production from rangeland is low. As a result of overgrazing, rangeland ground cover is low, with ahigh proportion of annuals and unpalatable plants. Improved forage species for the rangelands havenot been widely adopted. Cutting of trees, shrubs and woody herbs for fuel has had an adverse effecton botanical composition, water infiltration rates and soil retention. Areas of rangeland with a higher potential for production have been converted into marginal cropping areas, because of the pressurefrom the increase in human population. The movement of sand dunes into crop and range areas isaffecting production. Range rehabilitation has concentrated on the enforced exclusion of livestock,using fencing but without involving the local community. The high cost of range rehabilitation doesnot give a rapid return on investment and the techniques used are not easily adopted.

Livestock production

There is a shortage of forage, in both quantity and quality, partly as a result of the pressure on grazingareas for other uses. Supplementary concentrate feeds are either expensive or unavailable. Meatproduction is low because animals are slaughtered at low weight, either because of lack of feed orbecause of consumer preference. Widespread losses result from epidemic diseases, such as rinderpestand foot-and-mouth disease, and from liver fluke and clostridial disease. Mineral deficiencies arecommon in house cows in the highlands. There is a shortage of veterinary services and drugs and ofinformation on their use. Farmers lack knowledge of the criteria for selecting breeding stock. Honeyproduction is poor, because of the lack of knowledge of bees or of how to use pesticides to controlpests and diseases without harming beneficial insects. The quality of feed for commercial poultry ispoor and commercial dairy production is limited by unsuitable climate in the lowlands, insufficientor poor quality bulk concentrate feed, poor management skills and high mortality rates. There is alack of female extension workers to contact women, who are generally responsible for livestock.

Inputs

Animal health is the main problem. Drug costs are high, and their use is restricted to the mostvaluable animals in the last stages of infection. There is little information on which drugs to use andthe drugs in the market have often passed their expiry date. Concentrates are costly or not available.Research has shown that the use of meat and bone meal as a supplement for dairy cows is effective, but the price of locally produced meal is very high.

FinanceInvestment in agriculture has largely come from remittances from pay earned in the Gulf. Credit forlivestock investment is not available from commercial sources as the majority of farmers are excludedbecause they do not own land.

PolicyGovernment policies affecting agriculture, such as on credit, have benefited the large-scale producerrather than the small-scale farmer. Legislation, such as on quarantine for imported animals, is oftennot effectively enforced.

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Provision of servicesExtension services are weak in providing information. All extension services suffer from a lack ofoperational funds and transport. Extension workers have little training that is relevant to theirproviding advice on livestock. There are few recommendations ready for extension staff to take tolivestock farmers, as the results of research must be tested with farmers and suitable packages developed.

The private sector provides animal health services, but few farmers are satisfied with the service.

MarketingMarketing livestock products is in the hands of the private sector. Information on current market pricesin different areas of the country would give farmers a stronger bargaining position with itinerantmerchants at the village level. Export of live animals to Saudi Arabia is undocumented. Stratifiedproduction, with young animals produced on rangelands and fattened in feedlots, has not developed,because of the high price of young livestock. Public health is at risk, because there are few slaughterpoints where meat is inspected. Most milk is consumed in the household and the surplus is given away.

LabourTraditionally, children and elderly people supplied labour for herding. The increase in the number of children attending school is reducing the amount of time they have available to herd.

EnvironmentForage production, especially alfalfa, requires irrigation and leads to the depletion of undergroundwater supplies and salinisation of the soil.

Rangelands, which are the largest source of animal feed in Yemen, including over half the feedfor sheep and goats, are deteriorating as a result of overgrazing. The concentration of animals in someareas results in compaction of the soil surface and increased water run-off during storms, whichreduces plant germination and growth.

Livestock make an important contribution, however, to maintaining soil fertility on cropland byharvesting and concentrating nutrients. Animal traction allows terraces that are too small orinaccessible for tractors to remain in production.

WildlifeHabitat destruction and hunting have resulted in severe reduction in the number of mammals, andseveral species of birds are also threatened. Wildlife research could become a component of range and forestry research, with the examination of interactions between agriculture and wildlife.

Researchable issues and research prioritiesChoosing where to place research resources depends on priorities. Work on livestock, range andforestry have been neglected in the past and there is a lack of information about the livestock sector.On-farm diagnostic studies have been undertaken by the extension and training branch of theAgricultural Research and Extension Agency (AREA) in the northern and central highlands, Tihamaand Hadramout, which have revealed a number of broad areas where research work is needed. Thesediagnostic studies, together with participatory rural appraisal, are being used to identify the farmers’

main problems. Evaluation is an essential part of the research process for both on-station and on-farmwork, to determine biological and economic suitability, as well as social factors. Research prioritiesinclude the following:

ForageResearch must move beyond screening varieties to include studies of feed availability throughout the year.Dry matter shortages are important, but the periods when specific nutrients in forage limit animalproduction also need identifying. Researchers need to consider harvesting, conserving and storingcultivated forages, and improving irrigation efficiency.

RangeThere has been limited improvement of range under the management of livestock owners. Rangestudies should be carried out by multidisciplinary teams of soil, plant and animal scientists, sociologistsand economists, in collaboration with local communities, and priority given to pilot studies of rangewith and without the introduction of new species. More work is required on traditional methods for the protection of rangelands and on recently introduced community controls.

AgroforestryResearch and extension work on agroforestry, on soil, plant and animal interactions, and on treeproducts must satisfy farmers’ needs if they are to be accepted. Multipurpose trees for forage could beencouraged to supplement rations for fattening of sheep or for lactating cows. Trees may also have arole to play in stabilising neglected terraces that are unsuitable for qat. Caution is needed in using qatfor intercropping, become of the high levels of pesticides used and possible residues. Trees are alsoimportant in stabilising sand dunes and for use as windbreaks and fuel.

LivestockResearch is needed, using veterinary staff from the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources andAREA staff, to identify the animal diseases that are of significant economic importance on farms. The main focus of livestock research will be on indigenous breeds of sheep and goats. Both farmers andthe extension services need criteria for selecting breeding stock. Work on nutrition will focus onanimals being fattened and on lactating animals, as they are the most responsive to improved nutrient supply. Studies are needed on methods for improving nutrition and the economic returns for theseimprovements.

Cattle are important in some areas and some resources must be devoted to cattle research.Increasing milk production will directly benefit the nutritional status of households. Market forceswill be the key factor in determining whether there is demand for local dairy products in urbancentres, which will justify stimulating local production. Improvements in animal traction also need to be considered.

Crop–livestock interactionsStudies are required on crop–livestock interactions to enhance the sustainability of agriculturalproduction systems in Yemen. At present, very little organic matter is returned to the soil, as crops are

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often uprooted and the straw is fed to animals or used for fuel. These studies, to be carried out on researchstations, will examine both irrigated and rainfed production systems.

Research capacityIn the past, AREA research concentrated on irrigation systems and their effect on livestockproduction. More attention should be paid to animals in rainfed farming systems and rangelands, instudies outside the research stations. A primary objective will be to ensure the sustainability ofproduction systems in the different agro-ecological zones in Yemen, with individual stations givenresponsibility for different zones. Work needs to concentrate on problems where adoption will haveimmediate impact, by testing techniques developed elsewhere.

There is a shortage of livestock scientists in Yemen, and they are spread thinly across the researchstations, with many having insufficient training to be productive in isolation. Human and financialresources need to be concentrated to form effective groups of researchers on livestock production.

ReferenceMason I.L. and Maule J.P. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Technical

Communication, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics No. 14. CommonwealthAgricultural Bureau, London, UK.

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Turkey country paperO. Gürsoy1 and H. Sungur2

1. University of Çukurova, Faculty of Agriculture, 01330 Adana, Turkey2. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, General Directory of Agricultural Research, Ankara, Turkey

IntroductionTurkey is bordered by the Mediterranean in the south, the Black Sea in the north and the Aegean andthe Sea of Marmara in the west. It has enormous diversity of climate, crops and animals. Within itsnine well-defined ecoregions, different livestock and crop production systems have evolved over thecenturies. In spite of industrialisation, Turkey’s economy is still dominated by agriculture. Althoughofficial statistics show that agriculture contributes 15% of GDP, when industries based onagriculture, such as the textile and food industries, are included, this contribution exceeds 50%.Turkey is the largest livestock producer in the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region; however,there is a growing gap between supply and demand for animal products.

Livestock productionThe livestock sector represents 30% of the contribution of agriculture to GDP. There are 4 millionagricultural enterprises, of which 96% are mixed crop–livestock farms. Cattle are kept onapproximately 65% of farms and small ruminants on 35%. The mean number of animals on thesefarms is 4 cattle, 39 sheep and 27 goats (Sonmez and Kaymakcý 1997). A large proportion of theproduction is consumed by the household, and the rest is generally marketed through middlemen,because of the distances from urban centres.

There has been a large decline in the livestock population during the last 15 years. In 1995, therewere 11.8 million cattle, 33.8 million sheep, 9.1 million goats, 255,000 buffaloes, 5000 pigs and 2000 camels. These figures represent a decline of 26% in the number of cattle, 31% in sheep, 52% in goats,75% in buffaloes, 61% in pigs and 83% in camels (Gursoy 1997). Reasons for this decline includedrastic changes in livestock support policies and ratios between prices of inputs and outputs,rangeland degradation and attractive alternatives for investment.

In recent years, dairy and feedlot production have become more intensive around large citiessuch as Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, Bursa, Adana and Konya, but most other livestock production is stilltraditional and extensive (Yalcýn 1986). Ruminant production is based on grazing communalrangelands, marginal land, stubble, fallow areas, maquis and woodlands throughout most of the year.Animals are housed during the harsh winter and are supplemented with cereal straw and some grain.Mating and parturition are highly seasonal in most of the sheep, goat and cattle breeds. Thousands ofyears of natural selection have resulted in animals that are fairly low producers but are very hardy andwell adapted to adverse climatic and nutritional conditions, and resistant to diseases and parasites.

Milk production increased by 51% between 1980 and 1995, from 5.5 to 10.6 million tonnes.During this period, the contribution of cattle to milk production rose from 62% to 87%, mainlybecause of the increase in the more productive cross-bred population. The contribution of sheep tomilk production is now only 9%, of goats 3% and of buffaloes 1%. The decline in sheep milkproduction may be due to the culling of unproductive animals. Most milk is processed by mobile,

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small-scale, traditional processors, with less than 15% processed in modern plants, mainly becauseproduction is highly seasonal.

Meat production from all species declined between 1990 and 1996, from 742,000 to 613,000 t.The decline in production from cattle was 20%, from sheep 14% and from goats 8%; from the smallnumber of buffaloes and camels the declines were 52% and 47%. There was, however, an increase inmean carcass weight between 1983 and 1995 from 128 to 191 kg in cattle, from 13.4 to 18.6 kg insheep and from 15.7 to 16.8 kg in goats. In cattle, the increase in meat production per head resultsfrom an increase in the proportion of cross-bred animals. The high domestic demand for meat hasincreased the number of animals raised in feedlots and reduced the slaughter of milk lambs.

According to recent projections, in the year 2000 there will be an annual per capita demand inTurkey for 24.6 kg of red meat, 9 kg of poultry meat, 166 kg of milk and 8.5 kg of eggs. To meet thisdemand, meat production will have to increase to 1.7 million tonnes and milk production 11.62million tonnes. This will not occur without an increase in incentives and support for the neglectedlivestock sector.

Agricultural researchIn general, agricultural research in Turkey is a government activity and there is no significant livestock research in the private sector (MARA/GDAR 1995). Livestock research is the responsibility of theGeneral Directorate of Agricultural Research (GDAR) of the Ministry of Agriculture and RuralAffairs (MARA), the General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS), the Technical and ScientificResearch Council (TUBITAK), the Atomic Energy and Nuclear Research Agency and theuniversities (Mizrak et al 1997).

General Directorate of Agricultural ResearchThe GDAR has 53 institutes conducting research on crop production and protection, livestockproduction, animal health, food science and aquaculture. Nineteen institutes are involved totally orpartially in livestock research and another nine in veterinary research. The GDAR also fundsapproved research in the universities. Only 16.5% of its 1997 budget was allocated to animalproduction, animal genetic resources and animal health.

In the area of livestock production, the GDAR is responsible for determining research prioritiesand for funding, monitoring and evaluating research related to• increase the productivity, quality and diversity of livestock products• determination of suitable livestock breeds for different ecoregions• collection, protection and evaluation of livestock genetic resources• epidemic, parasitic and zoonotic diseases• assessment of the effectiveness of medicines, vaccines, hormones and so on, and their harmful

effect on the environment.In addition, it is concerned with the extension of research results to users and co-operation with

domestic and foreign research institutions and universities.

Livestock research priorities within the GDAR

Since 1994, all research priorities have been systemically examined within the Agricultural ResearchMaster Plan, using a priority-setting method originally used in Australia (MARA/GDAR 1995). Amaximum of 15 research opportunity areas are selected every three years by specialised field crop,

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horticulture and livestock commissions. Priorities are determined in a workshop attended byrepresentatives of all aspects of agriculture—the stakeholders.Four criteria were taken into consideration in assessing these priorities:• potential economic, social and environmental benefits of the research, in relation to the

socio-economic groups that will utilise the technology and the expected contribution of theresults to the balance of imports and exports

• potential for uptake• research and development potential• research and development capacity, using existing institutions, workforce, funds, infrastructure,

and taking into account research in other countries.The priority for livestock production is high for dairy and feef cattle; is medium for sheep and

goats, feed and feed crops, and poultry and aquaculture; and is low for beekeeping and sericulture,processed livestock products, and veterinary medicines and agrochemicals. The current programme priorities are• for sheep and goats

high priority− on-farm research on reproductive performance, supplementary feeding, feed quality,

management techniques and housingmedium priority− genetic characterisation of indigenous sheep and goat breeds− improvement of production by pure breeding and cross-breeding− epidemiology of sheep and goat diseases, including deficiency diseases, and development of

vaccines− lamb production and carcass qualitylow priority− fleece and mohair production and quality improvement− for beef and dairy cattlehigh priority− feedlot systems and improvement of feed quality, silage making− improvement of reproductive performance− epidemiology of cattle diseases, including deficiency diseases, and development of vaccinesmedium priority− improvement of beef and dairy cattle by selection and cross-breedinglow priority− housing, mechanisation and management of intensive dairy and beef systems− genetic characterisation of indigenous cattle breeds− use of veterinary medicines, vaccines, hormones and other chemicals.

Technical and Scientific Research CouncilThe TSRC has a Veterinary and Livestock Production Research Group responsible for funding,monitoring and evaluating research and for a research centre at Gebze, where some veterinaryresearch is undertaken. It has projects on

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• animal breeding, to select the most suitable livestock breeds for the different ecoregions

• progeny testing schemes for dairy cattle

• rehabilitation of rangelands

• all aspects of livestock diseases

• processing livestock products.

General Directorate of Rural ServicesThe GDRS has 12 research institutes, distributed throughout Turkey. Their main areas of researchare soil and water conservation, irrigation and drainage, hydrology, soil productivity, plant nutritionand mechanisation (Mizrak et al 1997).

UniversitiesThere are over 50 universities in Turkey, 22 with faculties of agriculture and 11 with faculties ofveterinary science. Less than 3% of their total research funds are used for livestock production andhealth, and they have no set research priorities.

Conclusions and recommendationsSetting priorities in agricultural research has resulted in allocating in the next 10 years only 16.5% ofresources to research on cattle, sheep, goats, veterinary medicine and chemicals, feeds and foragecrops, poultry, aquaculture, beekeeping and sericulture. Most of the remaining 83.5% will beallocated to field and horticultural crops. As livestock production contributes 30% of totalagricultural production, at least this level of resources needs to be allocated to livestock research.Farmers’ priorities for research need to be given greater consideration. Research projects need to beoriented more to development with emphasis on on-farm projects, extension and use of amultidisciplinary approach within farming systems.

The institutions involved in livestock research, the universities, GDAR, TUBITAK and fundingbodies such as the State Planning Organisation should set priorities and unite their individual efforts, technology, human resources and infrastructure to make better use of limited resources. The GDARshould immediately take measures to improve the capacity of research staff in the institutes scatteredthroughout the country, in collaboration with national and international universities. Incentivesshould be given to the private sector to undertake some research, as in the poultry industry. The costsof research should be shared by users.

ReferencesGursoy O. 1997. Animal recording in Turkey, with special reference to sheep recording. Proceedings of a

Workshop on Animal Recording for Smallholders in Rural Areas in Developing Countries, 20–23 October 1997,Anand, India. Indian Council for Agricultural Research/FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations), Rome, Italy.

MARA/GDAR (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/General Directorate of Agricultural Research).1995. Tarimsal Arastirma Projesi, Arastirma Master Plani (Agricultural Research Project, Research MasterPlan). MARA/GDAR, Ankara, Turkey.

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Mizrak G., Uzunlu U. and Dusunceli F. 1997. Regionalisation of the national agricultural research system inTurkey. Proceedings of a Workshop on Regionalisation of Agricultural Research in the Mediterranean and Near-EastCountries, Florence, Italy, 5–7 May 1997. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Sonmez R. and Kaymakcý M. 1997. Turkiye hayvanciliga verilmesi gereken yon (Targets and direction oflivestock production in Turkey). Livestock Production Symposium, Trace, Turkey, 9–10 January 1997. Tekirday,Turkey. pp. 1–8.

Yalcýn B.C. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Turkey. Animal Production and Health, Paper No. 60. FAO (Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations), Rome, Italy. 168 pp.

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Iran country paperJ. TavakolianOffice of Planning, Programming and Coordinating Research AffairsDepartment of Education and Research, Ministry of Jahad SazandagiP.O. Box 15745 – 834 Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran

IntroductionThe Islamic Republic of Iran, in south-west Asia, is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan,Turkmenistan and the Caspian Sea; on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; on the south by the Seaof Oman and the Persian Gulf; and on the west by Iraq and Turkey. It has an area of 1,648,000 km2

and a population estimated at about 60 million, of whom about 54% are city dwellers. Iran isdominated by a central plateau, which is about 1220 m high and is almost ringed by mountain chains. In the north, paralleling the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, are the Elburz Mountains, whichinclude the highest peak in Iran, Mount Demavend, 5601 m. Along the western border, the ZagrosMountains extend south-east to the region bordering the Persian Gulf. Lower mountains lie to theeast of the central plateau. Except for the relatively fertile plateaus of the northern provinces ofAzerbaijan, mountain soils are thin, heavily eroded, and infertile. The narrow Caspian coastal plain,in contrast, is covered with rich brown forest soil. The only other generally flat area is the plain ofKhuzistan in the west. Two great deserts extend over much of central Iran, the Dasht-i-Lut, which iscovered largely with sand and rocks, and the Dasht-i-Kavir, which is covered mainly with salt. Both are inhospitable and virtually uninhabited. In winter and spring, streams flow into the Dasht-i-Kavir,creating small lakes and swamps, but at other times of the year both deserts are extremely arid.

Agro-ecological zonesIran is divided climatically into four main regions:• the extremely hot coast along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman• the temperate but arid central highland• the intensely cold Elburz Mountains• the temperate and humid plain along the Caspian coast in the north.

Average annual precipitation is about 305 mm, varying from 125 mm in the desert to about 1270mm in the plains along the Caspian Sea.

The semi-humid plateaux provide grazing for livestock. In the Zagros Mountains, forests are mainlyof oak, elm, pistachio and walnut. On the seaward slopes of the Elburz Mountains and on the Caspianplain, vegetation is abundant, with broadleaf deciduous trees such as ash, elm, oak and beech, and somebroadleaf evergreens, ferns and shrubs. The arid plateaus are mainly scrub and cactus.

CropsThere are an estimated 50 million hectares of agricultural land, of which 30 million hectares aresuitable for cultivation. At present, because of the limitations of topography and availability of water,only 18.5 million hectares are cropped or fallowed. Of these, about 8.5 million hectares are irrigated,

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with 5.7 million hectares in annual and 1.6 million hectares in permanent crops, and 1.2 millionhectares in fallow. Ten million hectares, two-thirds of which are cropped, are in rainfed areas. Theexpansion of agriculture is not limited by land resources, but better management is necessary toachieve high yields.

WaterMost of Iran’s rivers flow during only part of the year, when precipitation is heaviest. The mostimportant rivers flow off the mountains on the slopes facing the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf andthe Sea of Oman. The Karun River, flowing from the Zagros Mountains to the Arvand-Roud atKhorramshahr, is the country’s main navigable river. Apart from the Caspian Sea, Iran has few largelakes. Most have no outlet; they shrink through evaporation during the hot, dry summer and have ahigh salt content. The largest lake entirely within Iran is Lake Urmia, in the north-west.

Water resources are the most important natural factor limiting agricultural expansion anddevelopment. Annual precipitation is estimated at between 350 and 400 billion cubic metres, andthere is an additional 10 billion cubic metres from the rivers. Only 115 billion cubic metres, however,are available for use, because of evaporation from bare soil surfaces, evapotranspiration by naturalvegetation and outflow of the rivers into the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and neighbouringcountries. At present, 60 billion cubic metres are available for agricultural production.

The basic ideas of supplementary irrigation and water harvesting are well known in Iran. In someparts of the country, farmers have used canals and dykes for hundreds of years for spreading flood waterover small parcels of land to increase water penetration into the soil profile and conserve water for cropproduction. In recent years, many dams have been built and many more are under construction. Theobjective of the government is to bring as much water as possible into agricultural use.

Animal productionTable 1 shows milk, meat, fibre and egg production for 1996. Iran plans to produce about 19 milliontonnes of animal products annually by 2021. To achieve this, it needs to exploit its vast geneticdiversity and natural resources, and to invest in processing and marketing. Animal production hasthe advantage of a large workforce and relatively powerful cooperatives and associations, as well as alarge private sector.

Table 1. Milk, meat, fibre and egg production in Iran in 1996.

Animal speciesNumber Milk Meat Fibre Eggs(× 103) (× 103 t) (× 103 t) (× 103 t) (× 103 t)

Cattle 5,356 2,911 180 – –Sheep 37,420 826 190 45.5 –Goats 18,923 636 77 3.7 –Buffalo 218 108 9 – –Camels 87 10 4.2 0.04 –Donkeys 1,176 – – – –Horses 133 – – – –Mules 115 – – – –Chickens, broiler 321,000 – 624 – –Chickens, layer 27,298 – – – 415Native poultry 23,529 – 15 – 23Ducks, turkeys, geese 9,599 – 6 – 12Source: Statistical Centre of Iran

Constraints to animal productionThe main constraints are:• cultural factors• lack of resources for producing enough feeds• poor infrastructure and post-production and marketing problems• lack of government finance and legislation, and of non-government support for animal

production and livestock research• inadequate use of limited research and education resources and lack of extension services.

Research prioritiesResearch priorities and ongoing projects include• identification, conservation and utilisation of the genetic potential of native breeds, including

single- and double-humped camels, buffaloes and poultry• evaluation of imported breeds, especially of dairy cattle• economic studies of livestock production• guidelines for animal production on pasture and improvement of production from nomadic

systems• animal behaviour• alternative feed sources, efficient use of industrial by-products, feeding standards for local breeds

and improvement of product processing• production and genetic improvement of honeybees• control of the Varoa tick• farm buildings for the different climatic zones• disease problems, including hydatidosis, ruminant encephalopathies, pesti-viruses, leptospirosis,

bovine leukosis and subclinical mastitis• expansion of production of veterinary medicines• product quality in dairy processing plants and alternatives to imported raw materials and to

natural rennet for the milk industry• biotechnology• development of on-farm research.

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Pakistan country paperM. AfzalAnimal Health InstituteNARC, Park Road, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan

IntroductionPakistan, which lies between latitude 23°N and 37°N and longitude 60°E and 76°E, is geographicallydiverse, with coastal beaches, lagoons and mangrove swamps in the south; sandy deserts, desolateplateaux, fertile plains and dissected upland in the centre; and valleys, snow-covered peaks andglaciers in the north. It has an estimated population of 135.3 million people and a population growthrate of 2.77%. Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, contributing 24% of GDP, althoughthis represents a decrease from 29% in 1984–85. It accounts for half of the employed labour force and is the largest source of foreign exchange earnings. Its growth rate over the last five decades hasremained at around 4% per annum. Available annual animal protein per capita is 18 kg of meat, 155litres of milk and 44 eggs, which, although one of the highest in South-East Asia, is still far belowrequirements. Demand for livestock products exceeds supply and milk powder, baby foods and livesheep are imported. This report describes the animal resources, production systems, developmentconstraints and research priorities for livestock and poultry production.

Agro-ecological zonesPakistan has been divided into 10 agro-ecological zones (AEZs) (Table 1): Indus Delta, southernirrigated plain, sandy desert, northern irrigated plains, Barani (rainfed) areas, wet mountains,northern dry mountains, western dry mountains, dry western plateau and the Sulaiman Piedmont(PARC 1980).

LandPakistan has a total area of 79.61 million hectares, 27% of which are cultivated and 8% of which are inforests. There are 8.9 million hectares of uncultivated land and 24.4 million hectares not available forcultivation (MINFAL 1995). The ratio of cultivated land to population is 0.16 ha per person. Most ofthe 17.2 million hectares of cultivated land are irrigated, with 70% of the water coming from canals andthe rest from wells. The Indus Basin, the largest continuous irrigation system in the world, providesmost of the canal irrigation. Summer monsoons in July and August and winter rains in January andFebruary provide additional water for both irrigated and rainfed, or Barani, land (PARC 1997).

CropsFood grains are grown on 56% of the cropped area, cash crops on 17%, pulses on 7%, oilseeds on 3%, fruits on 2%, vegetables and condiments on 1% each, and other crops, including fodder, on 13%(MINFAL 1995). There are two main crop seasons: cotton, rice, sugarcane, maize, jawar and bajra are

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grown during kharif, which starts between April and June and ends between October and December,and wheat, gram, barley, tobacco, rapeseed and mustard during rabi, which starts between Octoberand December and ends between April and May. Minor crops include pulses, potatoes, onions,chillies and garlic. Punjab Province alone produces about 65% of cereals, 85% of cotton, 50% ofsugarcane and 68% of pulses (MINFAL 1995).

Table 1. Agro-ecological zones (AEZs) in Pakistan.

AEZ ClimateTemperature (°C) Rainfall (mm)

Major crops Animal grazingSummer max.Winter min. S WI Arid tropical 34–45 5–20 75 5 Rice, pulses, sugarcane,

berseem, bananaSummer best grazingseason, autumn poorest

II Arid subtropical continental

30–50 0–12 55 0 Cotton, wheat,sugarcane, rice, sorghum, berseem

Summer best grazingseason

III A Arid subtropical 39–45 2–7 46 0 Guar, millet, wheat Land use mainly grazingIII B Arid to

semi-arid,subtropicalcontinental

40–46 1–5 71 18 Gram, wheat, cotton,sugar-cane, guar

Land use mostly grazing

IV A Semi-arid(eastern part) toarid (south-west) and subtropicalcontinental

39–46 2–6 100 22 Wheat, sugar-cane,melons, oilseeds, cotton,maize, berseem, citrus,mango

Grazing available

IV B Semi-arid andsubtropicalcontinental

36–44 1–5 32 29 Sugar-cane, maize,tobacco, wheat, berseem,sugar-beet, gram,groundnut

Grazing available

V Humid, hotsummers andcold winters (infoothills),semi-arid(south-west)

38–45 0–6 200 36 Wheat, millet, maize,rice, oilseeds, pulses,fodder

Good grazing in summer, poor in winter

VI Humid, mildsummers andcold winters(east), subhumid mediterranean

35–44 0–4 236 116 Maize, rice, wheat,apples, fodder

Land use mostly forest or grazing

VII Snow-coveredhigh mountains, mild summersand very coldwinters

30–35 –13–1 20 75 Maize, wheat, rice, fruitorchards

Land use mainly pasture,alpine pastures insummer

VIII Semi-aridhighland

30–44 –10–8 95 35 Wheat, maize, fruitorchards

Land use mostly grazing,alpine pasture in summer in same district

IX Arid desert 33–44 –4 to15 4 37 Wheat, sorghum, millet,melons, orchard fruits

Land use mainly pasture,low carrying capacity

X Arid and hot,subtropicalcontinental

40–48 1–7 38 1.3 Wheat, sorghum, millet,gram

Land use mainly grazing,low carrying capacitypasture

I=Indus Delta; II=Southern irrigated plain; III–A=Sandy desert, III–B=Sandy desert; IV–A=Northern irrigated plains; IV–B=Northernirrigated plain; V=Barani (rainfed) areas, VI=Wet mountains; VII=Northern dry mountains; VIII=Western dry mountains; IX=Drywestern plateau; X=Sulaiman Piedmont

LivestockPakistan has a large livestock population, well adapted to local conditions, and some of the besttropical breeds. Between 1955 and 1996, the buffalo population increased by 248%, cattle by 75%,sheep by 277%, goats by 530%, camels by 33% and poultry by 4255%. There are an estimated 20.7

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million buffaloes, 17.9 million cattle, 30.5 million sheep, 47.6 million goats, 1.2 million camels and380 million poultry. Buffaloes are kept mainly in the northern and southern irrigated plains, andcattle are raised throughout the country. More than 50% of sheep are reared in the western drymountains, western dry plateau and northern dry mountains. Goats are raised in all AEZs, but largerherds are common in areas with forage and grazing. Table 2 gives the distribution among provinces.Annual production is 1.029 million tonnes of beef, 1.003 million of mutton, 385,000 of poultry meat and 20.95 million of milk, in addition to 5.915 billion eggs (Livestock Wing 1997).

Table 2. Livestock population (in thousands) in the provinces of Pakistan, 1996–97.

Species Punjab SindhNorth West

Frontier BaluchistanNorthern

areas TotalGoat 17,102 10,741 6,673 11,606 1493 47,615Sheep 8,765 3,430 2,925 14,568 844 30,532Buffalo 14,719 4,251 1,678 83 1 20,732Cattle 9,007 3,957 3,355 1,182 415 17,916Camel 397 270 87 432 1 1,187Poultry 215,160 79,132 63,460 21,676 572 380,000

There are two breeds of dairy buffaloes, the Nili–Ravi and Kundi (Shah 1991), and 10 breeds ofcattle: the Sahiwal and Red Sindhi dairy breeds, the dual-purpose Cholistani and Dhanni, and thedraft breeds Thari, Dhajal, Bhaghnari, Lohani, Rojhan and Konkrej. There are also 2 millioncross-bred cattle. Of the 31 breeds of sheep, the most important are Baltistani, Bibrik, Cholistani,Kachhi, Kajli, Lohi and Lati, or Salt Range. Isani and Baloch (1996) have described 34 breeds of goat,of which the most important are Beetal, Dera Din Panah, Kamori, Nachi and Teddy. There are 15breeds of camel, including both riverine and mountain types.

Animal production systemsExcept for nomadic sheep, goats and camels, peri-urban dairying and commercial poultry, animalproduction is closely integrated with crop production. Most farms are fully integrated mixed unitswith cattle, buffaloes and sometimes sheep or goats or both. Traditionally, cattle were kept as draftanimals, with milk as a by-product, and buffaloes as milking animals. With the mechanisation ofagriculture, however, cross-bred cattle are replacing the poorer breeds.

Dairy production

There are four main types of system (FAO 1987) for the production of milk from cows or buffaloes:

• Rural subsistence smallholdings, producing milk for the family at minimal cost. The averagesubsistence unit consists of three buffaloes, including one or two adults. Grazing provides morethan half of the feed requirement. Some green fodder and straw is provided and a small quantityof concentrate is given to milking cows. This traditional system makes heavy demands on familylabour.

• rural, market-oriented smallholdings, with satisfactory access to milk markets, producing milk inexcess of family requirements for sale. These farmers usually keep better quality animals. A typical unit consists of fewer than six buffaloes and cattle, with two or three in milk. Milking animals aregenerally stall fed with seasonal green fodder, straw and concentrate, and dry cows and herdfollowers are grazed. There is usually no adult bull in the herd. Calves are retained during

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lactation, and then the males are disposed of and females are kept as replacements. This system isthe main source of milk in Pakistan.

• rural commercial farms, with more than 40 animals, 90% buffaloes and 10% cattle, on mixedcrop–livestock farms or specialised farms for breeding and milk production. Fodder crops aregrown and straw may be home grown or purchased. Concentrates are fed and dry females andheifers are, if possible, grazed. There is usually a bull for natural mating and the governmentartificial insemination service is also used. These farms are well organised and keep good records,but their contribution to the total milk supply is small.

• Peri-urban commercial dairy farms, around all big cities, the largest being at the Landhi CattleColony, Karachi, where more than 150,000 milking animals are kept. Most herds in this sectorhave 15 to 50 animals and more than 90% are buffaloes, mostly adult lactating females. Turnover is very high. Animals close to calving or in calf are purchased, the calf is allowed to suckle for a fewdays and is then sold, generally for slaughter. Dry females are either sold for slaughter or returnedto the rural areas for breeding. Most cows are not mated, as pregnancy reduces milk yield. Greenfodder is purchased, but feed consists mainly of concentrate and straw. Since this is a high-costsystem, only high-potential animals are kept.In the cities, families sometimes keep one or two animals and sell the surplus milk, usually to

neighbours.

Sheep and goatsThe vast majority of small ruminant flock owners are small-scale farmers, sometimes landless. Mixedflocks are common, although separate flocks of sheep or goats can also be seen. The productionsystems (Ishaque 1993) are:• nomadic, found mostly in parts of Sindh and Baluchistan. These flocks, with more than 100

animals, move constantly throughout the year in search of grazing. Most of the lambs and kids areborn between January and April, when flocks are at lower elevations. Females are retained for flockreplacement or enlargement, but males are sold before they are one year old. Grazing is mainly free,but in some areas grazing or fodder may have to be purchased. Sheep are mostly shorn twice. Thereis some milking to provide for family consumption and for sale in the local market.

• transhumant, where flock owners have a fixed base but move with their families to another grazingarea for a major part of the year. This system is prevalent in tribal areas in parts of the North WestFrontier Province and Punjab, in parts of Sindh and Baluchistan and throughout the northernareas. Average flock size is about 100 animals. Grazing is mainly on rangeland or crop residues,and sometimes areas have to be rented. The flock owners have easy access to the market and sellthe male progeny, often at low weight. Sheep are shorn two or three times each year. There issome milking for family consumption or for the sale of milk or milk products.

• sedentary–household, where flocks remain in the same locality throughout the year, are taken out to graze during the day and brought back in the evening. Flocks are small, usually between 20 and 40 animals, and graze stubble, roadsides, canal banks, waterlogged areas, rangeland and weeds.Women frequently keep a few animals, mostly goats, near the house and feed them on household scraps, weeds and nearby grazing. Before the feast of Eid-ul-Azha, at the end of the annualpilgrimage to Mecca, some entrepreneurs purchase 50–100 male sheep and goats, which theyfatten and sell at a high price.

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PoultryRural poultry contributes 56% of total egg production and 25% of poultry meat (Government ofPakistan 1997). There is strong preference for eggs and meat from rural poultry and market prices forthese are high compared with commercial eggs and broiler meat. There are two distinct productionsystems:• the traditional rural system, where almost all rural and about 20% of urban households keep flocks

of between 5 and 10 birds, with a cock. These birds are scavengers, living on crop residues andkitchen waste, and are confined to the house at night. Common breeds are Desi, Lyallpur SilverBlack, Aseel, Fayoumi, Rhode Island Red and crosses. Cockerels and old hens are eventuallyeaten or sold. Raising poultry is traditionally women’s work, which not only provides eggs andmeat for family consumption but also meat for guests.

• Commercial poultry production, which started in 1963 to supply the Karachi market and now has aninvestment of over 23 billion rupees. The average size of a layer flock is 2500 and a broiler flock2200 birds. Concrete and brick houses are used, often with cooling during summer in hotterareas. Both broilers and layers are reared on a deep litter of rice husk or sawdust. About 10% offarmers use battery cages for layers. Broiler farms raise between four and six batches per year.Day-old chicks are purchased and reared for five to seven weeks for sale at 1.25 to 1.5 kg liveweight. Layers start egg production at 20 weeks and are usually kept for a further 45 weeks.Commercial poultry feed is usually purchased, although some farmers use home-mixed feed.

Constraints to livestock productionAkhtar (1986) identified the following biological, technical, social and policy constraints on livestockdevelopment in Pakistan:

Biological

• The lack of proven bulls and a good artificial insemination service have resulted in a large number of animals with low genetic potential. This is a major problem in setting up dairy and smallruminant development projects.

• Estimated feed and fodder resources meet only 70% of the calculated feed requirements of thelivestock population. Although sufficient in quantity, the quality of poultry feed is questionable.

• Infectious diseases and parasites—vaccination against infectious diseases ranges from 0.5% to10% and the quality of available vaccines needs to be improved. The animal disease surveillanceand monitoring system is poor and diagnostic facilities are inadequate.

Social and policy

• There is a lack of government investment. Total allocation for livestock in most of the five-yeardevelopment plans has not exceeded 1% and is less than 8% of the agriculture sector allocation.

• Most livestock raised on smallholdings by poor, landless farmers, who are not organised and haveno political voice. In many areas, keeping livestock is a matter of prestige rather than an economic activity.

• An unplanned marketing system with too many middlemen reduces producers’ profits.

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• The mandates of research and development institutions lack clarity and are too broad in relationto available resources.

• There is a lack of well-documented, site-specific management guidelines for different livestockoperations.

• Rangelands are deteriorating because of unplanned and excessive grazing. There is no landtenure and no investment in the common rangeland.

• With no price premiums for quality milk and meat, the viability of the commercial dairy andmeat industries is questionable.

Priorities for livestock and poultry researchBecause of scarce financial resources and limited human resources, setting priorities for research hasalways been important in Pakistan. From its inception, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council(PARC) has had a technical committee on animal health and production, composed of membersfrom PARC, the universities, the provinces and the farming community, with the revision of national research priorities in agriculture and animal sciences as one of its main functions. Recently, a majorexercise was carried out by all four provinces and PARC, resulting in the publication of the NationalMaster Agricultural Research Plan (1996–2005) which lists high-, medium- and low-priority researchprojects (PARC 1997). The research areas for immediate attention are• Breeding

− selection and breeding models for the different livestock production systems− identification of special traits of different breeds and conservation of animal genetic resources

• Nutrition− availability of feed in different production systems throughout the year− economic nutrition strategies for rearing calves from the peri-urban system− economic rations for small ruminants in feedlots

• Reproduction− development of methods for accurate heat detection in buffaloes in smallholdings− suitable extender and freezing protocol for buffalo semen− improvement in superovulatory response and embryo recovery in Sahiwal cattle and in

buffaloes• Health

− working models for disease surveillance and monitoring− reasons for failure of vaccination against Gumboro disease, hydropericardium syndrome and

Newcastle disease in commercial poultry− diagnosis and control of pleuropneumonia and peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants− development of combined vaccines for large and small ruminants− development of temperature-resistant dietary or oral vaccines for Newcastle disease, fowl pox

and fowl cholera for rural poultry• Dairy science

− methods for inducing milk ejection in buffaloes without using calves or oxytocin− milk preservation methods suitable for local conditions.

Research capacityResearch is carried out by PARC at the federal level, at the Animal Sciences Institute in Islamabadand at the Arid Zone Research Institute in Quetta. Research is conducted at eight centres, includingveterinary research, in the province of Punjab, and at three centres each in the North West FrontierProvince, in Sindh and in Baluchistan. There are also three agricultural universities. Liaison betweenanimal scientists in Pakistan and international centres has been minimal and needs to be increased.The only significant efforts have been in collaboration with the International Center for AgriculturalResearch in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) on interactions between range and livestock, with the GermanAgency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) on planning and epidemiology, and some developmentprojects sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (FAO/UNDP) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

Funding for agricultural research in 1993–94 was about half that of 1984–85, after adjusting forinflation. Future livestock improvement will be possible only through investment in research anddevelopment, with funding at five to six times the current level (PARC 1997). Livestock productionoffers the best use of vast areas of uncultivated land in Pakistan. There is an increased demand forlivestock products because of population increase and rising income. An increase in productivity canbe achieved only by well-balanced research on breeding, reproduction, nutrition and health, whichaddresses the needs of farmers in different production systems (Amir et al 1987). This not only willgive an insight into their problems but will enable scientists to search for practical and sociallyacceptable solutions. The past mistake of putting emphasis on one discipline and ignoring othersshould not be repeated.

ReferencesAkhtar A.S. 1986. Livestock Development: Issues and Policy Options. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council,

Islamabad.Amir P., Akhtar A.S. and Dawson M.D. (eds). 1987. Livestock in Pakistan Farming Systems Research. Pakistan

Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations). 1987. Pakistan, Livestock Sector Study. Report

of the FAO/ADB Cooperative Programme Investment Centre, vol. 1 & 2. FAO, Rome.Government of Pakistan. 1997. Economic Survey 1996–97. Finance Division, Economic Adviser’s Wing,

Islamabad.Isani G.B. and Baloch M.N. 1996. Sheep and Goat Breeds of Pakistan. Press Corporation of Pakistan, Karachi.Ishaque S.M. 1993. Sheep management systems. In: Mackintosh J.B. (ed), Sheep Production in Pakistan. Pakistan

Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.Livestock Wing. 1997. Livestock Distribution in Pakistan. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock,

Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.MINFAL (Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock). 1995. Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 1994–95.

MINIFAL, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.PARC (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council). 1980. Agro-ecological Regions of Pakistan. PARC, Islamabad.PARC (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council). 1997. National Master Agricultural Research Plan 1996–2005.

PARC, Islamabad.Shah S.K. 1991. Buffaloes of Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad.

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Kazakstan country paper

M. KineevDepartment of Livestock Research, National Academic Centre of Agricultural Research, 79 Abylaikhan St Almaty, 480091, Kazakstan

IntroductionKazakstan, with an area of 272 million hectares, has a population of 16.5 million, 24% of whom areinvolved in agriculture. The land and climate are very diverse. High mountains in the east andsouth-east occupy 10% of the total land area, lowlands in the west and plateaux in the north andsouth 80%, and the sandy deserts of Sary-Ishikotyrau and Moyunkum cover a large area in the south.The climate is continental, with long, cold winters and hot, dry summers, and average annualtemperatures fluctuate between 1°C in the north to 10°C in the south. Average annual precipitationis 250–350 mm in the semi-arid steppe area, 150–200 mm in the dry steppe and below 100 mm in thedeserts.

Livestock production systemsAgriculture contributes 12–14% to GDP, a decline in recent years from about 25%. Agricultural land occupies 222 million hectares, of which 182.5 million are in rangelands. Sheep use the rangelandsthroughout the year and are concentrated in the semi-desert and desert zones.

Sheep

Before 1930, sheep of the Edilbaev breed, with a fat rump and coarse wool, were kept for meat.Sheep improvement was later directed to the production of fine merino wool and five merinobreeds now account for 65% of the total sheep population. More recently, semi-fine wool, goodmeat characteristics and cross-bred wool have increased in importance. In 1992, there were 6.4million black and karakul sheep in the south and west.

Cattle

Cattle production, which accounts for 43% of total livestock production, is concentrated in thenorthern grain-growing area (50% of total beef and dairy cattle) and in the foothills of the mountainsin the south and east. Highland pastures and the by-products of grain, vegetable and oilseedproduction are the main feed resources. There are three dairy cattle breeds, which weigh, on average,between 450 and 550 kg and produce between 2500 and 4500 kg of milk. Ninety-five per cent of beefcattle are of the Kazak White Head breed, weighing between 490 and 580 kg.

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Horses and camelsHorses and camels are important in Kazakstan as draft animals and as a source of meat and milk. Onemare can produce between 240 and 280 kg of meat and between 300 and 1200 kg of milk perlactation. Horses are concentrated in the south, west and east, and camels, mostly Bactrian, in thesouthern and western deserts.

OtherThere is some pig production in the northern plains.

Constraints to livestock productionPrivatisation, inflation, and inefficient marketing and supply of inputs have produced a crisis inagriculture, with considerable reduction in the cropping area and livestock populations, and in cropyields. For example, the area of cereal cultivation has decreased from 25 to 15 million hectares, andgrain production from 22–25 million to 10–12 million tonnes. This situation has affected thelivestock industry. Between 1991 and 1996, the livestock population decreased by 43%. The numberof cows fell by 33% and milk production by 36%. There was also a fall of 73% in the number of pigs.

The situation in the meat industry is similar. Meat production during the same period decreasedby 46% and average live weight at slaughter fell from 381 to 329 kg. Kazakstan, which was exportinglivestock products a few years ago, now imports meat and milk. One of the reasons for the crisis hasbeen lack of feed. Small private farms and household systems have increased their share of totalproduction by 65%, largely as a result of the break up of large farms.

Livestock researchThe livestock research programme includes:• improvement of breeds adapted to the different regions• establishment of effective management and feeding strategies for the different regions• development of effective diagnosis and treatment for diseases, and vaccines for disease control.

Research capacityLivestock research is coordinated by the National Academic Centre of Agricultural Research at 14research institutes, 3 experiment stations and 5 universities.

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Turkmenistan country paperO. Khadjikov1 and O. Annamuhamedov2

1. Institute of Livestock and Veterinary Association, Turkmenlari, Turkmenistan

2. Farm Animal Institute, Turkmenlari, Turkmenistan

The Republic of Turkmenistan, in Central Asia, covers a total area of nearly 49 million hectares, 80%of which lie in the Karakum desert. There are an estimated 38.7 million hectares available for grazingand 12 million hectares of cultivated land, 2 million hectares of which are irrigated and used mainlyfor cotton production. River and ground water resources together supply about 0.034 billion m3 ofwater. The country is in a period of transition from a centralised to a market economy.

CropsCotton is the most important crop, with an estimated annual production of 1 million tonnes. Cerealproduction in 1997 was about 0.9 million tonnes. It is hoped that the production of cereals willincrease to 2 million tonnes.

LivestockAt the beginning of 1997 there were an estimated 6.14 million small ruminants and 1.2 million cattlein Turkmenistan. About 50% of small ruminants and 25% of the cattle are privately owned. Therewere also 668,000 poultry, 106,000 camels and 27,000 horses, including 2500 of the famousAlkhatikeen breed.

Seventy per cent of the sheep population are black or grey Karakul. The remaining 30% are fromthe local Saradjin dual-purpose (meat and wool) breed. The average weight of Saradjin ewes is 50–55kg and average annual wool production is 1.5–1.8 kg. Cattle are mainly Red Steppe (50%) or Swiss(25%). Cattle are kept indoors, with little or no grazing. Potential dairy production is 4000–4500 kgper lactation, actual milk production is often lower because of lack of feed.

Agro-ecological zones Turkmenistan can be divided into two main zones: irrigated and desert.

The irrigated zone

The irrigated zone is found in the lower and middle Amudarinskaya and Murgab-Tedjenskayaregions. Soil salinity is an extremely serious problem, particularly in the Aral region. Cattle andpoultry production predominates.

The desert zone

The desert zone is in the Pre-Caspian, Karakumskaya, foothills and mountain regions, wheretemperatures can reach 45°C in summer. The desert ecosystems will not support year-round grazingby sheep and camels and overstocking in these areas has resulted in soil compaction and degradation.

Government policyA livestock owners’ society (Turkmenlari) was established in 1997 to privatise and reform thelivestock sector and to improve livestock management and distribution. Because of villagers’resistance to reform and their lack of confidence in privatisation, it was decided that land should bereleased as a transitional stage. Every leaseholder is given 0.5 ha/animal and is expected to maintaintheir livestock numbers. Experience suggests that this is a successful way of achieving transition to fullprivatisation.

Research prioritiesThe main research priorities are to improve the desert rangelands and establish sustainable livestocksystems, to increase feed production using salt-tolerant plants, to improve the Karakul and Saradjinsheep breeds and to develop cattle production.

Desert rangelands

• Use of waste water for irrigating salt-tolerant bushes to increase feed production and haltdesertification

− available data indicate that it would be possible to produce 1.5–2 t of fresh matter per hectare, with the forage being palatable to sheep and camels. This would supply 1 million tonnes offorage, sufficient to meet livestock demand.

• Improved combination of sheep and camels in grazing systems

− camels, because of their particular sole formation, do not disturb the soil surface and plantrooting systems; they also use the upper shoots and branches of bushes, which sheep do noteat.

Feed production

• Pasture improvement and use− research carried out at the Livestock and Veterinary Institute in Kushinsk indicates that

planting of bushes and shrubs could double or treble forage production in south-eastKarakum times within 3 or 4 years

− use of local mineral resources in feeds

− reduction of the gossypol content of cotton seeds for poultry feed.

Livestock improvement

• Sheep

− improved lambing rates and the development of new colours in the Karakul breed − improved meat and wool production from the Saradjin breed.

• cattle

− selection for improved dairy and meat production.

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Research capacityThe Turkmen Livestock and Veterinary Institute has enough scientific staff but has limited technicaland financial support. Co-operation with international bodies such as the International Center forAgricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) is, therefore, essential if the Institute is to carry out much needed research.

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Uzbekistan country paperU. AripovKarakul Sheep Research InstituteSamarkand, Uzbekistan

The Republic of Uzbekistan, in Central Asia, covers an area of 447,000 km2 and has a population of21.3 million people. Karakul sheep have for many centuries been one of the most important branches of livestock production in Uzbekistan. They are an important source of meat, milk and wool and their skins have a very high value on both domestic and international markets. With the recent move inUzbekistan to a market economy, the production, processing and marketing of karakul sheep is being privatised and reorganised. As well as the large new organisations, there are smaller, specialisedcompanies, processing high quality skins and coats.

Karakul sheep are very well adapted to the harsh environment of the desert rangelands, where65% of them are kept throughout the year. Average annual temperatures are between 12°C and15°C, with a mean of 40–45°C in summer, and rainfall is very erratic, with an annual average of80–280 mm. The soils in both the desert and the semi-desert regions are very saline.

Production is based mainly on grazing natural pastures. The productivity of these pastures is low,150–300 kg dry matter/ha, with large seasonal and annual variations. The total grazing area is about17.5 million hectares, including 3 million hectares of shifting sands. The shortage of water andovergrazing are very serious problems. More than 30% of desert rangeland has been completelydestroyed or very seriously degraded through overgrazing, with serious economic and environmentalconsequences, not only for Uzbekistan but also for neighbouring countries. The management,preservation and control of natural resources, and the reorganisation and economic reform ofkarakul sheep production are important issues for the government.

The Uzbek Research Institute for Karakul Sheep is responsible for setting priorities and fororganising national research on production, animal breeding and the conservation and breeding offorage plants in the desert and semi-desert regions. It has two farms, two research stations and a staffof 150 scientists. Priorities are to improve pasture use and to develop effective management andmarketing systems. The research programme includes work on the improvement of soil and pastures,methods to reduce desertification and the degradation of arid rangelands, the improvement ofco-operation between producers and processing industries, and the introduction of new technologyin manufacturing.

Co-operation between scientists and institutes is essential within Uzbekistan, with the otherCentral Asian Republics and with international organisations. Research has started, in collaborationwith the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), on the use ofpastures and rangelands and on the breeding of karakul sheep.

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The ACSAD paperF. Tleimat and M. WardehThe Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands, ACSAD, P.O. Box 2440, Damascus, Syria

The Arab countries can be divided into the following groups:North Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and TunisiaMiddle Africa: Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia and SudanMiddle East: Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and SyriaArabian Gulf: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates

and Yemen

Animal production in the Arab countriesThere are an estimated 121 million sheep, 57 million goats, 39 million cattle, 11.5 million camels and 3.3 million buffaloes in the Arab countries, equivalent to a total of 74.8 million animal units (Table1). The four countries in the Middle Africa region have large populations of cattle and camels and57% of the animal units in the Arab countries. In the Middle East region, small ruminants form 65%of the animal population. Camels represent 23% of the total animal units in Middle Africa, 15.5% inthe Arabian Gulf, 3% in North Africa and 1.6% in the Middle East.

Table 1. Number of animals and animal units (in millions) in the world, the Arab countries andthe Arab regions.

Region Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Buffaloes Animal unitsMiddle Africa 27.9 41.1 32 9.8 – 42.8North Africa 7.6 47.4 12.5 0.6 3.2 20Middle East 2 20.7 3.3 0.1 0.1 6.2Arabian Gulf 1.6 11.8 9.2 0.9 – 5.8Arab countries 39.1 121 57 11.5 3.3 74.8World 12,887 1078 609 18.8 149 1787Calculated from FAO Production Year Book 1994.

The total annual production of milk in the Arab countries is estimated as 15 million tonnes andproduction of meat as 2.4 million tonnes (FAO Production Year Book 1994). The averageproduction of protein per animal unit is estimated as 12.8 kg/year in comparison with a mean of 23.9kg/year for the world. The average daily per capita production of animal protein is 10 g; it ranges from 4.5 g/day in the Gulf countries to 29.7 g/day in the countries of the Middle Africa area. The totalconsumption of animal protein is far higher, and large quantities of milk, milk products, meat andanimals for slaughter have to be imported.

Production systemsThere are four livestock production systems: extensive, semi-sedentary, sedentary and intensive. Most research in the Arab countries has been on animal nutrition, breeding and reproductive physiology.The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), at its inception in 1971,

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initiated a programme for the development of animal production, which included surveys of animalresources and feeds. The research strategy developed included work on• genetic improvement of local sheep and goat breeds and distribution of improved males• characterisation of production systems and socio-economics of animal production• diet selection, grazing behaviour and carrying capacity of rangelands• introduction of animals into farming systems• development and application of new techniques.

ACSAD has established live animal banks for certain breeds of sheep, goats and camels. It alsohas important work on camel production and has established the Camel Applied Research andDevelopment Network, in co-operation with the International Fund for Agricultural Development,the Islamic Development Bank and the French government.

Research prioritiesResearch should focus on extensive systems in the arid zones, in which 80% of sheep and goats and all of the camel population are kept, with programmes on• improvement of the sustainability of traditional systems of production, by studying existing

systems, evaluating feed, environmental and socio-economic factors, and identifying promisinglocal breeds

• animal breeding, establishment of genetic banks and genetic improvement of local breeds• reproduction, reproductive diseases and the use of techniques such as embryo transfer and

artificial insemination• feeding systems, supplementary feeding, nutrient requirements of local breeds and effects of

nutrition on reproduction• rangeland improvement, studies of such topics as grazing behaviour and poisonous plants• introduction of high-yielding forage varieties• storage and processing of feeds• epidemiology and control of diseases and parasites• improvements in the processing and marketing of animal products• improvement of the links between development, research and extension, including training,

financial support and field activities.

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Reports from working groups

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Report of working group 1: Research priorities for WANA rangelands

Working group membersChair M. Kamal (Morocco)Rapporteur M. Djemali (UAE)Facilitator H. Ibrahim (ILRI)Members F. A. Ahmed (Sudan)

B. Fadlalla (Sudan)A. Osman (ICARDA)F. Schenkel (GTZ–Syria)A. M. Subuh (Syria)M. Theriez (INRA, France)R. von Kaufmann (ILRI)

ProcessFollowing the election of the Chair and the Rapporteur, the group started by defining therangeland ecosystem, to provide boundaries for the group’s work. Rangelands for the purpose ofthese discussions were defined as systems with the following characteristics:• The livestock production systems primarily depend on resources derived from the system,

especially for animal feed.

• Livestock owners have little opportunity for externally derived income.

• The predominant livestock species are sheep, goats, cattle and camels.

• The rangelands could be classified into the following subsystems: continental lowland, highland,and semi-desert.

The discussion progressed in the following phases:• identification of the major constraints

• identification and priority ranking of researchable issues

• identification of research topics that could be undertaken by the national agricultural researchsystems in the region by themselves

• identification of topics where the comparative advantage of international centres couldcontribute significantly to the achievement of the research objectives.

Identification of major constraintsThe working group identified the constraints in two major classes, depending on whether they areecosystem or animal related.

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Ecosystem-based constraints

Feed resources

Livestock producers are finding it increasingly difficult to get access to good quality feed throughoutthe year. This situation is due to increasing stock numbers and the spread of demographic,infrastructural and political barriers to traditional transhumance and trans-boundary movement oflivestock. The ability to formulate a scientifically sound response to this situation is limited byinsufficient characterisation of the adapted indigenous plant genetic resources.

Land

Owing to increasing stocking rates, land degradation is accelerating with the production of less andpoorer-quality plant biomass as a result. Approaches to reducing land degradation are hindered bycommunal access to grazing and uneven geographic and seasonal water distribution.

Human

The livestock owners’ abilities to overcome the constraints in the system are constrained by poorgroup organisation and low financial resources. Scientists have not responded as well as they mighthave, because they have not paid sufficient attention to gaining access to indigenous knowledge andusing it in the development of innovations to overcome the constraints.

Animal-based constraints

Management

The deleterious effects of the high stocking rates noted above are compounded by disease and poorhusbandry. To effectively counter these constraints it will be necessary to understand the interrelating causal factors that determine herd and flock composition and obtain feed standards that are moreappropriate to the indigenous breeds and local environments.

Genotype

The local genotypes are well adapted to the harsh rangeland environments and pastoral productionsystems. However, the loss of biodiversity is accelerating due to many factors including cross-breedingin cattle. It is difficult to stem this loss because breed characterisation is based on phenotype andlocation and not on genetic characteristics. Despite their adaptation and indications of sufficientgenetic variability on which to base selection programmes, measures to increase breed productivityare constrained by inadequate performance records and a limited understanding in nationalagricultural research systems (NARS) of modern animal breeding techniques.

Research prioritiesResearch priorities have been derived from approaches that were suggested for overcoming theconstraints and gaps in knowledge identified above. Where international agricultural researchcentres (IARCs) can contribute to the objectives identified by the working groups, it has beenindicated below. Many important topics were discussed, and they were ranked in ascending order of

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priority by the allocation of one to five stars. The following commentary refers only to topics that were given four or five stars.

Ecosystem-based constraints

Feed resources

The working group concluded that high priority should be given to improving the utilisation ofindigenous adapted forage species. This would require a holistic research approach that encompassesthe following aspects:• better appreciation of farmers’ perceptions of the feed potential of range plant species• characterisation and utilisation of indigenous forage plants (IARCs)• pasture and animal interactions in grazing management (IARCs)• improved utilisation of indigenous species through identifying and propagating lines with less

anti-nutritional factors and improving efficiency of rumen to cope with low quality diets andanti-nutritional factors (IARCs)

• seed production and methods of propagation.

Land

The group appreciated that IARCs and probably also NARS would find it difficult to engage innecessarily long-term range rehabilitation programmes. However, the group recognised a highpriority for developing scientifically sound methods for assessing the state and rate of rangedegradation for use in designing and monitoring range rehabilitation programmes. The researchwould include:• determination of indicators of land degradation for use in assessing the need for and success of

recovery programmes (IARCs)• development of GIS-based modelling techniques for designing strategies for rehabilitating

degraded lands based on data obtained from past and ongoing successful and unsuccessfulrehabilitation projects.

Human

The group identified a gap in the understanding of indigenous decision instruments as a majorconstraint on the sustainable use of rangelands. While recognising that this is most likely to be sitespecific and therefore appropriate to national rather than regional or international research centres,the group identified the following aspects as having high priority for NARS and IARC collaborativeresearch:• alternative organisations for common decision-making among livestock owners with access to

common properties• approaches for acquiring and utilising indigenous knowledge in formulating innovations for

overcoming pastoral organisational constraints (IARCs).The group recognised that there is need to assess the future of the livestock subsector to ensure

that the research agenda is appropriate for the future needs of the region. This need could be fulfilledby the following research priority:• analysis of demand for livestock products and marketing opportunities and constraints (IARCs).

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Animal-based constraints

Management (mainly of disease)

The principal issue for livestock management, assuming that fodder needs have been met, arises fromthe prevalent diseases. The group considered that there was insufficient knowledge of the relativeimportance of different diseases and the costs and benefits of alternative control methods. This isespecially true of diseases affecting and transmitted over long distances by transhumant livestock. The following priorities were identified:• the epidemiology of livestock diseases in transhumant systems, including evaluation of

alternative disease control strategies (IARCs)• the development of diagnostics that can be used in the field (IARCs)• identification of issues of sustainability in transhumant systems.

Genotype

The group recognised the merits of indigenous livestock, but it also recognised the need to improve• genetic characterisation and utilisation of the indigenous breeds (IARCs)• development of standardised methods of genetic evaluation appropriate to the prevailing

production systems (IARCs)• identification of breed characteristics for disease resistance or tolerance and the potential for

incorporating them into breeding schemes (IARCs).

ConclusionsThe group identified five priorities for research in West Asia and North Africa (WANA) rangelands.Each comprises holistic sets of research topics that need to be further refined. Together they comprise a comprehensive approach to ameliorating rangeland problems in WANA. They encompass feedresources, land, and human and livestock management constraints, the latter including diseases andgenotype.

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Report of working group 2: Research priorities for WANA mixedlivestock-based farming systems

Working group membersChair S. Economides (Cyprus)Rapporteur M. Bounejmate (ICARDA)Facilitator S. Morzaria (ILRI)Members M. Afzal (Pakistan)

A.R. Al-Rawi (Iraq)B. Boulanouar (Morocco)D. Campbell (UK/Jordan)G. Deichert (GTZ-Syria)M. Demment (USA)G. Freeland (UK)S. Galal (FAO-Italy)A.V. Goodchild (ICARDA)C. Hilan (Lebanon)P. Lhoste (France)A. Nefzaoui (Tunisia)H. Sungur (Turkey)A. Swaid (Syria)

Definition of mixed crop–livestock production systemsFor the purpose of the discussion, the group defined mixed crop–livestock farming systems as thosein which crops and livestock are integrated through the growing of forage crops in the rotation andthe importance of crop and agro-industrial by-products as animal feeds. Rangeland may be used but isa minor feed resource in the systems. In different parts of the region, sheep, cattle, goats or buffalo arekept in mixed crop–livestock systems, where they make an important contribution to thesustainability of the whole system. These systems may be subsistence or fully commercial.The procedure followed by the group was• to identify problems with the mixed crop–livestock farming system in the region and the welfare

of people directly or indirectly involved in these systems• to group these problems under the headings of feeding, diseases, breeding, farmer participation,

housing, management, policy and environment issues, reproduction, and water• to identify the researchable issues using three main criteria:

− the need for the research and ease of transfer of the results− potential to achieve results within 5 to 10 years− extent to which the issue was found throughout the region

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• to assess the comparative advantages of different organisations in achieving results• to rank researchable issues into high, medium and low priority, assuming that resources are

limited.This process led to nine issues being allocated high priority. This number was considered to be

still too many, and a further round of discussions selected five issues of high priority (IH) and afurther three issues that do not need research but need the establishment of effective links to transferrelevant results from other organisations conducting research on the subject.

Problems and constraints

Feed resources and nutritionThe need to increase availability of feeds in the systems was identified as a major constraint. Thisconstraint should be tackled by creating inventories of feed resources, improving the quality, quantity and conservation of existing feed resources, and examining the possiblities for using unconventionalfeed resources. The nutrition of animals can also be improved by altering the feeding strategy, usingfeed budgets and improving the management of supplementation.

DiseaseEconomic losses resulting from the main diseases in the area, including peste des petit ruminants,foot-and-mouth disease, brucella, other zoonoses, mastitis and rinderpest, have been poorly assessed.The epidemiology of the diseases and their interactions with nutrition need further investigation, todevelop effective disease prevention schemes for the region. Farmers in the region do not usually have access to suitable user-friendly vaccines.

BreedingBreeds in the region are poorly characterised. Their adaptation to the environment and theirresistance to disease and parasitic infections have not been fully assessed. There is little infrastructurefor animal recording, selection and breeding. Where the same breed exists in a number of countriesthere has been little or no co-ordination of selection and breeding programmes, and farmers have notbeen involved in setting objectives for selection.

Farmer participationThe group placed great emphasis on the importance of the social component of the systems in theregion and its importance in the whole process of assessing constraints and opportunities, modifyingsystems of production and adopting new techniques. Although the participation of farmers wasidentified as vitally important at all stages of developing research programmes and applying results,there is still need for research on the methodology of working with farmers in both research andtransfer of technology.

During the process of identifying researchable issues, a number of other problems and issues inaddition to those discussed above were considered:• housing: the need to transfer existing knowledge• policy and the environment: soil erosion, farm and field size, subsidy policy and marketing

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• reproduction: Reproductive physiology of different breeds, particularly fat-tailed sheep, to assesstheir potential, the causes of poor flock fertility and effects of nutrition.

Reseach priorities

Feed resources and nutrition• Improving forage and fodder quality and quantity and identifying unconventional feed resources

(IARCs).

Disease• Social and economic impact and epidemiology of diseases of regional importance and

development of effective and cheap pen-side diagnostic tests.

Breeding• Establishment of national and regional breeding objectives, taking into account farmers’

objectives (IARCs, FAO).• Regional co-ordination of recording and infrastructure (IARCs, FAO).

Policy and the environment• Research on policy for effective delivery of veterinary and livestock extension services (IARCs).

Farmer participation• Development of research methods for improving farmer participation and extension,

organisation of farmer groups (labour, household economics, gender, motivation of farmer orclient, constraints and opportunities) (IARCs).In addition, three other high-priority areas were identified that do not need research, but need

the establishment of effective links to transfer relevant results from other organisations conductingresearch on the subject:• human nutritional needs for micronutrients• land degradation and nutrient recycling within mixed crop–livestock systems• water-use efficiency in the system, modelling and hydrology research.

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Report of working group 3: Research priorities for WANA rangelands

Working group membersChair O. Gürsoy (Turkey)Rapporteur K. Jones (Jordan–UK)Facilitator H. Li Pun (ILRI)Members M. Abu-Zanat (Jordan)

S. H. Ahmed (Yemen)F. Al-Keraby (Egypt)O. Annamuhamedov (Turkmenistan)U. Aripov (Uzbekistan)M. Chenost (France)J. Dodds (ICARDA)G. Gintzburger (ICARDA)E. Istanbulloglou (ICARDA)M. Kineev (Kazakstan)A. Matthess-Guerrero (GTZ–Morocco)T. Nordblom (ICARDA)E. F. Thomson (ICARDA)

ProcessFollowing the election of the Chair and Rapporteur, the objectives of the group’s discussion weredefined as being:• to identify major constraints to development related to livestock natural resource management

and human needs in rangeland livestock systems

• to identify researchable issues

• to identify possible strategies for the development of research projects.The group discussed and set priorities using four steps:• identification and scoring of constraint fields. Four constraint fields with scores of more than 20

points were reassessed and the various comments reclassified into technical or biological,socio-economic and methodological aspects

• identification of potential solutions with particular emphasis on researchable issues

• classification of the six most important issues, to assess the comparative advantages of nationalagricultural research systems (NARS) and international agricultural research centres (IARCs) towork on the issues

• aggregation of priority research topics within constraints and identification of possibilities forpartnerships for the development of research projects.

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Identification of major constraintsThe working group identified, in order of priority, four groups of constraints: feed resources, animalhealth, animal genetics, and participation of livestock owners.

Feed resourcesPoor management and excessive stocking rates leading to overgrazing, coupled with water shortage,were identified as the main problems in range areas. There is a lack of information on the nutritivevalue of the feed resources. Livestock owners face problems with land tenure, lack of credit and theabsence of appropriate extension services.

Animal healthThere is a lack of monitoring of diseases and this problem is increased in some areas by cross-bordermovements of large numbers of animals. In some countries legislation relating to animal movementsacross borders and quarantine is not enforced. Livestock owners have poor access to veterinary anddiagnostic services, both public and private, and to vaccines.

Animal geneticsThere is poor characterisation of local breeds in production systems. Where selection has taken placein the region, it has tended to be inappropriate and has not taken sufficient account of the farmers’breeding goals and the importance of disease resistance.

Participation of livestock ownersA wide range of factors was identified, which have hindered communication and interaction between the rangeland livestock owners and research workers and research institutions. These include thediverse interests of the livestock owners and their families and lack of representative livestock owners’organisations. Problems on the research side arise from the lack of training of research workers inparticipatory techniques and the organisation of research centres along narrow disciplinary lines.

Research prioritiesConsideration of the solutions and researchable issues for the above four areas and two furtherconstraint areas, extension and marketing, led to defining the research priorities listed below. Thegroup felt that work by NARS was needed on all topics. Where IARCs or the Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations (FAO) can contribute to the objectives identified by the workinggroups, it has been indicated below.

Feed resourcesFeed resources were considered to have by far the highest priority for rangeland and livestock systems:

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• assessment of current land tenure systems; possible options for improvement and theconsequences of making changes in tenure (IARCs, FAO)

• inventory, monitoring and evaluation of rangeland resources (IARCs)

• evaluation of existing production systems

• development of a strategy for rangeland rehabilitation

• use of geographical information systems (GIS) as a standard instrument to integrate differentdimensions.

Health

Research on health should include the following research priorities:

• conduct of epidemiological surveys of the main diseases (IARCs)

• development of models for the management of herd or flock health.

Genetics

Research on genetics should include the following research priorities:

• breed characterisation and evaluation, including DNA mapping (IARCs, FAO)

• nucleus breeding of local breeds for characteristics selected with the participation of farmers

• identification of the most efficient and cost-effective schemes for use in selection programmes.

Participation

The group placed a high priority on using farmer participatory approaches and interdisciplinaryteams at all stages of research programmes.

Extension

• assessment of the effectiveness of existing extension services and proposals for improvements

• evaluation of different extension methods.

Marketing

• assessment of the impact of marketing systems on rangeland livestock production (IARCs)

• evaluation of alternative methods of intensification.

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General conclusions and recommendations

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General conclusions and recommendations1. There is a potential to improve livestock production and productivity to satisfy the needs of

farmers and their families in the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region.

2. Problems affecting livestock production and productivity are complex; therefore, holistic andparticipatory approaches are needed to tackle them.

3. No single institution can work alone to solve the problems affecting livestock production andproductivity; therefore, partnerships are necessary.

4. Partnerships must be established based on general principles of openness and the sharing of costs, benefits and attributions.

5. Standardisation and transfer of methods are necessary to ensure broad regional and globalapplication.

6. Training of local human resources, information exchange and networking are critical ways ofensuring more impact.

7. It is necessary to create more awareness on the importance of strengthening links betweenactivities such as research, extension and credit.

8. The following research priorities are identified as cutting across different systems:

• small ruminant breed characterisation, evaluation of breed potentials and promotion of theuse of breeds with good potential

• epidemiological studies to assess the economic importance of the main animal diseases, andmore specifically to address the problems of transmission of diseases across countryboundaries

• inventorying, monitoring and evaluation of feed resources• access to land: common property rights and impacts of privatisation• development of strategies to rehabilitate rangelands.

9. Main recommendations for priorities that should be addressed at the national level are

• for grazing systems− feed resources

a) assessment in different production systemsb) in situ conservation and managementc) seed propagation methodsd) range management options

− animal healtha) validation of diagnostic kitsb) development of herd health management strategies

− animal breedinga) development of production and reproduction recording systemsb) development of selection indices for livestock improvement based on farmers’

objectivesc) development of strategies for establishing nucleus herds

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− marketinga) marketing strategiesb) establishment of equitable terms of tradec) impact of marketing on production systems

− natural resource managementa) water conservation and utilisation

− extensiona) assessment of extension services and proposition for improvementsb) establishment of co-ordinating mechanisms between research, extension, credit and policy formulation

• for mixed systems in rainfed and irrigated areas− feed resources

a) supplementation− animal health

a) evaluation of multivalent vaccinesb) strategies for integrated disease management

− animal breedinga) establishment of farmers’ breeding objectives

− policiesa) delivery of veterinary and extension servicesb) marketing policy: inputs and outputs

− herd managementa) determination of interactions between nutrition and reproduction efficiency

− extensiona) assessment of extension methods

10. Main recommendations for issues that need to be addressed internationally through closecollaboration between international agencies and national agricultural research systems:

• for grazing systems (rangelands)− feed resources and natural resource management

a) assessment of land tenure systems and options for improvementb) nutritional evaluation of feeds (phytochemistry, methods, rumen ecology)c) development of indicators of land degradation

− animal breedinga) estimation of genetic parameters for economic traitsb) development of appropriate genetic evaluation methodsc) breeding for disease resistance

− extensiona) evaluation of extension methods

− participationa) development of effective methods to ensure farmer participation in the overall research and development process

• for mixed systems− feeds and natural resource management

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a) improvement of forage and fodder qualityb) rumen ecology and functionc) water use efficiency

− policya) land management and nutrient recycling

− farmers’ empowermenta) development of methodologies to encourage farmer participation.

11. As a follow-up, it was agreed that more specific project proposals will be developed in aparticipatory manner, involving the major stakeholders. The International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA) will take the lead in promoting the writing of specific proposals.

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Appendices

153

155

ParticipantsRepresentatives of nationalprogrammes

Abu-Zanat, Mahfouz (Dr)Faculty of AgricultureUniversity of JordanAmmanJordanTel:+962–6–843555Fax:+962–6–832093

Afzal, Mohammad (Dr)Animal Health InstituteNational Agricultural Research CentreIslamabad 45500PakistanTel:+92–51–240813Fax:+92–51–240909E-mail:mafzal@ahi-narc.sdnpk.undp.org

Ahmed, Faisal Awad (Prof)Animal Resources Research CorporationPO Box 8067 (Al Amarat)KhartoumSudanTel:+249–11–460504E-mail:fao-sdn@field.fao.org (FAO office)(c/o Dr Omar S. Ahmed)

Ahmed, S. Hassan (Mr)Director, Lahj Research StationPO Box 78120 DahmarYemenTel:+967–2–232509Fax:+967–2–232270

Al-Keraby, Fekry (Dr)Director, Animal Production Research InstituteAgricultural Research CenterDokkiEgyptFax:+20–2–360 0598

Al-Khamees, Majed H. (Dr)Director GeneralDepartment of Animal ResourcesMinistry of Agriculture and WaterRiyadhSaudi ArabiaTel:+966–1–403 3583Fax:+966–1–404 4265/403 0018

Al-Masri, Mohamed (Mr)Agricultural Research CenterTripoliLibyaFax:+218–2–3350408

Al-Rawi, Abdul Razzak (Dr)IPAPO Box 39094BaghdadIraqTel:+916–5–117944Tlx:212907 IPA IK

Annamuhamedov, Ovez (Prof)Deputy DirectorInstitute of Livestock, Veterinary Health andPastureGor-Ogli Str. 70Ashgabat 744012TurkmenistanTel:+7–3632–360916Fax:+7–7363–224 8996

Aripov Uktam (Dr)Karakul Sheep Research InstituteSamarkandUzbekistanFax:+7–3662–333481

Boulanouar, Bouchaib (Dr)BP 6570Rabat InstitutsRabatMoroccoTel/fax:+212–7–675093E-mail:inra-pvr@maghrebnet.net

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Djemali, M’Naouer (Dr)Animal Production DepartmentFaculty of Agricultural SciencesUnited Arab Emirates UniversityPO Box 17555Al-EinUnited Arab EmiratesTel:+971–3–505 1255Fax:+971–3–632384E-mail:djemali@pcmail.uaeu.ac.ae

Economides, Soterios (Dr)Agricultural Research InstituteMinistry of Agriculture, Natural Resources andEnvironmentPO Box 20161516 NicosiaCyprusTel:+357–2–305101Fax:+357–2–316770E-mail:soterios@arinet.ari.gov.cy

Fadlalla, Babo (Prof)Agricultural Research CooperationPO Box 126Wad MedaniSudanFax:+249–51–43213E-mail:fao-sdn@field.fao.org (FAO office)(c/o Dr Omar S. Ahmed)

Gürsoy, Oktay (Prof)University of CukurovaFaculty of AgricultureDepartment of Animal Science01330 AdanaTurkeyTel:+90–322–338 6095/338 6143Fax:+90–322–338 6095/338 6364/338 6576E-mail:ogursoy@pamuk.cu.edu.tr

Hilan, Christo (Dr)Agricultural Research InstituteFanar LaboratoryBeirutLebanonTel:+961–1–882125/6/7Fax:+961–1–882124

Kamal, Mohamed (Dr)Secretary GeneralINRA–MoroccoPB 415RabatMoroccoTel:+212–7–277 2639Fax:+212–7–771713/774003

Kineev, Marat (Prof)Head, Department of Livestock and VeterinaryScienceNational Academic Center for Agricultural Science,RK79 Abyaikham StreetAlmaty, 480091KazakstanTel:+7–3272–620921Fax:+7–3272–623831

Nefzaoui, Ali (Dr)Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique deTunisieRue Hedi Karray2049 ArianaTunisiaTel:+216–1–230024Fax:+216–1–752897

Nouad, Mohamed Amokrane (Dr)Director GeneralITEBOBP 03 BirtoutaAlgiersAlgeriaFax:+213–2–523529 (ITCG, Algiers)

Subuh, Ahmed Mufid (Dr)Faculty of Veterinary MedicineAl-Baath UniversityHamaSyriaTel:+963–33–221096Fax:+963–33–512464/510514

Sungur, Huseyin Hüseyin (Dr)General Directory of Agricultural Research.PO Box 78YenimahalleAnkaraTurkeyTel:+90–312–315 3392Fax:+90–312–315 3448

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Swaid, Adnan (Dr)Livestock Research DepartmentDirectorate of Scientific Agricultural ResearchPO Box 113DoumaSyriaTel:+963–11–543 0133/532 3037Fax:+963–11–532 3029

Tavakolian, Javid (Dr)Ministry of Jahad SazandegiShahid Razavi BuildingEnghelab SquareTehranIslamic Republic of IranTel:+98–21–2046798Fax:+98–21–241 2860/646 0141/646 9614

Representatives of regional andinternational organisations

Galal, Salah (Dr)In situ ConservationAnimal Production and Health Division FAOVia delle Terme di Caracalla00100 RomeItalyTel:+39–6–5225–6139Fax:+39–6–5225–3927E-mail:salah.galal@fao.org

Khidir, Awatif (Ms)AOAD (Damascus Regional Office)Port Saeed StreetCommercial Bank No 8PO Box 7611DamascusSyriaTel:+963–21–333 6245Fax:+963–21–221 8494

Tleimat, Farhan Mohamed (Dr)ACSADPO Box 2440DamascusSyriaTel:+963–11–5323039/5323087Fax:+963–11–5323063

Representatives from donoragencies, regional projects,universities and research institutes

Campbell, Darius (Dr)Research Co-ordinator, Badia Research andDevelopment Programmec/o BIAAMPO Box 519JubeihaAmman 11941JordanTel:+962–6–857292Fax:+962–6–837197E-mail:darius@nets.com.jo

Chenost, Michel (Dr)Directeur de RecherchesINRA–Theix63122 Saint Genes ChampanelleFranceTel:+33–47–3624075Fax:+33–47–3624273E-mail:chenost@clermont.inra.fr

Deichert, Georg (Dr)GTZ–ProjectPO Box 36519Damascus, MezzehDamascusSyriaTel:+963–11–542 4761Fax:+963–11–333 2514E-mail:101657.1060@compuserve.com

Demment, Montague (Prof)Director, Global Livestock Collaborative ResearchSupport Program (GL–CRISP)University of CaliforniaDavis, CA 95616USATel:+1–916–752 7757Fax:+1–916–752 7523E-mail: mwdemment@ucdavis.edu

Freeland, Guy (Dr)Senior Animal Health and Production AdviserDepartment for International Development94 Victoria StLondon SW1E 5JLUKTel:+44–171–917 0486Fax:+44–171–917 0624E-mail:g-freeland@dfid.gnet.gov.uk

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Jones, Karen (Dr)BADIA Research and Development Programmec/o BIAAMPO Box 519JubeihaAmman 11941JordanTel/Fax:+962–6–885186E-mail:darius@nets.com.jo

Lhoste, Philip (Dr)Scientific Co-ordinator for Animal ProductionCIRAD–EMVTBP 503534032 MontpellierFranceTel:+33–4–6759 3720Fax:+33–4–6759 3795E-mail:lhoste@cirad.fr

Matthess-Guerrero, Anne Marie (Dr)INRA/GTZ–Project Viande RougeBP 258MeknesMoroccoTel.:+212–5–528216Fax: +212–7–515953Tel/Fax +212–7–675093E-mail: inra-pur@maghrebnet.net.ma

Pellett, Peter (Prof)Department of NutritionSchool of Public Health and Health SciencesUniversity of MassachusettsAmherst, MA 01003USATel:+1–413–545 1078Fax: +1–413–545 1074E-mail: pellet@nutrition.udmass.edu

Schenkel, Frank (Dr)c/o German Embassy–GTZIbn Hanano StreetDamascusSyriaTel:+963–33–510180Fax:+963–33–521464

Theriez, Michel (Dr)Directeur de RecherchesINRA Theix63122 Sainte Genes ChampanelleFranceTel:+33–473–624060Fax: +33–473–624118E-mail: theriez@clermont.inra.fr

International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI)

Ibrahim, Habib (Dr)Training SpecialistILRIPO Box 5689Addis AbabaEthiopiaTel:+251–1–613215Fax: +251–1–611892E-mail: h.ibrahim@cgiar.org

Li Pun, Hugo (Dr)Director of Sustainable Production SystemsILRIPO Box 5689Addis AbabaEthiopiaTel:+251–1–613215Fax: +251–1–611892E-mail: h.li-pun@cgiar.org

Morzaria, Subhash (Dr)Project Co-ordinator, Molecular Epidemiology andDiagnosisILRIPO Box 30709NairobiKenyaTel:+254–2–630743Fax: +254–2–631499E-mail: s.morzaria@cgiar.org

von Kaufmann, Ralph (Mr)Director for External RelationsILRIPO Box 30709NairobiKenyaTel:+254–2–630743Fax: +254–2–631499E-mail: r.von-kaufmann@cgiar.org

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International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA)

Bahhady, Faik (Mr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105

Dodds, John (Dr)Deputy Director General (Research)ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: j.dodds@cgiar.org

Gintzburger, Gus (Dr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: g.gintzburger@cgiar.org

Goodchild, Tony (Dr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: t.goodchild@cgiar.org

Istanbulluoglu, Ersin (Prof)Vice Chairman, ICARDA Board of TrusteesAhmet Mithat Ejendi SokakNo. 22/7 – CankayaAnkaraTurkeyTel/fax:+90–312–4388710

Nordblom, Tom (Dr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: t.nordblom@cgiar.org

Osman, Ahmed (Dr)NRMP / ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: a.osman@cgiar.org

Solh, Mahmoud (Dr)Director, International CooperationICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: m.solh@cgiar.org

Thomson, Euan F. (Dr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: e.thomson@cgiar.org

Treacher, Tim (Dr)Consultant EditorDepartamento de Producción AgrariaETSIAUniversidad Pública de PamplonaCampus Arrosadia31006 PamplonaSpainTel:+34–48–169123/169185Fax:+34–48–169732E-mail:tim.treacher@upna.es

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Tutwiler, Rick (Dr)NRMP/ICARDAPO Box 5466AleppoSyriaTel:+963–21–213433/213477Fax: +963–21–213490/225105E-mail: r.tutwiler@cgiar.org

ProgrammeConsultation on Setting Livestock Research Priorities in West Asia and North Africa, 12–16November 1997, ICARDA Headquarters, Tel Hadya, Aleppo, Syria

11 November (Tuesday) Arrivals in Damascus, transport to Aleppo with visit to ElKrem sheep Breeding Station on the way

8.00 Participants in Aleppo depart from hotel for El Kremstation and join group travelling up from Damascus(visit arranged and co-ordinated by Faik Bahhady)

12 November (Wednesday)8.00 Busses leave hotels

Session I Opening: Chair, Mr Ralph von Kaufmann8.40–8.50 Welcome: Dr John Dodds, Assistant Director General

(Research), ICARDA8.50–9.00 Opening statement: Dr Ersin Istanbulluoglu, Vice-Chair,

ICARDA Board of Trustees9.00–9.10 Welcome and purpose of consultation: Dr Hugo Li Pun, ILRI9.10–9.50 Global nutritional problems with special attention to the

role of animal foods in human nutrition, by ProfessorPeter Pellett, University of Massachusetts

9.50–10.10 Discussion10.10–10.40 Refreshments (and group photograph outside main

entrance)10.40–11.20 ICARDA slide show11.20–12.10 Globalisation of ILRI: rationale and activities out of

Africa, by Dr Hugo Li Pun, ILRI12.10–13.00 Small ruminant research in the medium-term plan of ICARDA, by Dr Euan Thomson, ICARDA13.00–14.00 LunchSession II Summaries of country papers, Chair: Dr John Dodds,

ICARDA14.00–15.45 Country papers (10 minutes each paper, and 5 min

discussion)Dr S. Economides, CyprusDr Abdul Razzak Al–Rawi, IraqDr Mahfouz Abu-Zanat, JordanDr Christo Hilan, LebanonDr Adnan Swaid, SyriaDr Fekry Al–Keraby, EgyptProf Babo Fadlalla, Sudan

15.45–16.00 Refreshments16.00–17.45 Country papers (10 minutes each paper, and 5 min

discussion)Dr Mohamed A. Nouad, Algeria

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Mr Mohamed Al-Masri, LibyaDr Bouchaib Boulanouar, MoroccoDr Ali Nefzaoui, TunisiaDr Majed H. Al-Khamees, Saudi ArabiaDr M’naouer Djemali, UAEMr S. Hassan Ahmed, Yemen

17.45 Return to hotels13 November (Thursday)8.00 Busses leave hotels

Session III Country papers: Chair, Mr Ralph von Kaufmann, ILRI8.45–10.15 Country papers (10 minutes each paper, and 5 min

discussion)Prof Oktay Gürsoy, TurkeyDr Javid Tavakolian, IranDr Mohammad Afzal, PakistanProf Marat Kineev, KazakstanProf Ovez Annamuhamedov, TurkmenistanDr Uktam Aripov, Uzbekistan

10.15–10.35 Paper by ACSAD representative Dr Farham MohamedTleimat

10.35–10.55 Refreshments

Session IV Preparations for working sessions: Chair, Dr Mahmoud Solh, ICARDA10.55–12.30 Definition of the priority-setting process: Drs Hugo Li Pun and Euan Thomson12.30–13.00 Formulation of working groups: Drs Hugo Li Pun and Euan Thomson13.00–14.00 Lunch

Session V Four or five concurrent working groups14.00–15.30 Priority setting, in working groups15.30–17.00 Visit to Small Ruminant Unit and Forage Quality Lab17.00 Return to hotels19.45 Depart hotels for dinner at Zamareia Restaurant and

Hotel (El Jededeh Quarter)14 November (Friday)8.30 Depart for optional visit to local sheep farm (trip organised by Faik Bahhady) prayers can be said at mosques nearby

Participants may stay in Aleppo if they wish14.00 Weather permitting, and depending on demand, an

optional visit may be arranged to Saint Simeon, aByzantine basilica 40 km from Aleppo

15 November (Saturday)8.00 Busses leave hotels

Session VI Working groups8.45–10.00 Concurrent working groups

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10.00–10.20 Refreshments10.20–12.30 Concurrent working groups12.30–13.30 Lunch13.30–15.00 Concurrent working groups15.00–15.15 Refreshments15.15 Return to hotels – afternoon free to visit bazaar16 November (Sunday)8.00 Busses leave hotels

Session VII Field visit and presentation of findings8.45–10.15 Visit to Forage Laboratory and Sheep Unit10.15–10.30 Refreshments10.30–12.30 Plenary session in Dr Nour Auditorium

Presentation of findings of three working groups bygroup rapporteurs

12.30–13.30 Lunch

Session VIII Closing session: Chair, Mr Ralph von Kaufmann, ILRI13.30–14.45 Presentation on output of the consultation: Dr Hugo Li

Pun, ILRIRemarks by representative of national programmes: DrM. Kamal, Morocco

Closing remarks: Dr Hugo Li Pun, ILRIClosing remarks: Dr John Dodds, ICARDA14.45–15.00 Refreshments15.15 Departures to hotel and Damascus

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