Globalization(orglobalisation) is the process of international integration arising from the interchange ofworld views, products, ideas, and other aspects ofculture.[1][2]Advances intransportationandtelecommunicationsinfrastructure, including the rise of thetelegraphand its posterity theInternet, are major factors in globalization, generating furtherinterdependenceof economic and cultural activities.[3]Though scholars place the origins of globalization inmodern times, others trace its history long before the Europeanage of discoveryand voyages to theNew World. Some even trace the origins to the third millennium BCE.[4][5]In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly.The term globalization has been increasingly used since the mid-1980s and especially since the mid-1990s.[6]In 2000, theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization:tradeandtransactions,capitalandinvestmentmovements,migrationand movement of people, and the dissemination ofknowledge.[7]Further, environmental challenges such asclimate change, cross-boundarywaterandair pollution, andover-fishingof the ocean are linked with globalization.[8]Globalizing processes affect and are affected bybusinessandworkorganization,economics,socio-culturalresources, and thenatural environment.Overview[edit]

Extent of theSilk RoadandSpice traderoutes owned by theOttoman Empirein 1453 spurring explorationHumans have interacted over long distances for thousands of years. The overlandSilk Roadthat connectedAsia,Africa, andEuropeis a good example of the transformative power of translocal exchange that existed in the "Old World". Philosophy, religion, language, the arts, and other aspects of culture spread and mixed as nations exchanged products and ideas. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans made important discoveries in their exploration of the oceans, including the start of transatlantic travel to the "New World" of theAmericas. Global movement of people, goods, and ideas expanded significantly in the following centuries. Early in the 19th century, the development of new forms of transportation (such as thesteamshipandrailroads) andtelecommunicationsthat "compressed" time and space allowed for increasingly rapid rates of global interchange.[9]In the 20th century,road vehicles,intermodal transport, andairlinesmade transportation even faster. The advent of electronic communications, most notablymobile phonesandthe Internet, connected billions of people in new ways by the year 2010.

Eastern Telegraph Company1901 chart of underseatelegraphcabling, an example of modern globalizingtechnologyin the beginning of the 20th century.

Airline personnel from the "Jet set" age, circa 1960.Etymology and usage[edit]The termglobalizationis derived from the wordglobalize, which refers to the emergence of an international network of economic systems.[10]One of the earliest known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled,Towards New Education, where it denoted a holistic view of human experience in education.[11]A related term,corporate giants, was coined byCharles Taze Russellin 1897[12]to refer to the largely national trusts and other large enterprises of the time. By the 1960s, both terms began to be used as synonyms by economists and other social scientists. EconomistTheodore Levittis widely credited with coining the term in an article entitled "Globalization of Markets", which appeared in the MayJune 1983 issue ofHarvard Business Review. However, the term 'globalization' was in use well before (at least as early as 1944) and had been used by other scholars as early as 1981.[13]Levitt can be credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in the later half of the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations, with antecedents dating back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15th century onwards.[14][15]Due to the complexity of the concept, research projects, articles, and discussions often remain focused on a single aspect of globalization.[1]Roland Robertson, professor of sociology at University of Aberdeen, an early writer in the field, defined globalization in 1992 as:...the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole.[16]SociologistsMartin Albrowand Elizabeth King define globalization as:...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society.[2]InThe Consequences of Modernity,Anthony Giddensuses the following definition:Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.[17]InGlobal TransformationsDavid Held, et al., study the definition of globalization:Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.[18]Swedish journalistThomas Larsson, in his bookThe Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization, states that globalization:is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.[19]The journalistThomas L. Friedmanpopularized the term"flat world", arguing thatglobalized trade,outsourcing,supply-chaining, and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow.[20]EconomistTakis Fotopoulosdefined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of commodity, capital and labor markets that led toward presentneoliberalglobalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational elite and a phasing out of thenation-state. "Cultural globalization", he used to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "ideologicalglobalization", "technologicalglobalization" and "socialglobalization".[21]Manfred Steger, professor ofGlobal Studiesand research leader in theGlobal Cities InstituteatRMIT University, identifies four main empiricaldimensions of globalization: economic, political, cultural, and ecological, with a fifth dimension - the ideological - cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself.[22]In 2000, theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization:tradeandtransactions,capitalandinvestmentmovements,migrationand movement of people and the dissemination ofknowledge.[7]With regards to trade and transactions, developing countries increased their share of world trade, from 19 percent in 1971 to 29 percent in 1999. However, there is great variation among the major regions. For instance, thenewly industrialized economies(NIEs) of Asia prospered, while African countries as a whole performed poorly. The makeup of a country's exports is an important indicator for success. Manufactured goods exports soared, dominated by developed countries and NIEs. Commodity exports, such as food and raw materials were often produced by developing countries: commodities' share of total exports declined over the period.Following from this, capital and investment movements can be highlighted as another basic aspect of globalization. Private capital flows to developing countries soared during the 1990s, replacing "aid" or "development assistance" which fell significantly after the early 1980s.Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) became the most important category. Both portfolio investment and bank credit rose but they have been more volatile, falling sharply in the wake of the financial crisis of the late 1990s. Themigrationand movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization process. In the period between 196590, the proportion of the labor forces migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between developing countries andLeast Developed Countries(LDCs).[23]Paul James, Director of theUnited Nations Global CompactCities Programme, argues that four different forms of globalization can also be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empiricaldimensions.[24]According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, includingimperialagents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement of commodities and other objects of exchange. The transmission of ideas, images, knowledge and information across world-space he calls disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of refugees and migrants are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most deregulated.[25]History[edit]Main article:History of globalizationSee also:Timeline of international tradeThere are bothdistal and proximate causeswhich can be traced in the historical factors affecting globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th century.[9]Archaic[edit]

Animated map showing the development ofcolonial empiresfrom 1492 to present.Main article:Archaic globalizationArchaic globalizationis seen as a phase in thehistory of globalizationconventionally referring to globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest civilizations until roughly the 1600s. This term is used to describe the relationships between communities and states and how they were created by the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.[26]In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur. The first is the idea of Eastern Origins, which shows how Western states have adapted and implemented learned principals from the East.[26]Without the traditional ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have emerged the way it did. The second is distance. The interactions amongst states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to Asia, North Africa, the Middle East and certain parts of Europe.[26]With early globalization it was difficult for states to interact with others that were not within close proximity. Eventually, technological advances allowed states to learn of others existence and another phase of globalization was able to occur. The third has to do withinterdependency, stability and regularity. If a state is not depended on another then there is no way for them to be mutually affected by one another. This is one of the driving forces behind global connections and trade; without either globalization would not have emerged the way it did and states would still be dependent on their own production and resources to function. This is one of the arguments surrounding the idea of early globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did not function in a similar manner to modern globalization because states were not as interdependent on others as they are today.[26]Also posited is a 'multi-polar' nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active participation of non-Europeans. Because it predated theGreat Divergenceof the nineteenth century, in whichWestern Europepulled ahead of the rest of the world in terms of industrial production and economic output, archaic globalization was a phenomenon that was driven not only byEuropebut also by other economically developedOld Worldcenters such asGujurat,Bengal, coastal China andJapan.[27]

PortuguesecarrackinNagasaki, 17th-century JapaneseNanban artTheGermanhistoricaleconomistandsociologistAndre Gunder Frankargues that a form of globalization began with the rise of trade links betweenSumerand theIndus Valley Civilizationin thethird millenniumB.C.E.Thisarchaic globalizationexisted during theHellenistic Age, when commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis ofGreekculture that reached fromIndiatoSpain, includingAlexandriaand the otherAlexandrinecities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece and the necessity ofimportingwheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain.[4]

NativeNew Worldcropsexchanged globally: Maize, tomato, potato,vanilla, rubber,cacao, tobaccoEarly modern[edit]Main article:Proto-globalization'Early modern-' or 'proto-globalization' covers a period of thehistory of globalizationroughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of 'proto-globalization' was first introduced by historiansA. G. HopkinsandChristopher Bayly. The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high 'modern globalization' in the late 19th century.[28]This phase of globalization was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16th and 17th centuries, first thePortugueseandSpanish Empires, and later theDutchandBritish Empires. In the 17th century, world trade developed further whenchartered companieslike theBritish East India Company(founded in 1600) and theDutch East India Company(founded in 1602, often described as the firstmultinational corporationin which stock was offered) were established.[29]Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the basis of expansionism, the method of managing global trade, and the level of information exchange. The period is marked by such trade arrangements as theEast India Company, the shift ofhegemonyto Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Year War, and a rise of new commodities most particularlyslave trade.The Triangular Trademade it possible for Europe to take advantage of resources within the western hemisphere. The transfer of animal stocks, plant crops and epidemic diseases associated withAlfred Crosby's concept ofThe Columbian Exchangealso played a central role in this process. Early modern trade and communications involved a vast group includingEuropean,Muslim,Indian,Southeast AsianandChinesemerchants, particularly in theIndian Oceanregion.

19th centuryGreat Britainwas an early global superpower.Modern[edit]Main article:History of globalizationDuring the 19th century, globalization approached its modern form as a result of theindustrial revolution. Industrialization allowedstandardizedproduction of household items using economies of scale while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century imperialism. In the 19th century,steamshipsreduced the cost of international transport significantly andrailroadsmade inland transport cheaper. The transport revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.[9]More nations embraced international trade.[9]Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-centuryimperialismsuch as inAfricaandAsia. The invention ofshipping containersin 1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce.[30][31]After the Second World War, work by politicians led to theBretton Woods conference, an agreement by major governments to lay down the framework for international monetary policy, commerce and finance, and the founding of several international institutions intended to facilitate economic growth multiple rounds of trade opening simplified and lowered trade barriers. Initially, theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT), led to a series of agreements to remove trade restrictions. GATT's successor was theWorld Trade Organization(WTO), which created an institution to manage the trading system. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.[32]The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of theDoha roundof trade-negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011South KoreaUnited States Free Trade Agreement.Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to middle classes in developed countries.Open skiespolicies andlow-cost carriershave helped to bring competition to the market. In the 1990s, the growth of low cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between different countries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design.In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World Wars and theCold War[33]but has picked up again sinceneoliberalpolicies began in the 1980s andperestroikaand theChinese economic reformsofDeng Xiaopingopened the old Eastern Bloc to western capitalism.[34]In the early 2000s, much of the industrialized world entered into theGreat Recession,[35]which may have slowed the process, at least temporarily.[36][37][38]Trade and globalization have evolved tremendously today. Globalized society offers a complex web of forces and factors that bring people, cultures, markets, beliefs and practices into increasingly greater proximity to one another.[39]Global business organization[edit]Main article:International business

Global Competitiveness Index(20082009):competitivenessis an important determinant for the well-being of nation-states in an international environmentWith improvements intransportationand communication, international business grew rapidly after the beginning of the 20th century. International business includes all commercial transactions (privatesales,investments,logistics, and transportation) that take place between two or moreregions,countriesandnationsbeyond their political boundaries. Suchinternational diversificationis tied with firm performance andinnovation, positively in the case of the former and often negatively in the case of the latter.[40]Usually, private companies undertake suchtransactionsforprofit.[41]These business transactions involve economic resources such ascapital,naturalandhuman resourcesused for international production of physical goods and services such asfinance,banking,insurance,constructionand otherproductiveactivities.[42]International business arrangements have led to the formation ofmultinational enterprises(MNE), companies that have a worldwide approach to markets and production or one with operations in more than one country. A MNE may also be called a multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational company (TNC). Well known MNCs includefast foodcompanies such asMcDonald'sandYum Brands, vehicle manufacturers such asGeneral Motors,Ford Motor CompanyandToyota, consumer electronics companies likeSamsung,LGandSony, and energy companies such asExxonMobil,ShellandBP. Most of the largest corporations operate in multiple national markets.Businesses generally argue that survival in the new global marketplace requires companies to sourcegoods,services,laborand materials overseas to continuously upgrade their products and technology in order to survive increased competition.[43]According to a recent McKinsey Global Institute report, flows of goods, services, and finance reached $26 trillion in 2012, or 36 percent of global GDP, 1.5 times the level in 1990.[44]International trade[edit]Main article:International trade

Singapore, the top country in theEnabling Trade Index, embraced globalization and became a highly developed countryInternational tradeis the exchange ofcapital,goods, andservicesacrossinternational bordersor territories.[45]In most countries, such trade represents a significant share ofgross domestic product(GDP).Industrialization, advancedtransportation,multinational corporations,offshoringandoutsourcingall have a major impact on world trade. The growth of international trade is a fundamental component of globalization.Anabsolute trade advantageexists when countries can produce a commodity with less costs per unit produced than could its trading partner. By the same reasoning, it should import commodities in which it has an absolute disadvantage.[46]While there are possiblegains from tradewith absolute advantage,comparative advantage that is, the ability to offer goods and services at a lowermarginalandopportunity cost extends the range of possible mutually beneficial exchanges. In a globalized business environment, companies argue that the comparative advantages offered by international trade have become essential to remaining competitive.Trade agreements, economic blocs and special trade zones[edit]

Gross domestic productin 2011 US dollars per capita, adjusted for inflation andpurchasing power parity(log scale) from 1860 to 2011, with population (disk area) for the US (yellow), UK (orange), Japan (red), China (red), and India (blue).[47]Establishment of free trade areas has become an essential feature of modern governments to handle preferential trading arrangements with foreign and multinational entities.[48]ASpecial Economic Zone(SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic and other laws that are more free-market-oriented than a country's typical or national laws. "Nationwide" laws may be suspended inside these special zones. The category 'SEZ' covers many areas, includingFree Trade Zones(FTZ), Export Processing Zones (EPZ),Free Zones(FZ),Industrial parksor Industrial Estates (IE),Free Ports, Urban Enterprise Zones and others. Usually the goal of a structure is to increaseforeign direct investmentby foreign investors, typically aninternational businessor amultinational corporation(MNC). These are designated areas in which companies are taxed very lightly or not at all in order to encourage economic activity. Free ports have historically been endowed with favorable customs regulations, e.g., the free port ofTrieste. Very often free ports constitute a part of free economic zones.A FTZ is an area within which goods may be landed, handled, manufactured or reconfigured, and reexported without the intervention of the customs authorities. Only when the goods are moved to consumers within the country in which the zone is located do they become subject to the prevailingcustoms duties. Free trade zones are organized around major seaports, international airports, and national frontiers areas with many geographic advantages for trade.[49]It is a region where a group of countries has agreed to reduce or eliminate trade barriers.[50]

A Billboard in Jakarta welcomingASEANSummit 2011 delegates.Afree trade areais atrade blocwhose member countries have signed a free-trade agreement, which eliminatestariffs,import quotas, and preferences on most (if not all)goodsand services traded between them. If people are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free-trade area, it would also be considered anopen border. TheEuropean Union, for example, a confederation of 27 member states, provides both a free trade area and an open border.Qualifying Industrial Zones(QIZ) are industrial parks that house manufacturing operations inJordanandEgypt. They are a special free trade zones established in collaboration with neighboringIsraelto take advantage of the free trade agreements between the United States andIsrael. Under the trade agreements with Jordan as laid down by the United States, goods produced in QIZ-notified areas can directly access US markets withouttarifforquotarestrictions, subject to certain conditions. To qualify, goods produced in these zones must contain a small portion of Israeli input. In addition, a minimum 35% value to the goods must be added to the finished product. The brainchild of Jordanian businessman Omar Salah, the first QIZ was authorized by theUnited States Congressin 1997.TheAsia-Pacifichas been described as "the most integrated trading region on the planet" because its intra-regional trade accounts probably for as much as 50-60% of the region's total imports and exports.[51]It has also extra-regional trade: consumer goods exports such as televisions,radios, bicycles, and textiles into the United States, Europe, and Japan fueled the economic expansion.[52]TheASEAN Free Trade Area[53]is atrade blocagreement by theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nationssupporting local manufacturing in all ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore. When the AFTA agreement was originally signed, ASEAN had six members, namely,Brunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,SingaporeandThailand.Vietnamjoined in 1995,LaosandMyanmarin 1997 andCambodiain 1999.Tax havens[edit]

The ratio of German assets in tax havens in relation to the total German GDP.[54]The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and Switzerland.Main article:Tax havenA tax haven is a state, country or territory where certaintaxesare levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses fortax avoidance and tax evasion.[55]Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive to establishshell subsidiariesor move themselves to areas with reduced or nil taxation levels. This creates a situation oftax competitionamong governments. Differentjurisdictionstend to be havens for different types of taxes and for different categories of people and companies.[56]The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions.[57]A 2012 report from theTax Justice Networkestimated that between USD $21 trillion and $32 trillion isshelteredfrom taxes in unreported tax havens worldwide.[58]Tax havens have been criticized because they often result in the accumulation of idle cash[59]that is expensive and inefficient for companies torepatriate.[60]Thetax shelterbenefits result in atax incidencedisadvantaging the poor.[61]Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism."[62]While investigations of illegal tax haven abuse have been ongoing, there have been few convictions.[63][64]International tourism[edit]Main article:TourismTourismistravelforrecreational,leisureorbusinesspurposes. TheWorld Tourism Organizationdefines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".[65]There are many forms of tourism such asagritourism,birth tourism,culinary tourism,cultural tourism,eco-tourism,extreme tourism,geotourism,heritage tourism,LGBT tourism,medical tourism,nautical tourism,pop-culture tourism,religious tourism,slum tourism,war tourism, andwildlife tourism.Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.[66]

Modern aviation has made it possible to travel long distances quickly.As a result of thelate-2000s recession, internationaltravel demandsuffered a strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through the end of 2009. After a 5% increase in the first half of 2008, growth in international tourist arrivals moved into negative territory in the second half of 2008, and ended up only 2% for the year, compared to a 7% increase in 2007.[67]This negative trend intensified during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak of theH1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million international tourists arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in international tourism receipts.[68]One notable exception to more free travel is travel from theUnited Statesto bordering countriesCanadaandMexico, which had been semi-open borders. Now, by US law, travel to these countries requires apassport.[69]In 2010, international tourism reachedUS$919B, growing 6.5% over 2009, corresponding to an increase inreal termsof 4.7%.[70]In 2010, there were over 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide.[71]International sports[edit]

Wheelchair basketball teams playing in the2008 Summer ParalympicsMain articles:Olympic GamesandList of world championshipsModern international sports events can be big business for as well as influencing the political, economical, and other cultural aspects of countries around the world. Especially withpolitics and sports, sports can affect countries, their identities, and in consequence, the world.The ancientOlympic Gameswere a series of competitions held between representatives of severalcity-statesand kingdoms fromAncient Greece, which featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic games all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished.[72]The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend.[73]During the 19th century Olympic Games became a popular global event.While some economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasizing that such "mega-events" often have large costs, hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games.[74]Moreover, research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on thephilanthropic contributions of corporationsheadquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, although not permanently. This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society.[75]The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups.[76]Globalization has continually increased international competition in sports. TheFIFA World Cup, for example, is the world's most widely viewed sporting event; an estimated 700 million people watched the final match of the2010 FIFA World Cupheld inSouth Africa.[77]According to a 2011 A.T. Kearney study of sports teams, leagues and federations, the global sports industry is woArth between 350 billion and 450 billion (US$480-$620 billion).[78]This includes infrastructure construction, sporting goods, licensed products and live sports events.