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GLOBAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF

THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT FROM LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES

Report of The Gambia

FOR THE CANARY CURRENT LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEM

PROJECT (CCLME) AND THE ABIDJAN CONVENTION

By: ANNA MBENGA CHAM

PRINCIPAL FISHERIES OFFICER

THE GAMBIA

February 2014

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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE

Abbreviations/Acronyms……………………………………………………………. 3

List of Table……………………………………………………………………………3

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………... 5

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 6

1.1 Aim of the Global Program of Action…………………………………… 6

1.2 The Global Program of Action…………………………………………….7

1.3 Objective…………………………………………………………………… 7

1.4 Country Profile……………………………………………………………. 7

2.0 Identification and Assessment of Problems……………………………………… 8

2.1 Food Security………………………………………………………………. 8

2.1.2 Public Health……………………………………………………………11

2.1.3 Coastal and marine Resources and Ecosystem Health……………... 13

2.1.4 Economic and Social Benefits and Uses including Cultural Values.. 16

2. 2 Contaminants…………………………………………………………………. 16

2.2.1 Sewage…………………………………………………………………. 16

2.2.2 Banned pesticides and Other Chemical………………………………. . 16

2.2.3 Oils (Hydrocarbons)……………………………………………………. 17

2.2.4 Litter………………………………………………………………………17

2.3 Physical Alteration, including Habitat Modification and Destruction

in areas of Concern…………………………………………………………… 18

2.4 Coastal Mining…………………………………………………………… . …18

2.5 Source of Degradation (Point Sources)………………………… ……… ...18

Construction Work –Dam…………………………………………………….19

Mangrove die back ………………………………………………………........19

2.6 Sources of Degradation (Non-point)………………………………………….20

2.6.1 Urban Run-Off…………………………………………………………….20

2.6.2 Agriculture and Horticulture Run-off……………………………………20

2.6.3 Coastal Erosion…………………………………………………………......21

2.6.4 Landfills and hazardous Waste Sites Sanitation………………………….21

2. 7 Areas of Concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable)……………….21

Habitat Modification and Destruction…………………………………….22

Marine Protected Areas- Tanbi and Niumi Wetlands……………………22

3.0 Establishment of Priorities…………………………………………………………..23

3.1 Waste management…………………………………………………………..25

3.2 Sanitary ………………………………………………………………………25

3.3 Aquaculture ……………………………………………………………… ... 25

3.4. Oyster Culture………………………………………………………..……...26

3.5 Management Objectives for Priority Problems………………………….26

3.5.1 Objectives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems………27

3.5.2 Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem…………………………….27

3.5.3 Health Objectives……………………………………………………………27

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3.5.4 Sanitation program……………………………………………………….. 28

3.5.5 Biological…………………………………………………………………... 28

3.5.6 Ecological……………………………………………………………………28

3.5.7 Social………………………………………………………………………...28

3.5.8 Economic………………………………………………………………........28

4.0 Identification, Evaluation and Selection of Strategies and Measures……………..29

4.1 Protective Areas as Adaptive Measure………………………………….......30

4.2 Village gardening……………………………………………………………..31

4.3 Village Banking……………………………………………………………….31

4.4 Erosion Control……………………………………………………………….32

5.0 Criteria for Evaluating Effectiveness of Strategies and Measures………………...32

6.0 Program Support Elements………………………………………………………......32

6.1 National Policies for Management of Environment…………………………….33

6.2 Integrated Coastal and Marine Conservation and Management………………33

6.3 Institutional Framework for Natural Resource Management………………….33

6.4 Instructional Acts ………………………………………………………………....33

7.0 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands…………………………………………………….36

8.0 Environmental Education……………………………………………………………..37

9.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………….……………………..37

10.0 References……………………………………………………………………………39

11.0 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………...41

12.0 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..41

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List of Abbreviations

CCLME Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem

DOF Department of Fisheries

DPH Department of Public Health

DPWM Department of Parks and Wildlife Management

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FC Fecal Coliform

GBA Greater Banjul Area

GEAP Gambia Environmental Action Plan

GNSSP Gambia National Shellfish Sanitary Program

ICAM II Integrated Coastal and Marine Management

IRD Institution for Research and Development

LGA Local Government Act

MPA Marine Protected Areas

NAWEC National Water and Electricity Cooperation

NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan

NEA National Environment Agency

NEMA National Environment Management Act

NGO Non Government Organization

PAGE Program for Accelerated Growth and Employment

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper

URI University of Rhode Island

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

List of Table

1. Funded project by UNDP

2. Fisheries Contribution to Gross Domestic Production (GDP)

3. Head Fisherman by Fisheries Administrative Area

List of Figures

1. Map of the Gambia

2. Fecal and total coliforms at Wenchu

3. Animals located close to the estuary

4. Local latrine by the estuary at Wenchu

5. The Gambia marine and estuarine ecosystem health

6. Litter thrown in the Wetlands

7. Settlement inside the Marine Protected Area (MPA)

8. A scenery of mangrove die-back along Bintang Bolong

9. Groundnut shell dumped at the Tanbi (Kamalo)

10. Deposits of tires and other rubbish in the mangroves

11. Women thought how to pick cockles

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12. Oysters attached on mangrove roots

13. Ropes deepen in water for oyster culture

14. Team collecting matured propagules

15. Storage method of propagules

16. Removing caps covering the shoots

17. Plating two meters between rows

18. Vegetable gardening

19. Women village banking

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Acknowledgements

I wish to express my gratitude to Khallahi Brahim and the entire CCLME Project team for having

confidence in me to conduct the national report on Global Program of Action for the Protection of the

Marine Environment from Land-Base Activities in The Gambia.

Thanks to the lead consultant Dr. Jacques ABE for his brilliant methodology and guidelines necessary for

conducting the study, especially his suggestions for the preparatory phase of the work and the important

comments.

Special thanks are directed to the Statistical Unit of the Fisheries Department, Staff of national

Environment Agency, Department of Water Resources, Department of Parks and Wildlife Management,

Forestry Department, Department of Tourism, Gambia Maritime, Coordinator Wash Project for the

valuable information provided and discussions shared

Special thanks to my family for their support.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The major threats to the health, productivity and biodiversity of the marine environment result

from human activities on land -in coastal areas and further inland. Most of the pollution load of

the oceans, including municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as

atmospheric deposition, emanates from such land-based activities and affects the most

productive areas of the marine environment, including estuaries and near-shore coastal waters.

These areas are likewise threatened by physical alteration of the coastal environment, including

destruction of habitats of vital importance for ecosystem health. Moreover, contaminants which

pose risks to human health and living resources are transported long distances by watercourses,

ocean currents and atmospheric processes.

The bulk of the world's population lives in coastal areas, and there is a continuing trend towards

its concentration in these regions. The health, well-being and, in some cases, the very survival of

coastal populations depend upon the health and well-being of coastal systems -estuaries and

wetlands -as well as their associated watersheds and drainage basins and near-shore coastal

waters. Ultimately, sustainable patterns of human activity in coastal areas depend upon a healthy

marine environment, and vice versa.

1.2 Aims of the Global Programme of Action

The Global Programme of Action aims at preventing the degradation of the marine environment

from land-based activities by facilitating the realization of the duty of States to preserve and

protect the marine environment. It is designed to assist States in taking actions individually or

jointly within their respective policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the prevention,

reduction, control and/or elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to

its recovery from the impacts of land-based activities. Achievement of the aims of the

Programme of Action will contribute to maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the

productive capacity and biodiversity of the marine environment, ensuring the protection of

human health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine living

resources.

1.3 The global programme of action

The Programme of Action, therefore, is designed to be a source of conceptual and practical

guidance to be drawn upon by national and/or regional authorities in devising and implementing

sustained action to prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based

activities.

Effective implementation of this Programme of Action is a crucial and essential step forward in

the protection of the marine environment and will promote the objectives and goals of

sustainable development.

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The Global Programme of Action reflects the fact that States face a growing number of

commitments flowing from Agenda 21 and related conventions. Its implementation will require

new approaches by, and new forms of collaboration among, Governments, organizations and

institutions with responsibilities and expertise relevant to marine and coastal areas, at all levels -

national, regional and global. These include the promotion of innovative financial mechanisms to

generate needed resources.

1.4 Objectives

To develop comprehensive, continuing and adaptive programmes of action within the framework

of integrated coastal area management which should include provisions for:

(a) Identification and assessment of problems;

(b) Establishment of priorities;

(c) Setting management objectives for priority problems;

(d) Identification, evaluation and selection of strategies and measures, including

management approaches;

(e) Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of strategies and programmes;

(f) Programme support elements

1.4 Country Profile

The Gambia, located between 13o

N and 14o

W latitude on the west coast of Africa and is about

480km in length and 51km wide at its widest westerly end facing the Atlantic Ocean, and its

eastern width is 30km.

Fig. 1: Map of The Gambia,

Source: Fisheries Department

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The Gambia has a total land area of about 11,000 Km², with about one fifth of the surface area

occupied by the River Gambia, running almost 1600 km from the Futa Djallon highlands in the

Republic of Guinea to the Atlantic Ocean dividing the country into the North and South bank,

(figure 1) and is bordered on three sides by the Republic of Senegal and on the west by the

Atlantic Ocean.

The coastline is 80 km long open coastline, dissected into the North and south Bank by the River

Gambia. The continental shelf area is 4000Km², and comprises of Marine intertidal and oceanic

ecosystems that border the Atlantic Ocean and extends to the brackish water which is rich in

marine fish resources. It is one of the highly productive up-welling zone of the Atlantic Ocean

and the Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME) region (Douglas, 1998). The

productivity of the marine and estuarine waters is further enhanced by the huge annual influxes

of nutrients from the river, fringed with mangroves on both sides up to Kaur150 kilometers up

river. The Gambia has a Sudano - Sahelian climate characterized by a long dry season from

November to May and a short rainy season from June to October.

According to the 2013 census, The Gambia has a population of 1,840,681 with an annual growth

rate of 2.7% with a density of more than 97 persons per km²; The Gambia is ranked amongst the

four most densely populated countries in Africa. The urban growth rate is estimated to be more

than 8% annually, with the Greater Banjul Area (GBA) attaining the greatest rate. The

Municipality of Kanifing, with an estimated population of 300,000 to 400,000 people is

considered the most densely populated region in the Gambia. At present about 27% of the

population live in the GBA while 52% inhabits the strip of coastal land which is less than 18% of

the total surface area of the country (Gambia Bureau of Statistics, 2013).

2.0 Identification and Assessment of Problems

The Gambia is characterized by land degradation, coastal degradation, loss of biodiversity linked

to habitat loss, improper disposal of solid waste and increasingly coastal erosion due effects of

environmental vulnerabilities range from the fragility of the land, high population densities

coupled with adverse impacts of natural hazards such as climate change, further elaborated

below

2.1 Food Security and Poverty Alleviation

The country depends on agriculture, the backbone of the country‟s economy. Major export

earning is from groundnuts, followed by tourism, fisheries then livestock. Agriculture accounts

for roughly 30% of gross domestic product and employs about 70% of the labor force. The

fisheries sector accounts for 3% of gross domestic product, but this has been fluctuating over the

years. In 2003, contribution to GDP dropped significantly and has until now not picked up to the

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2004/05 levels (see table 2). Although this is merely small, yet great importance is attached to

the development of the sector to increase production and fish protein intake.

Table 2: Fisheries Contribution to GDP

Year Fish & Fishery Products

(metric tons)

GDP

(metric tons)

% of GDP

1998 81,005.00 3,261,207 2.5%

1999 89,646.00 3,352,678 2.7%

2000 95,130.00 3,198,601 3.0%

2001 102,739.00 3,443,300 3.0%

2002 88,355.00 3,261,207 2.5%

2003 48,495.00 3,352,678 2.7%

2004 79,788.00 3,198,601 3.0%

2005 82,046.00 3,443,300 3.0%

2006 96,814.00 3,517,846 2.5%

Source: Central Statistics Department report, 2008

Two types of fisheries operate in the Gambia; small scale (artisanal) and industrial fisheries.

These fisheries are distinguished by their mode of operation. The artisanal is presently the single

most important entity in seafood production for local consumption and export. Majority of

Gambians cheapest protein intake is from fish. Communities along the coast and along the River

Gambia both North and South of the Country are engage in fishing activities for their livelihood.

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The sector provides direct employment to 1,410 head fishermen and 4,694 assistant fishermen

(see table 3). It is estimated that over 200,000 people are directly or indirectly dependent on

artisanal fisheries for their livelihoods (DOF, 2006).

Table 3: Head Fisherman by Fisheries Administrative Area

Fisheries Administrative Area

Number of

Fishermen

Number Percentage

Atlantic coast

416

29.5

Lower River- North Bank

204

14.5

Upper River - North Bank

96

6.8

Lower River - South Bank

309

21.9

Upper River - South Bank

385

27.3

TOTAL

1,410

100.0

Source: Department of Fisheries, 2006

The coastal fishery is still dominated by non nationals, mainly Senegalese; 805 are Gambian

nationals and 605 foreign but in the coastal area foreign nationals, mainly Senegalese form the

majority with 249 head fishermen compared to 167 Gambians (Gambia DOF, 2006).

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These foreign nationals are the key players in the highly productive coastal fisheries and they

form the vast majority of artisanal shrimp fishermen along the estuary and brackish waters of the

River Gambia (Gambia DOF, 2006).

The industrial fishery is characterized by high capital investment and limited to the marine areas

while the artisanal fishery is dispersed and characterized by low capital investment and labor

intensive activities.

The ichthyofauna in both riverine and marine systems consist more than 800 fish species which

provide a significant part of the protein supply to the countries population. The estimated total

fish harvest potential is over 80,000 metric tons and the estimated annual fish production in 2002

was 46,496 metric tons and per capita fish consumption is more than 20 kg. Fish is an important

source of cheap protein to the population and is believed to have potential for greater

contribution to addressing the country's food security policy objective. Besides the fisheries

sectoral development objective is to improve the nutritional status of the population, employment

generation, and revenue and foreign exchange earnings. The role of the sector in the socio-

economic development of the country cannot be over-emphasized, but fisheries by virtue of its

particulars, are highly susceptible to over-exploitation, leading to biological, social and economic

wastage of scarce resources. The spawning and nursery grounds are not well managed to secure

sustainable availability and supply of fish for the nation.

Poverty is one of the biggest indirect threats to biodiversity in The Gambia. The majority of the

population depends entirely on natural resources for their basic requirements which are often

exploited irrationally. Such high demands, coupled with unsustainable practices of exploitation

and utilization has placed undue pressure on natural resources. The Gambia has an overall poverty rate

estimated at 58 percent (in 2003). Rural and urban poverty rates are similar, except in Banjul where the

rate is much lower at 10.6 percent (World Bank, 2007).

2. I.2 Public Health

Malnutrition continues to be a major public health problem in The Gambia. The 1998 national

anthropometrics study of children under five conducted in the dry season indicated 16.8%

stunting, 6.8% wasting and 17.1% underweight. Safe water is an essential pillar of sustainable

health for rural and urban population. Access to safe water is 69% of the overall households;

with 79.9% urban and 64.9% rural and accesses to proper sanitary facilities are encouraging

particularly at the coastal region.

In line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Gambia has also formulated

“Vision 2020” which aims to ensure sustainable development through the provision of a “well-

balanced ecosystem and a decent standard of living for one and all by the year 2020".

Enforcement of environmental laws by the Agency (National Environment Agency, NEA),

provision of affordable healthcare by the Ministry of Health and the collection of domestic waste

by the Municipalities have lead to a reduction in disease outbreaks especially Malaria and

Cholera.

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However, people‟s attitude towards environmental sanitation has not improved much despite the

education. It is common to see people throwing litter from moving vehicles, throwing domestic

waste to illegal dumpsites etc. Consequently, misuse of public properties e.g. littering public

streets, dumping waste into gutters, littering of parks and recreational facilities is common.

Some live in places that are declared uninhabitable, such as insides the wetlands, waterways,

dumpsites, etc. The illegal dumpsites created blocked natural waterways leading to floods and

formation of water bodies that harbor disease agents such as malaria, skin diseases, among

others. Sectors such health has suffered huge setbacks due to disease outbreaks caused by

pollution.

The Department of Water Resources on quarterly bases monitored strategic point for Public

Health hazard. Selected parameters, which are specifically health related, are done to ensure

clean drinking water is obtained, as well as for the environment such as: -

i. Bacteriological (Thermotolerant Fecal Coliform (F.C.) test)

ii. Physico-chemical (pH, Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids)

iii. Part-chemicals (Nitrate and Total iron).

During the 2012 rainy season, Fecal Coliform counts increased during the months of August and

September. The increase in the counts was attributed to runoffs, direct human waste and latrines

constructed, discharge into estuary.

The Coliform data provided by the Department of Water Resources indicates that measured

Fecal Coliform counts peak during the rainy season, especially around Wencho (figure 3 and 4)

and Old Jeshwang sites where latrine and animals are located next to the estuary, fig 1 and 2. At

the sites located next to urban settlements, Ebo Town and Faji Kunda, measured Fecal Coliforms

increased significantly during the rainy season. The water quality data show that the oyster

harvesting and processing sites near urban settlements have higher counts of Fecal and Total

Coliforms (figure 2), than the sites that are located further from the villages.

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Indiscriminate waste dumping and inadequate waste management programs are major problems

particularly near urban settlements.

Fig 2: Fecal and Total Coliforms at Wencho, (Report, Water and Sanitation Study, 2006)

It has been also observed that Fecal Coliform levels in dry season water samples correlate to the

results of the sanitary surveys: Poor Fecal Coliform results correspond to inadequate conditions

at landing sites observed during the sanitary survey.

The Total Coliform water quality results might be underestimating the potential risk. It is

suggested that, if GNSSP is established, the Fecal Coliform parameter is better suited to be the

standard for use in the classification of shellfish waters in The Gambia.

Figure 3: Animals located close to estuary Figure 4: Pig pen by the estuary at Wencho

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2.1.3 Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem health, including Biological Diversity

The Gambia has an 80 km long coastline and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200

Nautical miles from the low water mark. The coastal and marine zone of The Gambia provides

an important breeding, nesting, feeding refuge for endangered and threatened species such as

migratory birds, dolphins, sharks, marine turtles, the West African Manatee and other species of

regional and national significance. Like any other coastal state, the population density is high and

increasing along the coastal zone. This has its implications as human activities exert increasing

pressure on the coast; in particular, the exploitation of coastal and marine resources for both

subsistence and other economic purposes.

The coastal ecosystem includes several habitat types such as mangrove forest, seasonal marshes

and wetlands, salt flats, sand dune and gallery forests and open woodlands. In these habitats

diverse flora and fauna with mostly littoral species are common, meiofauna includes high

amount of microorganisms like bacteria and protista; nematodes, annelids, larvae of

oligochaetes, dense patches of copepods, coelenterates and different species of shellfish. The

mangrove forest are important habitats serving the needs of migratory near shore and oceanic

species which require shallow, protected habitats for breeding and /or sanctuary for their young

ones..

The wetlands cover almost 20% of the total land area. This includes 6.4% of mangrove forest,

7.8% of uncultured swamps and 3.2% of cultivated swamps. These wetlands are classified in to

three categories; coastal and marine, inland and artificial. The coastal and marine are shallow

marine waters, sub tidal beds, rocky shores, sandy beaches, estuarine waters, intertidal mud flats,

salt marshes, mangrove forests, brackish lagoons and fresh water lagoons etc. The inland waters

are permanent rivers, seasonal riverine floodplains, freshwater marshes, seasonal fresh water

lakes, fresh water swamps forest/gallery etc. besides are artificial wetlands for irrigated land, rice

fields etc. Similarly, coastal beaches provide important habitats for sea and water bird breeding

colonies and provides nesting habitat for three species of marine turtles.

In 2004, the French Institute for Research and Development (IRD) in collaboration with the

Fisheries Department concluded study of fish populations in the Gambia River which revealed

that the brackish and estuarine portions of the river are very rich in terms of species diversity and

abundance. It identified about 70 fish species within the river system and several of them,

especially those belonging to Carangidae, Drepaneidae, Clupidae, Haemulidae, Polynemidae,

Cichlidae, Scianidae, Cynoglossidae, etc, are of commercial significance.

There are over 500 marine fish species which are usually classed as demersals and pelagics. The

demersals include groupers, sea breams, grunts, croakers and snappers etc. The small pelagics

group consists of the two sardinellas (Saridnella aurita and Sardinella maderensis), bonga/shad

(Ethmalosa fimbriata), horse mackerels (Trachurus trecae, Trachurus trachurus and Caranx

rhoncus) and mackerel (Scomber japonicus). Biomass estimates of the demersal fish resources in

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1986 conducted by the Spanish Institute of Oceanography were 43,645 tones. The 1986 survey

was the most comprehensive survey of demersal fish resources. Estimates provided in 1995 were

obtained from a partial survey of demersal stocks conducted during a survey that focused on

pelagic fish species.

Mangrove of the Gambian are among the most beautiful, (figure 5) especially those of the River

Gambia which hosts one of the tallest mangroves in the sub-region (+20m) at a distance of about

100 km upriver (Forestry Department Report, 2009). However, at the level of Bintang bolong,

the degradation of the mangrove is estimated to be more than 90%. At the level of the other

formations, the degradation can be estimated at 3.3%. Besides mangroves, for example, are

integral to the health and functioning of local fisheries (Diouf et al., 1996). They may slow or

prevent coastal erosion and serve to buffer or mitigate water pollution and flooding. They are

important source of fuel and construction wood. Globally, mangrove forests have high potential

for carbon sequestration.

Fig. 5: The Gambia Marine and Estuarine ecosystems health

Source: Fisheries frame survey report, 2006

The biodiversity are faced with several direct threats including the loss and fragmentation of the

natural habitats due to deforestation, wetland drainage, infrastructural development, overgrazing,

poor farming practices as well as indirect causes such as population pressure, poverty, illiteracy,

lack of resources, limited trained human power and inadequate implementation of policies and

institutional regimes.

The coastal and marine biodiversity is seriously threatened by pollution. Prior to 1980, The

Gambia had a total of about 68,000 ha of mangrove forest. It declined to about 56,900 ha by

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1983 (Forster), representing a total loss of 11,100 ha. The main area of the mangrove die-back

was along the Bintang Bolong area, extending into the Cassamance Region of Senegal. However,

this trend is not linear. Such areas are used illegally as dumping sites of household and industrial

waste.

2.1.4 Economic and Social Benefits and Uses Including Cultural Values

Ccommunities get many benefits from the costal and wetland areas; including oyster collection,

fishing, fire wood and poles collection, palm wine tapping, vegetable gardening, rice cultivation,

etc.. Many of them make their living from these activities. Unfortunately, a decreasing yield

trend is noticed in each and every activity.

2.2 Contaminants

2.2.1 Sewage

Sewage infrastructures are constructed in greater Banjul area, in numerous diffuse sources,

linked to the main central channel that carries the waste water and discharge 200 m off the coast

line to the ocean. The rapid growth of urban populations is beyond the capacity of the relevant

authorities and municipalities to provide adequate basic services to the entire country. In almost

all factories waste water treatments are done before their waste is discharged to the ocean.

There are hotspots particularly at the Ports Authority due oil splits splash from ships and waste

oil from National Water Electricity (NAWEC). Ships discharge (SEWAGE) even though

Maritime Regulation prohibit discharge of sewage within specified distance nearest to land

unless they have an approved treatment plant, due Pathogens, oxygen-demanding substances,

suspending solids, nutrients, toxics, oil and grease and other particulate elements are commonly

found in marine sewage discharges, which can lead to eutrophication, though it is not much that

it is considered as major problem.

The Kotu Sewage Plant is not able to cope with the dramatic rise in volume of waste water and

has malfunctioning problem, as such untreated and partially some untreated has been released

into the Kotu Stream and empties in the sea (NBSAP, 1997).

2.2.2 Banned Pesticides and Other Chemical

Harmful chemicals listed below are banned in the country. It is illegal in The Gambia to import,

manufacture, formulate, offer, hold on stock, sell, and use or advertise these following. All these

chemicals are banned: 2, 4, 5-T, Aldicarb, Aldrin, Aphox, Benzene Hexachloride (BHC/HCH),

Camphechlor, Captafol (Believed to be carcinogenic present in “Granox WP” from Senegal),

Chlorbenzilate, Chlordane, Chlordimeform, Crocidolite, Cyhexatin, DDT (Persistent Organic

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Pollutant (POP) found in Cock Brand Coil from PRC), Dibrimochlord Propane, Dieldrin,

Dinoseb+Salts, Endrin, Ethylene Dibromide, Fluoroacetamide, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene,

Lindane (present in “Thiodal” from Senegal), Mercury Compounds, Paraquat, Parathiom-Methyl

(toxic organo-phosphorus pesticide present in „spiridur‟), PBBs (Polybrominated Biphenyls),

PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), PCTs, Pentachlorophenol (mostly used as a wood

preservative) and TRIS - 2,3-Dibromopropyl. (Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides Control and

Management Board, National Environment Agency, 2014)

2.2.3 Oils (hydrocarbons)

Oil spills has negative ecological and socio-economic impacts. The Kotu power station releases

its waste oil (sludge) from the generators into the Kotu stream and the surrounding swamps.

2.2.4 Litter

Solid waste management in the Greater Banjul Area including the coastal areas is handled by

municipalities (Banjul City Council and Kanifing Municipal Council and the Brikama Area

Council).The municipal landfills are the only method of disposal practiced by all the Councils.

However, Medical Research Council has an incinerator for the disposal of their clinical wastes.

The Municipal landfill disposal sites do not have any facilities, environmental controls, or

development and operations plan for mitigating environmental impacts, and yet a wide range of

wastes are deposited in them, which include domestic/household wastes, commercial waste,

industrial waste and construction waste. Waste disposals are open system, hazardous to human

and biodiversity, especially during the rainy season.

Litter is also often observed all along the coast line. Some appears to be the result of

irresponsible waste dumping, scattered waste that are carried by erosion to the river or to the

coastal sites (figure 6); discarded by individuals or factory waste as well as deposits at low tides.

These dumped wastes obstruct water ways or carried along by water run-offs to the estuary, as a

result pollutes the environment.

Fig.6a: Litter thrown in the wetlands Fig. 6b: Litter thrown in the wetlands

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2.3 Physical Alteration, including habitat modification and destruction in areas of concern

The main concerned here is land clearing for agriculture, linked to population growth and more

settlement in these areas combined with the effect of climate change. Overharvesting wetland

products, overgrazing, natural factors such as mangrove die-back, etc. contributes to destruction

of habitats. This has led to the decline or disruption of the ecological values provided by these

ecosystems particularly fish breeding grounds, resulting in the loss of some species (NBSAP,

1997).

2.4 Coastal Mining

Sand mining is the biggest catalyst of erosion and associated environmental impacts in the

coastal area. Sand mining has been going on from 1985 – 1995, which has aggravated causing

coastal erosion and destruction of habitats. In 1996, sand mining is prohibited at the coastal

areas. The ADB funded intervention has been successful in reclaiming significant portion of the

beach (UNEP, 1998).

2.5 Sources of degradation

Communities around these tributaries (Bolongs) depend on subsistence agriculture for household

food production and cash crop production. Due to decrease in farm production and the

groundnut price, most of the residents shifted to commercial fishing and sales of mangrove poles

for roofing and firewood for domestic energy. This resulted to high level of pressure on the

mangrove ecosystem and the consequent degradation of the mangrove cover and its primary

productivity.

Fig. 7: Settlements near the intertidal zone

Settlement inside the MPAs (figure 7) have as well negative impact in the wetlands, due

destruction, waste from households and use of the surrounding as sanitary purposes.

19

Dam Construction

It is suspected that the damming of Bintang Bolong on the Senegalese side reduced the flushing

effect of the tributary inducing hypersalinity and therefore weakening of the trees. The trees then

became susceptible to fungal attacks resulting in rampant dying along the bolongs as indicated

below. The Avicenna is regenerating where the Rhizophora used to colonize. This is definitely

due to depositions and the consequent raising of the ground to a level too high for adequate

flushing required by the Rhizophora.

Mangrove Degradation

As mangroves are facultative halophytes, their growth can also be depressed by sodium chloride

deficiency in the external environment. They need limited amount of salt in the external medium,

and therefore any modification of the hydrological flow, like retreat of the salt front, will affect

the mangroves in that zone. High salinity can result to mangrove die-back as shown below.

Fig 8: A Scenery of Mangrove Die-Back along Bintang bolong

The salinity data recorded by the Department of Water Resources at Bintang Bolong in 1974

and 2000 appears to validate this claim. Based on these data and the aforesaid observations from

previous studies, the following cause effect and hypothesis of death of mangroves can be

deduced:

The salinity level increased from 14.4 µS/m (micro Siemens per meter) in 1976 to 54.5

µS/m in year 2000. Although the mangrove species present in the Gambia and along the

Bintang Bolong in particular require a saline environment, hyper salinity can adversely

affect them (a given site is considered to be hyper saline when the surface or interstitial

soil level exceeds that prevailing in the sea, which averages about 35 µS/m, (Lugo A.E,

1980) in most areas. Thus the 54.5 µS/m recorded at the Bintang Bolong (figure 8) far

exceeded the medium required for mangrove growth.

20

Since the local climatic and edaphic factors have a definite effect on the mangrove die-

back, the drought of the seventies also contributed to the phenomenon. In fact the die

back occurred during the period from early 1970s through to the second half of the 1980s

which was also the drought period in The Gambia

Patches of dead Rhizophora mangroves mainly along the small bolongs between

Sambang Tenda and Kaur on the North Bank can be attributed to rising topography

through deposition. The mangroves situated on the highest parts of the bolongs do not get

the required daily tidal flooding, therefore they start dying from the top.

2.6 None Point Sources

2.6.1 Urban Run-Off

Within the Tanbi Wetland National Park (a Marine Protected Area), close to the capital city is a

dumping place for groundnut shell. During the rainy season these shells are carried by running

water to the river, (figure 9). The other problem is the settlement of about 10 to 15 huts

established next to the estuary for temporal and permanent stays during the working times,

besides it is an evident to find tires (figure 10) and other rubbish thrown within wetland areas

that are carried by run-offs and deposited in the mangrove areas.

Fig. 9: Groundnut shells dumped at the Tanbi Fig:10 Deposits of Tires and rubbish in the

mangroves

2.6.2 Agriculture and Horticultural Run-Off

Agricultural empiétement has also played an important role in habitat loss and fragmentation.

Coupled with the high population pressure and as a result increasing demand on the available

land. The extension of agricultural land area has significantly reduced the size of natural habitats.

The farming systems have diverged from subsistence family food production to extensive cash

Crop production which have led to deforestation and shortening of fallow periods. These

processes have eroded the country's biological diversity without any significant increase in farm

yield. For example, over 22% of original forest area was destroyed between 1982-1989 (Ridder,

1991) with a corresponding increase in agricultural land.

21

2.6.3 Coastal erosion

The Gambian coastal and marine biodiversity is seriously threatened by coastal erosion and sand

mining. The rate of erosion of The Gambian coastline has been estimated to be 1-2 metres per

year amounting to a land loss averaging 2.5 -3.0 ha of land per year or 200,000 - 300,000 m3 per

year (Delft hydraulics, 1992).

2.6.4 Landfills and hazardous Waste sites Sanitation

Infrastructures for solid waste management are inadequate. Through the Poverty Alleviation &

Capacity Building Project implemented by GAMWORKS; Bakoteh Dumpsite will be re-

engineered into a more environmentally friendly landfill site. However, there is need for

investment in the heavy equipment necessary for the management of the dumpsite. Furthermore,

Bakoteh is a short-term solution, as it is supposed to be closed in 3 years time. Work on a new

landfill site need to be started as soon as possible. In this regard, the Louis Berger Report on

Waste Management in the Greater Banjul Area, includes the feasibility studies for other landfill

site suggested at Tambana, is relevant.

2.7 Areas of Concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable)

The Coastal strip has been subjected to considerable pressure from human activity for many

decades. Tourism development has contributed in the degradation of the natural habitat and the

ecosystem in the processes of infrastructural development, besides light from hotels and noise

from activities taking place at the beach forbid turtle nesting along the beaches among others.

Fishing activities taking place close to the spawning areas are as well contributing to destruction

of the ecosystem, mangrove cutting for fish smoking, land clearing for agricultural development

and timber harvesting has had considerable impacts. The original primary habitat of the coastal

strip was closed woodland dominated by Rhum Palm (Borassus aethiopium), which has been

gradually disappearing and only remnants remain.

Forest clearance on a massive scale for agricultural development, urban growth and general

pressures from increasing population have reduced the extent, diversity and stability of the

coastal and marine ecosystem of Tujereng and Sanyang Forests.

The coastal zone, like the entire country, is generally low-lying barely a meter above sea level at

some points. The study, (Jallow et al., 1996), had indicated that a one-meter rise in sea level

would lead to the inundation of a total of 92,320,000sq km of land along the immediate coast

line. Apparently, low lying areas affected by this prediction are the critical ecosystems of the

Tanbi Wetland National Park, which amount to 6000ha of mangroves and also the Bijol Islands

that are identified as turtle and birds nesting grounds.

22

The estuarine zone of the River Gambia sea level rise may initially favor the mobilization and

export of materials from the wetland sediments, the same process could equally release

pollutants into aquatic system. The loose of estuarine mangrove are results of sea level rise,

among others, and are likely to have serious negative impacts on the fisheries as it provide

refuge, spawning, nursery grounds, feeding areas for crustaceans, shellfish, ocean nekton marine

and marine mammals

Wetlands of The Gambia are continually undergoing natural change due to subsidence, drought,

sea-level rise, or filling with sediment or organic material. Losses of wetlands in this country are

specifically due to intensive agriculture, industrial development, or residential uses.

Climatological change, eutrophication and bad fishing practices have degraded much of the

wetlands. The view that wetlands are wastelands, a view which results from ignorance or

misunderstanding of the value of the goods and services they provide, has also resulted in the

degradation of this valuable resource.

The Gambia possesses three distinct fish habitats: fresh, brackish water (Riverine) and marine

habitats. The country is not endowed with lacustrine habitats of significant size and importance.

The riverine system consists of numerous tributaries locally called bolongs, adjacent flood plains

and seasonal flood pools.

The Gambia possess both major fish habitats (Marine and Riverine fish habitats), with more than

800 freshwater and marine species. The marine waters contains more diverse fish species with

about 500 species while riverine system with the estuary included about 70 fish species (Albaret

et., al 2002)

Mangroves and other wetland ecosystems throughout The Gambia are threatened by

anthropogenic factors such as conversion to other land uses, overharvesting wetland products, etc

as well as natural factors such as mangrove die-back. This has led to the decline or disruption of

the ecological values provided by these ecosystems such fish breeding grounds, resulting in the

loss of some species.

Maine Protected Areas in the comprise more than 4.9% with the latest policy aiming at more

than 10% with a proportional regional distribution. The parks ( Niumi National Park, Tanji Bird

Reserve, Abuko Nature Reserve, Bao Bolon Wetland Reserve, Kiang West National Park. Tanbi

Wetland National Park and Bolong Fenyo Community Wildlife Reserve)and reserves of the

Gambia have been specially chosen for the endangered natured of the habitat type and/or species

found within them. The intention is to provide a safe haven for flora and fauna to flourish

without undue interference from man. A limited range of resource utilization by local

communities is permitted provided that, this is compatible with the aims and objectives of the

protected areas concerned. MPAs are face with numerous difficulties (technical and financial

capacities) and challenges, particularly Tanbi, which is located at capital city.

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3.0. Establishment of Priorities

General priorities established by government geared towards five pillars for national

development. This is highlighted in the Program for Accelerated Growth and Employment

(PAGE, 2012-2015), which replaces the Poverty Reduction Strategic Plan (PRSP). The pillars

are as following:

1. Accelarating and Sustainable Economic growth; fisheries, agriculture, trade, forestry

and tourism

2. Improving and Modernizing Infrastructure: Energy, Information, Communication and

Infrastructure.

3. Strengthening Human Capital Stock to Enhance Employment Opportunities; Health,

Education Water and Sanitation.

4. Improving Governance and Fighting Corruption; Civil service Reform, Public

procurement, Public Financial Management, Decentralized land Use Planning and

Community Development.

5. Reinforcing Social Cohesion and Crosscutting Interventions; gender, population, data

and Statistics, disability and social protection, nutrition, disaster management, HIV/AID

Embedded is a three years project titled; Enhance resilience for the coastal areas and

communities to climate change, lunched February 2014 (table 1) to be implemented by National

Environment Agency, Fisheries Department and other relevant institution. This project intends to

solve some of problems of coastal and marine degradation emanating from land base pollution. It

further attempts introduce alternatives to livelihood for resilience from the coastal and marine

ecosystem.

24

Table: 1 Funded Project by UNDP, Lunch February 2014 to be implemented

PRIORITY

LISTING

TITLE OF THE PROJECT COVERAGE COST

ESTIMATES

1 Restoration/Protection of coastal

environments

Banjul and Kanifing

Municipalities 2,300,000

2 Rehabilitation of Early Warning

Systems on Climate-Related Natural

Hazards

All Regions 450,000

3 Improvement of Fresh Water

Availability

All Regions 910,000.00

4 Diversification and Intensification of

Agricultural Production, Processing

and Marketing

Nationwide 2,710,000

5 Expansion of Community

Participation in the Management of

Forests and Protected Areas

All Regions 1,412,000

6 Expansion and Intensification of

Agro-forestry and Re-forestation

Activities

All Regions 2,753,000

7 Briquetting and Carbonization of

Groundnut Shells

Western Region, Banjul

Municipality 230,000

8 Reduction of climate change related

diseases

Kanifing Municipality,

Central River and Upper

River Regions

1,217,000

9 Improved livestock and rangeland

management for food security and

environmental sustainability

North Bank, Lower

River, and Upper River

Regions

2,800,000

10 Increasing fish production through

aquaculture and conservation of post

harvest fishery products

Coastal and inland zones 300,000

TOTAL 15,082,000

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3.1 Waste Management

Among these priorities is waste management study for the protection of the marine environment

among others; the study is to identify technically and economically sound waste collection,

treatment or disposal. In addition it will provide a solid waste management master plan

(SWMMP) for over 25 years planning period (National Water and Electricity Company, 2006).

3.2 Sanitation

Sanitary will be used as one of the most effective tools in measuring the health of the nation,

Operation Clean the Nation (OCN) which is conducted monthly (last Saturday of every month

from 9 am – 1 pm) is a national initiative and is meant to enhance the retention of public health

by removing garbage from households and public views. It is an effective tool in measuring the

health of the nation coordinated by, National Environmental Agency (NEA), partnered with all

relevant stakeholders.

Coastal sanitary control has been conducted for shellfish because of the direct relationship

between pollution of shellfish habitat areas and the transmission of diseases to humans. Shellfish

borne infectious diseases generally are transmitted via a faecal-oral route. The cycle usually

begins with faecal contamination of the shellfish growing waters. Sources of such contamination

are many and varied.

Contamination by human activities carried via runoff, dumping and direct discharges are due

cause for shellfish pollutions, particularly Clams, oysters and mussels. During feeding large

quantities of water are pumped through their bodies during normal feeding process. The shellfish

also concentrate microorganisms, which may include pathogenic microbes, and synthetic organic

contaminants. To reduce the human health risk of consuming shellfish from contaminated areas,

it is imperative that shellfish growing areas are free from pollution and the hygienic and sanitary

conditions of the environments are improved.

Water quality assessment is on going for the suitability of water quality for its intended uses

(purposes). National Research Institute (NARI) under its Participatory Integrated Management of

Invasive Aquatic Weeds Project funded this assessment program. The staffs of Water Quality

Division, under the Department of Water Resources collaboratively carry out this program.

Samplings are done at strategic points along the streams (subsequently analyzed), bolongs

(streams), tributaries and the River Gambia from the coast to inland waters.

3.3 Aquaculture practices

As an alternative to capture fisheries, aquaculture contributes to alleviating poverty and

facilitating improvement of the nutritional standard of the population. Aquaculture development

has been established for both fin fisheries and shell fisheries, funded by UNDP to enhance

resilience on coastal areas and communities. Though it is new here, but considering its expansion

in future can result to pollutant, discharges from aquaculture contains lots of organic matter from

26

left over feed and also contains large quantity of chemicals such as anti-biotic use in shrimp

farming. These pollutants can as well increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD), which can

result to fish kills through suffocation. Escape of exotic species can result to biological pollution.

3.4 Oyster Culture as a Protective Measure

The shellfish fishery of The Gambia is characterized by oyster harvesting and cockle gathering,

processing are done along the river estuary, tributaries (“Bolongs”) of the river, lagoons and in

wetland areas. Oyster and cockle business is an important source of livelihood for many people

(Jola) resident in wetland areas (figure 11), the majority of who are women. Harvesting of oyster

from mangroves (figure12) was unsustainably done. The method of harvesting damages the

mangroves when chopped off the mangroves stems or sometimes harvests juvenile leading to

destructive fisheries. To reduce pressure on the natural resource sustainable method of harvesting

cockles are established through oyster culture (figure 13) and use of baskets with holes for

collecting cockles, letting the juveniles to drop back to the mud.

Fig 11: Women thought how to picking cockles Fig12: oysters on mangroves

Fig13: Ropes deep in water for culture

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3.5 Management Objectives for Priority Problems

Government in partnership with FAO/DFID/SFLP in W/A focus on how to reducing poverty and

improving livelihood of the fisheries dependent communities. As part of planning, formulation of

proposed SFLP and its profiling study in the coastal and inlands fisheries communities

formulated objectives such as:

To Identify who are poor in fishing communities

To find their located

To find out how many are they and why

To establish a baseline information on livelihood of project beneficiaries.

Back to the Land is another initiative undertaken by government. For all wherever possible to be

engage in agricultural activities. Initiated for cultivating what we eat and eat what are cultivated

as means of securing food for all.

3.5.1 Objectives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems

Promote integrated coastal and marine management

Control coastal erosion, sand mining and marine pollution

Control the introduction of alien species into the marine environment

Protect the mangrove habitats along the shores of the River Gambia.

Rehabilitate the degraded mangrove areas and wetlands

Develop a wetlands policy

Create awareness about the importance of wetlands and methods for their wise use.

Carry out a survey of wetlands to assess their size and distribution, composition

3.5.2 Health Objectives:

To measure health of the nation

To ensure that household waste are in bins

Coastal and marine environment are free from waste

3.5.3 The objectives of National Shellfish Sanitation Programme are based on:

Evaluation of the pollution sources of the shoreline for accurate assessment at the Tanbi estuary

(at the coast opening to the ocean) detecting the effect of water quality for shellfish growing and

harvesting, with the intention of recommending to competent authorities on closures of polluted

28

areas for shellfish harvesting and growing. These objectives are based on biological, ecological,

social and economic issues.

3.5.4 Biological Objective:

Sustainable harvesting of the cockle and oyster resources that prevents small sized

juveniles from being harvested and allows larger more valuable oysters and cockles to be

harvested.

3.5.5 Ecological Objective:

Maintain the health and functioning of the mangrove ecology, thereby protecting

important habitats of oysters and other shellfish, finfish, and marine mammals including

the West African manatee.

3.5.6 Social Objective:

Strengthen Community Participation in planning, implementation and decision making in

the rational and sustainable use and management of the oyster and cockle resources.

3.5.7 Economic Objective:

Access to improved markets, financing, and poverty reduction among oyster harvesters.

Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (ICAM II) Project funded by the

PRCM. And World Wide Fund for nature (WWF) in collaboration with the Department of Parks

and Wildlife (DPWM) implemented the Project. The objective is to conserve and sustainably

manage globally significant biodiversity in coastal, marine and wetland ecosystems in The

Gambia and to transfer those lessons to Senegal and Guinea Bissau. They iintervened in four key

areas of Conservation in Gambia to:

Improve the surrounding communities Livelihood

Habitats and species conservation

Build institutions capacity for conservation

Conduct Research to improve knowledge and understanding.

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4.0 Identification, Evaluation and Selection of Strategies and Measures

Back to the Land is an initiative for all in the country to be engaged in agricultural activities.

Besides sanitation provision is another effective tools the government is using to obtain a healthy

nation, Operation Clean the Nation (OCN) which is conducted monthly (last Saturday of every

month) is one national initiative to enhance the retention of public health by removing garbage

from households and public views. In response to this national initiative, National Environmental

Agency (NEA) being the coordinating agency in collaboration with relevant stakeholders;

Household, streets, wetland sites, beaches, etc. are cleaned on selected last Saturdays of each

month. Transport provided for waste collection and dumped at the Bakoteh dump site, a legal

dump site recommended by the state for dumping of refuse within KMC by both public and

private waste collectors.

The communities around the Bolongs were selected based on the intensity of the die back, the

suitability of the site for mangrove reforestation and the level of the impact on the livelihood of

the communities were taken into consideration. This was initiated by World Wide Fund for

Nature (WWF), with full participation of the affected communities. This was done to develop

their skills and knowhow to ensure sustainability through taking ownership of the initiative.

The project preceding encouraged and promoted partnership with community Base

Organizations, Village Development Committees (VDCs), involved in environmental oriented

activities as entry points to penetrate the communities and to acquire local confidence and

commitment.

Memorandum of Understanding signed with Community and Youth Development Association.

The project supported the association with funds to conduct sensitization on mangrove planting

prior to the planting dates, collection of propagules (figure 14), simple tools or materials required

for the planting exercise, food for the communities during planting and T-shirts to publicize the

initiative. The association was responsible for the restoration of the degraded sites.

Fig.14: Team collecting matured propagules Fig. 15 Strorage method of propagules

30

Participants involved were trained on identifying of matured propagules and the methods of

collection and storage (figure 15). This was done to ensure that immature propagules are not

harvested which may not subsequently sprout when planted. The project supported the

communities by hiring a pirogue to take the teams to the collection sites and as well as other

necessary logistics for the collectors during the days of collection. Planting is done in two meter

rows as indicated in (figure 17).

Fig. 16: Removing the caps covering the shoots fig.17: planting 2meters between rows

Natural resource mandatory institutions have developed strategic action plans driven from the

sector policies to manage the countries natural resources. Strategic dump sites have been

identified (Bakoteh), hazardous chemical band, Marine protected areas created, penalties for

illegal dumping, discharge of household waste in the open environment forbidden, fishing with

wrong mesh sizes and landing of juvenile fish forbidden , cutting of mangroves, etc.

A participatory approach, formulated to build consensus and mutual understanding, involving all

elements of the sectors. The strategies developed focused on two approaches; macro-economic

and sectoral policies, aimed at alleviating poverty and improving social services and people

centre participatory process which involved local communities in managing their development.

4.1 Protected Areas as Adaptive Measures

West Africa sub-region has developed strong policy for protected areas and marine protected

areas to provide refuge to significant biodiversity. Management Plans for PAs and species are

being implementing in this regard.

Co-management and seasonal closure of fisheries is another adaptive measure taken by

governments and fisher folks. Artisanal Fisheries Associations have taken the initiative to set

aside 1 nautical mile no fish zone starting from the beach to protect the juveniles.

Regular monitoring of species and habitats, recognized as a tool to take relevant measures to

changing features is being implemented (ecological surveys, dolphin, marine turtle surveys, PA

rapid assessment, etc.) for many species including the fisheries such as Department of Parks and

Wildlife, Fisheries Department, National Environment Agency, etc.

31

4.2 Village gardening as an alternative

Village gardening is used to conservation and improved livelihood of the MPA‟s surrounding

communities. Sustainable activities such as modern beekeeping, ecotourism, organized

horticultural system using organic products, credit and saving system for women all combined

with adult literacy programs were all implemented by the same project.

Fig 18: Vegetable gardening

The process of implementing the biological gardening a consultant was hired to support the

implementation of the program for sustainable use and identify with local stakeholders to locate

four areas for the project funded gardens for the women, well digging, seed management, and

biological pesticide production. Well digging was identified as the second step to establish

sustainable biological gardening. Through Water Resources Department qualified contractor‟s

services digging of the wells.

4.3 Village Banking

For each village bank (figure 19), the ICAM II project initially invested €1, 300.00 as loan to

fifty women, each receiving €26.00. At the end of each month a woman saves in the bank a

minimum of €1.00. At the end six-month period (or cycle) each of the fifty women in a bank

saves a minimum of €6.00. At the end of a cycle, the fifty women saved a minimum of €300.00.

At the end of 2011 the total savings for the ten banks amounted to € 11, 325.00 representing 31%

of the savings.

To reducing pressure on natural resources and alleviating poverty by supporting income

generating activities, social cohesion were strengthened. This will in turn protect the natural

resources in line with assisting them develop sustainable livelihood activities as an alternative.

32

Fig 19: Women village banking

4.4 Erosion Control

Series of actions have been taken by our government to protect our coast and the biodiversity,

such as the rhun palm (stem of a palm tree) groynes, beach nourishment, construction of sea

wall, etc. to contain coastal erosion.

5.0 Criteria for Evaluating the Effectiveness Strategies and Measures

The Program for Accelerating Growth and Employment 2012 – 2015 (PAGE) development

program commits itself to conserve and promote the rational use of the nation's natural resources

and environment for the benefit of present and future generations in a manner that is consistent

with the overall goal of sustainable development at all levels. The PAGE is in harmony with the

Gambia Environment Action Plan (GEAP).

Reports of different studies conducted nationwide on environmental protection and improvement

of the wellbeing of the people, waste management and landfill strategic locations, sureline

sanitation, poverty reduction, national biodiversity strategic action plans, Gambia environmental

action plan, among others has indicated achievement to some degree of the outcomes, practically

water quality, sanitation, environmental management (mangrove planting, marine protected

areas, use of organic for horticulture production, aquaculture, community involvement in

management issues, etc.). Though there‟s need for enhance capacity building, sensitization on

contaminates management and more research to be conducted to enhance management efforts.

6.0 Program Support Elements

Various legal, policy and institution measures were taken by government to promote the

conservation and sustainable use of her biodiversity. The earlier approach was to develop sector

specific laws and policies. However, the most recent policy initiatives have adopted new

strategies focusing on institutional strengthening of administrative and legislative capacities,

public education to create greater awareness, community conservation and research. Several

cross-sectoral policies, legislation and action plans, such as the GEAP have been developed.

Specific commitment biodiversity conservation stretches from 1977, when the President made a

33

declaration on conservation of wild flora and fauna, which is popularly known as The Banjul

Declaration.

In the wildlife sector, the initial policy strategy was to set up a system of protected areas and a

total of six national parks were established. The new policy objective is to increase national

parks to 5% of total land area and putting emphasis on community conservation. In the fisheries

sector, the broad policy objectives are to encourage rational exploitation of coastal and inland

fisheries, to increase employment, maximize foreign exchange earnings and to improve the

nutritional standard of the population. This is based on the strategy of expanding extension

efforts and facilities by strengthening the operational capacity of the department of fisheries,

undertaking basic research on fishery resources and detailed surveys to establish sustainable

yields, and the protection of the territorial water. Recently, the Government has also adopted the

policy of involvement of the local communities in the management of aquatic and fisheries

resources.

6.1 Relevant National Policies for the Management of the Environment

Presently, legislation and controls are the major means to protect the environment from the

negative impacts of human activities. The concept of shared responsibility is being increasingly

advocated. This approach involves all economic players including government, public and

private enterprise and above all the general public, both as citizens and consumers.

6.2 Integrated Coastal and Marine Conservation and Management (ICAM)

The DPWM secured funding from Global Environment facility for integrated coastal and marine

management. This project collected national baseline information on marine turtles and

cetaceans for the elaboration of a national conservation plan, as well as promoting public

education and awareness. The DPWM collaborated with the Department of Fisheries, fishing

communities and a local NGO, the Gunjur Environmental Protection and Development Group

(GEPADG), to conduct marine mammals monitoring activities along the coast.

6.3 Institutional Framework for Natural Resources Management

The following are legal instruments for environmental protection and natural resources

management that have implications for the coastal environment and marine environment

activities:

34

Institutional Acts:

National Environmental Management Act, 1994

In 1994, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) establishing a National

Environment Management Council (NEMC) and a National Environmental Management

Agency was enacted.

Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides Control Management Act, 1994

The purpose of the Act is the control and management of the manufacture, distribution and use

of hazardous chemicals and pesticides. The Act establishes a Hazardous Chemicals And

Pesticides Control Management Board responsible for the registration, control, and management

of all hazardous chemicals and pesticides in the country.

Environmental Protection (Prevention of Dumping) Act, 1988

The Act makes provision for the prevention of the dumping of industrial wastes and for the

protection of the environment. This Act defines dumping as "any disposal of wastes into land

within The Gambia or into any waters under the jurisdiction of The Gambia".

environment initiatives, appears to be the involvement of user groups and local communities,

mechanisms for cooperation between administrations, legal provisions needs to provide a strong

structure, including local, and national elements to reflect the needs of different areas, and

clearly stated objectives.

National Water Resources Council Act

The Act establishes National Water Resources Council, which is vested with the responsibility,

inter alia, of formulating the policy of the Government on water resources development, water

utilization and conservation, and of anything incidental to the development and utilization of

water resources. The Council is also required to approve plans submitted by the National Water

Resources Committee, which is also established under the Act.

Local Government Act, 2002

The Banjul City Council, the Kanifing Municipal Council (KMC) and the Brikama area council

are the three urban councils of the Gambia. KMC was part of the Brikama District Council until

1963 when the Government established the Kanifing Urban District Council (KUDC). In 1990

the KUDC was upgraded to a municipality by the KMC Act 1990. This Act was repealed in

April 2002 and replaced by the Local Government Act 2002 (LGA 2002), which establishes and

35

regulates a decentralized local Government system and specifies the functions, powers and duties

of established local authorities.

The Local Government Act provides for setting standards and guidelines in liaison with NEA at

the national level. The Councils, under the LGA has the authority to enter, examine any land or

premises within its jurisdiction, for the purpose of carrying out any inspection, inquiry under the

act or by-laws of the Council. The Act also confers to the Councils authority to arrest without

warrant any person it reasonably believes has committed an offence against the provisions of the

Act or any order, by law or regulation made under it. Thus the councils have the powers to

prevent illegal dumping of solid waste within their jurisdiction.

Public Health Act, 1990

The Public Health Act was enacted to make provision for public and environmental health and

connected matters. The Act empowers the Minister to make regulations relating to the collection,

removal and sanitary disposal of rubbish, night soil and other offending matter. The Act also

mandates the Director of Health Services, who heads the Department of Public Health (DPH),

inter alia, to abate nuisances and to remove or correct any condition that may be injurious to

public health.

Ports Act (1972)

The Authority established under the Act is required among other things to prevent pollution in

Gambian waters. The Port (Wharves) Regulations, 1972 made pursuant to the Act prohibits the

dumping of dirt, ashes, bottles, stones, ballast, cargo or anything of a like nature into the water

from any wharf.

Factories Regulations

Regulation 20 of the Factories Regulations made pursuant to The Factories Act, 1941 makes

provision for the disposal of waste by requiring the occupier to remove all refuse and waste

products from the factory at daily intervals on any day that the factory is used, and disposed of in

a manner that satisfies the Factories Board.

Physical Planning and Development Control Act, 1990

The Planning Board established under the Act is mandated to prepare development plans

generally indicating, among others things, the different land-use zones and utilities services.

Development Control Regulations, 1995

These Regulations were made pursuant to the Physical Planning and Development Control Act,

1991. The Regulations lays down certain guidelines in relation to development structures. The

36

thrust of the regulations in relation to waste management is contained in regulations 79 to 98. In

a nutshell, these provisions lay down the requirements for sanitation, drainage and disposal of

waste from premises and public utilities.

National Water and Electricity Corporation (NAWEC)

NAWEC is a private limited liability company providing a public service. It is also considered to

be a governmental parastatal subject to the Public Enterprises Act for supply of water; and the

provision, operation and maintenance of sewerage facilities and services.

It should be noted that there is no specific legislation dealing with electrical power in the country

and the manner by which waste oil from generators of NAWEC or similar institutions are to be

disposed of. The only legislation that deals specifically with the prevention of the discharge of

oil on land is section 38(1) of NEMA.

There are considerable legislative and policy frameworks for the protection of the biological

resources. Key elements for the success of marine and coastal environment initiatives, appears to

be the involvement of user groups and local communities, mechanisms for cooperation between

administrations, legal provisions needs to provide a strong structure, including local, and national

elements to reflect the needs of different areas, and clearly stated objectives.

Marine protected areas (MPA) may help maintain relatively healthy fish stocks, but need Law

enforcement due to illegal human activities such as; waste dumping, fishing, agricultural

activities, etc.

All proposed developments within the limits of the wetland complex are subjected to a full

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) by the National Environment Agency to:

Ensure that environmental issues are taken into consideration in a projects life, from

consideration to implementation.

Ensure that development projects are environmentally appropriate among other things.

Consequently The Gambia has become a signatory and a party to various regional and

international treaties and agreements, which are related to or affect biodiversity, including the

sustainable management of wetlands. The international conventions include the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora (CITES) Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,

Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and The International Conservation Union (IUCN).

The regional agreements to which The Gambia is a party include the Convention for Cooperation

in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and

Central African region (WACAF), the Algiers Convention on the Conservation of Nature and

37

Natural Resources. Recently, the country signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with

the Republic of Senegal for the transboundary management of the protected area of Nuimi and

Delta du Saloum National Parks located in The Gambia and Senegal respectively. This MOU

could form the basis for the transboundary management of the Delta by the two countries.

7.0 The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

As a party to the Ramsar convention certain wetlands have been declared as Ramsar sites and

have therefore been given a protected status by The Gambia Government and are recognized for

the value of their wildlife. They are among the most productive of the world‟s ecosystems and

have vital importance for biodiversity.

The Gambia ratified the Ramsar Convention on the 26th of March 1996. Following this, the Bao-

Bolong Wetland Reserve was designated as Ramsar site, and later the Tan- Bi wetland was also

declared as a Ramsar Site. It is proposed that Niumi National Park be also designated as another

Ramsar Site in the near future.

These sites have been selected by the Government of The Gambia for their importance and value

as habitats for a variety of wildlife including birds and mammals, and their functions in the

maintenance of a healthy environment.

8.0 Environmental Education

Environmental education has been introduced in the educational policy programs which have

been integrated into school‟s curricula. Training institutions, universities and other educational

institutions to sensitize and build awareness in basic and higher educational institutions. In

building environmental awareness on wetlands different forms of educational systems has been

applied such as formal, non-formal and informal.

9.0 Conclusion

The protection of coastal and marine environment from land base pollution is a priority for the

government and is in line with development issues undertaken for conservation of the

biodiversity and habitat. It is in the policy objectives mandatory departments to protect and

conserve the country‟s biodiversity and habitat, but there is an inadequate technical and financial

resource to conduct some of the activities.

Liter is at large quantity particularly in wetland areas and at street corners despite the regular

monthly nationwide cleaning and anti littering law. Another problem is illegal dumping and open

landfills which hazardoze particularly during the rainy seasons, hazardoze materials are carried

by run-offs to the main river.

38

Agricultural activities close to the wetland should be in line with environmentally friendly

organics without degradation of the marine ecosystem. The previous beach nourishment is not

successful, which should be further research on for protection of the coastal area.

Natural resource law enforcement remains to be enhancing for conservation and protection of the

marine and coastal environment, coupled with, awareness on the effects of pollution on human

health and biodiversity.

39

REFRENCES

Albaret J.J et. al., 2002 Fish communities of the Gambia Estuary

Bakurin, N.S, 2010: Etude Suividu Trait de Cote et Mise en Place d‟Un Schema Directeur du

Littoral Ouest Africain. Dianostic en Gambie

Cham. A.M & Touray.O, 2008: Oyster and Cockles Study in The Gambia

DIOUF, (2012) Integrated coastal area and marine biodiversity management project phase II:

Component 1: conservation, MPA‟s, Species and Habitats. Between 2008 and 2012. 23pp.

Ellison.J, et el., 2012: Climate Change Vulnebility Assessment and Adaptation Planning for

Mangrove Systems

FAO. 1994. Integrated Coastal Area Management Project for The Gambia. Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations.

Gambia- Senegal Sustainable Fisheries project 2012: United States Agency for International

Development. Coastal Resource Centre, University of Rhode Island and The Gambia

National Environment Agency. 2010. State of the Environment Report, The Gambia. Kanifing,

The Gambia Republic of The Gambia, WWF, and PRCM, 2012.

Programme for Accelerated Growth and Employment (PAGE) 2012-2015. Ministry of Finance

and Economic Affairs. 154pp.

Report Department of State for Finance and Economic Affairs Banjul, November 2006: Poverty

Strategy 2007-2011. Banjul. The Gambia

Report, Wetlands National Park Sanitary Shoreline Survey, 2012: Shellfish Harvesting

Communities, Gambia-Senegal Sustainable Fisheries Project (USAID/Ba Nafaa).

Report on Fisheries Frame Survey, 2006: Gambia Artisanal Fisheries Development Project.

Banjul. The Gambia

Report of The Gambia. 2006. Water Supply and Sanitation Study, Banjul. The Gambia

Report on Operation Clean the Nation, 2014: National Environment Agency, Banjul The Gambia

Republic of The Gambia. 1992. The Gambia Environmental Action Plan, First Phase (GEAP I)

1992‐2001.

Republic of The Gambia. 2003. Biodiversity/Wildlife Act 2003. Banjul, The Gambia.

40

Republic of The Gambia. 1994. National Environment Management Act 1994. Banjul, The

Gambia.

Republic of The Gambia. 1996. The Gambia Incorporated: Vision 2020. Banjul, The Gambia.

Republic of The Gambia. 1999. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Terminal Evaluation Report – Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (ICAM)

II Project. 19pp.

The Louis Bergtyer Group, Inc., 2003: Pover Alleviation and Capacity Building Project – Solid

Waste Management Study for the Greater Banjul Area and Brikama. Gambia. 31pp

United Nations Development Program, 2012-2016: Enhance Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal

Areas and Communities to Climate Change, Banjul. The Gambia

Vandaele. M & Wynckel D. V, 2010 – 2011: Implementation of a Sustainable Project in the

Tanbi Wetland National Park, Banjul. The Gambia. 198pp

Vulnerability Assessment of Central Coastal Senegal (Saloum)and the Gambia Marine Coast and

Estuary to Climate Change Induced Effects, 2012: Consolidated Report Gambia- Senegal

Sustainable Fisheries Project. USAID/BA NAFAA Banjul, The Gambia

41

APPENDIX

METHODOLOGY FOR THE REPORT

The major threats to the health and productivity and biodiversity of the marine environment

result from human activities on land -in coastal areas and further inland. Most of the pollution

load of the oceans, including municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as

atmospheric deposition, emanates from such land-based activities and affects the most

productive areas of the marine environment, including estuaries and near-shore coastal waters.

These areas are likewise threatened by physical alteration of the coastal environment, including

destruction of habitats of vital importance for ecosystem health. Moreover, contaminants which

pose risks to human health and living resources are transported long distances by watercourses,

ocean currents and atmospheric processes.

The bulk of the world's population lives in coastal areas, and there is a continuing trend towards

its concentration in these regions. The health, well-being and, in some cases, the very survival of

coastal populations depend upon the health and well-being of coastal systems -estuaries and

wetlands -as well as their associated watersheds and drainage basins and near-shore coastal

waters. Ultimately, sustainable patterns of human activity in coastal areas depend upon a healthy

marine environment, and vice versa.

Aims of the Global Programme of Action

The Global Programme of Action aims at preventing the degradation of the marine environment

from land-based activities by facilitating the realization of the duty of States to preserve and

protect the marine environment. It is designed to assist States in taking actions individually or

jointly within their respective policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the prevention,

reduction, control and/or elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to

its recovery from the impacts of land-based activities. Achievement of the aims of the

Programme of Action will contribute to maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the

42

productive capacity and biodiversity of the marine environment, ensuring the protection of

human health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine living

resources.

The global programme of action

The Programme of Action, therefore, is designed to be a source of conceptual and practical

guidance to be drawn upon by national and/or regional authorities in devising and implementing

sustained action to prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based

activities.

Effective implementation of this Programme of Action is a crucial and essential step forward in

the protection of the marine environment and will promote the objectives and goals of

sustainable development.

The Global Programme of Action reflects the fact that States face a growing number of

commitments flowing from Agenda 21 and related conventions. Its implementation will require

new approaches by, and new forms of collaboration among, Governments, organizations and

institutions with responsibilities and expertise relevant to marine and coastal areas, at all levels -

national, regional and global. These include the promotion of innovative financial mechanisms to

generate needed resources.

Objectives

To develop comprehensive, continuing and adaptive programmes of action within the framework

of integrated coastal area management which should include provisions for:

(a) Identification and assessment of problems;

(b) Establishment of priorities;

(c) Setting management objectives for priority problems;

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(d) Identification, evaluation and selection of strategies and measures, including

management approaches;

(e) Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of strategies and programmes;

(f) Programme support elements.

Actions

States should, in accordance with their policies, priorities and resources, develop or review

national programmes of action within a few years and take forward action to implement these

programmes with the assistance of the international cooperation identified in chapter IV, in

particular to developing countries, especially the least developed countries, countries with

economies in transition and small island developing States (hereinafter referred to as "countries

in need of assistance"). The effective development and implementation of national programmes

of action should focus on sustainable, pragmatic and integrated environmental management

approaches and processes, such as integrated coastal area management, harmonized, as

appropriate, with river basin management and land-use plans.

Recommended actions to give effect to the objectives in the development of national

programmes of action by States are summarized in sections A, B, C, D, E and F below. They are

illustrated in more detail in the actions and targets identified in chapter V below.

A. IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEMS

The identification and assessment of problems is a process of combining five elements:

(a) Identification of the nature and severity of problems in relation to:

(i) Food security and poverty alleviation;

(ii) Public health;

(iii) Coastal and marine resources and ecosystem health, including biological diversity;

44

(iv) Economic and social benefits and uses, including cultural values;

(b) Contaminants:

(i) Sewage;

(ii) Persistent organic pollutants;

(iii) Radioactive substances;

(iv) Heavy metals;

(v) Oils (hydrocarbons);

(vi) Nutrients;

(vii) Sediment mobilization;

(viii) Litter;

(c) Physical alteration, including habitat modification and destruction in areas of concern;

(d) Sources of degradation:

(i) Point sources (coastal and upstream), such as:

a. Waste-water treatment facilities;

b. Industrial facilities;

c. Power plants;

d. Military installations;

e. Recreational/tourism facilities;

f. Construction works (e.g., dams, coastal structures, harbour works and urban

expansion);

g. Coastal mining (e.g., sand and gravel);

h. Research centres;

i. Aquaculture;

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j. Habitat modification (e.g., dredging, filling of wetlands or clearing of mangrove

areas);

k. Introduction of invasive species;

(ii) Non-point (diffuse) sources (coastal and upstream), such as:

a. Urban run-off;

b. Agricultural and horticultural run-off;

c. Forestry run-off;

d. Mining waste run-off;

e. Construction run-off;

f. Landfills and hazardous waste sites;

g. Erosion as a result of physical modification of coastal features;

(iii) Atmospheric deposition caused by:

a. Transportation (e.g., vehicle emissions);

b. Power plants and industrial facilities;

c. Incinerators;

d. Agricultural operations;

(e) Areas of concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable):

(i) Critical habitats, including coral reefs, wetlands, seagrass beds, coastal lagoons and

mangrove forests;

(ii) Habitats of endangered species;

(iii) Ecosystem components, including spawning areas, nursery areas, feeding grounds

and adult areas;

(iv) Shorelines;

(v) Coastal watersheds;

(vi) Estuaries and their drainage basins;

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(vii) Specially protected marine and coastal areas; and (viii) Small islands.

B. ESTABLISHMENT OF PRIORITIES

Priorities for action should be established by assessing the five factors described above and

should specifically reflect:

(a) The relative importance of impacts upon food security, public health, coastal and marine

resources, ecosystem health, and socio-economic benefits, including cultural values, in relation

to:

(i) Source-categories (contaminants, physical alteration, and other forms of degradation

and the source or practice from which they emanate);

(ii) The area affected (including its uses and the importance of its ecological

characteristics);

(b) The costs, benefits and feasibility of options for action, including the long-term cost of no

action. In the process of establishing priorities for action and throughout all stages of developing

and implementing national programmes of action, States should:

(i) Apply integrated coastal area management approaches, including provision to involve

stakeholders, in particular local authorities and communities and relevant social and

economic sectors, including non-governmental organizations, women, indigenous people

and other major groups;

(ii) Recognize the basic linkages between the freshwater and marine environments

through, inter alia, application of watershed management approaches;

(iii) Recognize the basic linkages between sustainable management of coastal and marine

resources, poverty alleviation and protection of the marine environment;

(iv) Apply environmental impact assessment procedures in assessing options;

(v) Take into account the need to view such programmes as an integrated part of existing

or future comprehensive environmental programmes;

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(vi) Take steps to protect: (i) critical habitats, using community-based participatory

approaches that are consistent with current approaches to conservation and uses

compatible with sustainable development; and (ii) endangered species;

(vii) Integrate national action with any relevant regional and global priorities,

programmes and strategies;

(viii) Establish focal points to facilitate regional and international cooperation;

(ix) Apply the precautionary approach and the principle of intergenerational equity.

The precautionary approach should be applied through preventive and corrective measures based

on existing knowledge, impact assessments, resources and capacities at national level, drawing

on pertinent information and analyses at the subregional, regional and global levels.

Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should

not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent the degradation of the

marine environment.

C. SETTING MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES FOR PRIORITY PROBLEMS

On the basis of the priorities established, States should define specific management objectives,

both with respect to source categories and areas affected. Such objectives should be set forth in

terms of overall goals, targets and timetables, as well as specific targets and timetables for areas

affected and for individual industrial, agricultural, urban and other sectors. Wherever possible,

States should take immediate preventive and remedial action using existing knowledge,

resources, plans and processes.

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D. IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF STRATEGIES AND

MEASURES

Strategies and programmes to achieve these management objectives should include a

combination of:

(a) Specific measures, including, as appropriate:

(i) Measures to promote sustainable use of coastal and marine resources and to

prevent/reduce degradation of the marine environment, such as:

a. Best available techniques (*) and best environmental practices, including

substitution of substances or processes entailing significant adverse effects;

b. Introduction of clean production practices, including efficient use of energy and

water in all economic and social sectors;

c. Application of best management practices;

d. Use of appropriate, environmentally sound and efficient technologies;

e. Product substitution;

(ii) Measures to modify contaminants or other forms of degradation after generation, such

as:

a. Waste recovery;

b. Recycling, including effluent reuse;

c. Waste treatment;

(iii) Measures to prevent, reduce or ameliorate degradation of affected areas, such as:

a. Environmental quality criteria, with biological, physical and/or chemical criteria

for measuring progress;

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b. Land-use planning requirements, including criteria for setting of major

facilities;

c. Rehabilitation of degraded habitats;

(b) Requirements and incentives to induce action to comply with measures, such as:

(i) Economic instruments and incentives, taking into account the "polluter pays" principle

and the internalization of environmental costs;

(ii) Regulatory measures;

(iii) Technical assistance/cooperation, including training of personnel;

* For the purposes of this Programme, "best available techniques" is understood to include

socioeconomic factors.

(iv) Education and public awareness;

(c) Identification/designation of the institutional arrangement with the authority and resources to

carry out management tasks associated with the strategies and programmes, including

implementation of compliance provisions;

(d) Identification of short-term and long-term data-collection and research needs;

(e) Development of a monitoring and environmental-quality reporting system to review and, if

necessary, help adapt the strategies and programmes;

(f) Identification of sources of finance and mechanisms available to cover the costs of

administering and managing the strategies and programmes.

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E. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF STRATEGIES AND

MEASURES

A key element in successful strategies and programmes is to develop ongoing means of

determining whether they are meeting their management objectives. States should develop

specific criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of such strategies and programmes. While such

criteria must be tailored to the particular mix of elements (illustrated in section C above) in each

strategy or programme, they should address:

(a) Environmental effectiveness;

(b) Economic costs and benefits;

(c) Equity (costs and benefits of the strategy or programme are being shared fairly);

(d) Flexibility in administration (the strategy or programme can adapt to changes in

circumstances);

(e) Effectiveness in administration (management of the strategy or programme is

costeffective and accountable);

(f) Timing (the timetable needed to put the strategy or programme in place and to begin

producing results);

(g) Inter-media effects (the achievement of the objectives of the strategy or programme

creates a net environmental benefit).

F. PROGRAMME SUPPORT ELEMENTS

The long-term objective of national programmes of action should be to develop integrated

strategies and programmes to address all action priorities in relation to impacts upon the marine

environment from land-based activities. In addition, the programmes of action must themselves

be integrated with overall national objectives and other relevant programmes in relation to

sustainable development. States therefore should seek to ensure that there are administrative and

management structures necessary to support the national programmes of action. These include,

as appropriate:

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(a) Organizational arrangements to coordinate among sectors and sectoral institutions;

(b) Legal and enforcement mechanisms (e.g., need for new legislation);

(c) Financial mechanisms (including innovative approaches to provide continuing and

predictable programme funding);

(d) Means of identifying and pursuing research and monitoring requirements in support of

the programme;

(e) Contingency planning;

(f) Human resources development and education;

(g) Public participation and awareness (e.g., based on integrated coastal area management

principles).