Upload
lelien
View
215
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Slide: 2 www.multotec.com
Beneficiation
Treatment of a crude ore in order to improve it’s quality.
Example: beneficiating raw coal to a steam coal for power generation or to a coking coal for furnaces.
Slide: 3 www.multotec.com
Liberation
Freeing of valuable minerals / metals in an ore or mineral by crushing and grinding.
Well Liberated Minerals
Poorly Liberated Minerals
Slide: 4 www.multotec.com
Run-of-Mine Ore
Uncrushed ore in its natural state just as it is when blasted.
Ore, as accepted for treatment from the Mine.
Slide: 5 www.multotec.com
Gangue
Waste rock that surrounds an ore deposit.
The waste material in an ore.
The valueless tailings/waste fraction of an ore rejected by a
separating process.
Slide: 6 www.multotec.com
Recovery
Indicates the proportion of valuable material acquired from the processing of an ore. Generally stated as a percentage of the values recovered compared to the total values present.
Slide: 7 www.multotec.com
Tailings
The neutralised waste discarded after the economically recoverable metals have been extracted from the ore.
Slide: 8 www.multotec.com
Units • 1 tonne / ton = 1 000 kg = 2 204.6 lb
• 1short ton = 2000 lb = 0.90718 tonne
• 1 tonne = 32151 Troy ounces
• 1 Troy ounce = 31.1035 gram
• 1 oz / short ton = 34.2859 gram / tonne
• 1 gram / short ton = 0.03215 oz / short ton
• M or m = million, bn or billion = 1 000 m
All tons in this presentation are metric
Slide: 10 www.multotec.com
Rocks and Minerals
Rocks are aggregates of minerals.
Minerals are either elemental compounds
(e.g. feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles and micas are rock-forming silicate minerals) or free, uncombined native elements (e.g. gold, silver, copper).
With a few exceptions (e.g. water, mercury, opal) minerals are solid inorganic elements or elemental compounds with definite atomic structures and chemical compositions (within fixed limits).
The various types of coals are rocks.
Slide: 11 www.multotec.com
• from molten magma (intrusive) or lava (surface), crystalline structure, random or aligned crystals, no fossils.
Igneous rock
Metamorphic rock • igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary
rock changed by heat and pressure, rare fossils, usually crystalline, two types: foliated, wavy or more random structure,e.g. gneisses.
Sedimentary rock • form in layers or strata, loosely
grained, quartz often dominant, calcite in limestones, contain fossils
Slide: 12 www.multotec.com
Igneous Rocks (note: large masses of molten magma are called plutons)
granite, pegmatite, granodiorite, syenite,
anorthosite, agglomerate, gabbro, pyroxenite, kimberlite, peridotite
quartz porphyry, microgranite, lamprophyre, dolerite, norite
rhyolite, andesite, pumice, tuff,
obsidian, basalt, pitchstone,
volcanic bomb, ropy lava
Slide: 13 www.multotec.com
Metamorphic Rocks
• Foliated: gneisses, amphibolite, eclogite
• Unfoliated: marbles, granulite, skarn
• Foliated: schists, phyllite
• Unfoliated: hornfels, marbles
• Foliated: slates, phyllite
• Unfoliated: marbles, skarn, mylonite
Gneiss Schist Slate
Slide: 14 www.multotec.com
Sedimentary Rocks
• mainly rock: conglomerate, breccia
• mainly calcium carbonate: limestones
• mainly rock: greywacke
• mainly quartz: sandstones, arkose
• mainly calcium carbonate: limestones, travertine, tufa
• others: potash, rock salt, dolomite, ironstone
• mainly quartz: loess, shale, clay, mudstone
• mainly calc carbonate: chalk, marl, limestones
• others: peat, anthracite, lignite, amber, jet, chert, flint
Shale Sandstone Conglomerate
Slide: 15 www.multotec.com
GEOLOGICAL AND HUMAN TIME SEQUENCE OF THE EARTH
ERAS / AGES DIVISIONS (15 PERIODS/SYSTEMS) MILLIONS OF YEARS FOSSIL TYPESBEFORE PRESENT TIME OTHER IDENTIFICATIONS
IRON AGE 1200 - 500 BC iron artefacts
BRONZE AGE 3000 - 2000 BC bronze artefacts, first cities
Present Neolithic 9000 - 4000 BC Modern Man agriculture, towns Homo Sapiens
Mesolithic 10 000 BC bow & arrow
STONE AGE Upper Palaeolithic 30 000 BC stone & bone tools, artQUATERNARY
Palaeolithic Middle Palaeolithic 100 000 yrs Neanderthal Man specialised tools
Lower Palaeolithic 1.0 million Homo Erectus fire, tools
Pleistocene (nearly present) 1.6 includes ice-formed depositsat least 15 ice ages/retreats
PlioceneNeogene
Miocene (less than present) 26TERTIARY
Oligocene
Palaeogene Eocene (dawn of the present)
Paleocene 65
Cretaceous 140 chalk, limestone, dinosaurs"Age of Reptiles"
MESOZOIC Jurassic 210 dinosaurs"middle life"continental drift begins
Triassic 245
Permian 290
Carboniferous 365 coal age"Age of Amphibians"
Devonian 410PALAEOZOIC "Age of fishes""old life"
Silurian 440
Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570 trilobites
Proterozoic 2400 fossils now knownPRE-CAMBRIAN
Archaean 4500 no fossils
* Periods are divided into Upper Periods can be divided intoand Lower and sometimes, Middle Zones according to dominant
fossils, and may span 500 m yrseach or much less
Slide: 16 www.multotec.com
Ore Deposit Types
VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Cu, Zn, Sn granite-hosted tin South Crofty UK deposits in granitic plutons. similar to porphyry coppers. low grade.
Au, Cu, Ag sediment-hosted Muruntau Uzbekistan metals concentrate in hydrothermal fluids.
Cu, Ag kupferschiefer Lublin Poland stratiform sulphide deposits; marine or deltaic environments. proterozoic-tertiary sediments.
Au, Ag epithermal gold Carlin USA, McLaughlin USA, Lepanto Philippines
shallow deposits at convergent plates. vein and disseminated sulphide types.
Cu, Ni mafic sulphide- hosted Mt Keith WA, Voisey Bay Canada
primary sulphides in igneous rocks in archaean greenstones. up to high tonnages.
Diamonds kimberlite alluvial & marine
Premier RSA Kleinsee RSA
ultramafic rocks in volcanic pipes, sills. proterozoic and later. weathering of kimberlites formed gem quality placer deposits.
Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Os layered mafic intrusions Bushveld UG2 RSA
orthomagmatic sulphides in large layered igneous complexes. high temp magma formation & crystallization. proterozoic.
Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Os, Cu, Ni layered mafic intrusions Bushveld Merensky Reef RSA,
Stillwater as above. differences in geochemical evolution of magma concentrated Ni and Cu in layers.
Slide: 17 www.multotec.com
Ore Deposit Types (continued)
VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Pt, Pd, Rh, Au alluvial Goodnews Bay USA sediment-hosted placer deposits from weathering of mafic igneous complexes, concentration of PGEs and Au by fluvial processes.
Pt, Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, Au, Cu, Ni layered mafic intrusions Merensky Reef,
Norilsk, Sudbury same geological setting and genesis as before with Ni, Cu and Au concentrated in certain layers.
Coal open pit Witbank RSA, Griffin WA
shallow stratiform seams. overburden usually mid-to-late phanerozoic sediments.
Chromium chromitite
Dwarsrivier RSA
chromitite in two deposit types. stratiform: ultrabasic layered igneous complexes. podiform: different structural form, tectonised ultrabasic sequences of ophiolote complexes.
Tantalum tantalite Greenbushes WA in sheared archaean granite-greenstone terranes. low volume, high value.
Other Minerals
laterite nickel bauxite (Al) stratabound iron stratabound manganese
Murrin Murrin WA Huntly WA Thabazimbi RSA, Hammersley WA Sishen RSA
extensive surface deposits. secondary mineralisation after weathering of crystalline parent rocks. high volume, low value.
Slide: 18 www.multotec.com
Ore Deposit Types VALUES HOST DEPOSIT EXAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Au
shear-hosted paleo- conglomerates
Finniston, Sunrise Dam WA, Ashanti Ghana, Witwatersrand Alluvial (Magaden Russia)
archaean mesothermal lode deposits in shear zones. gold-bearing conglomerates from weathering of archaean greenstone belts. 7g/t.
Cu carbonatite Palabora proterozoic to recent intrusive magmatic carbonates and associated alkaline igneous rocks
Ag epithermal ex hydrothermal fluids of extrusive /shallow intrusive igneous rocks.
Pb, Zn, Ag carbonate - hosted
Galmoy Ireland, Reocin Spain, Pine Point Canada
phanerozoic deposits in thick sequences of dolomite/limestone rocks. Formed in warm sea. 3-10%
Cu, Mo porphyry Escondida Chile low grade (0.5-2%) large deposits (1000 Mt). Molybdenum may occur.
Cu, Au skarn porphyry
Nickel Plate Canada, La Luz Nicaragua Grasberg Indonesia, Bingham USA
phanerozoic deposits formed at high temps by igneous intrusions at convergent plate margins. see Cu, Mo porphyrys
Cu, Zn volcanogene Neves Corvo Portugal, Black Mountain RSA
stratiform massive sulphide deposits between volcanic units
Slide: 19 www.multotec.com
Placer Deposit
An alluvial deposit of ore, usually a mineral-bearing gravel or sand. Any concentration of the heavier and more durable minerals that have deposited from the actions of erosional forces.
Slide: 21 www.multotec.com
• Crumbly, grey-green, often soft, igneous, ultrabasic, coarse grained dark rock often with porphyritic texture and brecciated appearance. In peridotite rock mantle pocketed with eclogite (50% garnet).
• Usually found in archaean cratons of basement rock 2.5 billion years old. Youngest known diamond-bearing pipe is 45 miilion years old.
• Usually in pipes (hypabyssal occurrence in plutons) of up to 1km diameter (largest 361 acres).
• Primary mineral is serpentized olivine and associated minerals are phlogopite, pyroxenes, carbonate, chromite, pyrope garnet, rutile and perovskite.
Kimberlite
Slide: 22 www.multotec.com
• Origin - kimberlite pipes
• Gem - octahedra, cubes, dodecahedra, tetrahedra crystals.
• Boart – rounded with radiating structure.
• Carbonado – microcrystalline mass.
• SG 3.52, hardness 10, carbon
Diamond
Slide: 23 www.multotec.com
• Indicator minerals diamonds in kimberlites are chrome diopsides (green), garnets (pink, purple, orange, yellow, green), microdiamonds.
• Pyrope garnets (shown): some purple (or deep red) garnets have same high chrome low silica chemical profile as diamonds (Harzburgitic signature). If these G10 garnets are not present there will be no diamonds.
• Eclogite rock can be very diamond-rich and contains orange garnets, not G10s.
Indicator Minerals For Diamond-bearing Kimberlites
Kimberlite pipes often occur in clusters and different ilmenites in the pipes assist in defining them.
Slide: 24 www.multotec.com
Lamproite
A second primary source of diamonds of potassium-rich hypabyssal lamprophyric rocks formed from magmatic intrusions (Miocene). Olivine lamproite and leucite lamproite are known to be diamond-bearing. Indicators minerals are chromites, andradite and zircon – garnets are rare. The AK1 deposit at Argyle Diamond Mine is a well-known lamproite orebody.The surface weathered ore has a Bond Work index of 10 kWh/t and an Abrasion Index of 0.22. The deeper more competent unweathered ore has a BWI of 18 and an AI of 0.60.
Slide: 25 www.multotec.com
Hypabyssal
Intrusive igneous rocks In smaller host bodies at intermediate depths, examples: dykes and sills Medium to fine-grained “Plutonic” if formed in very large masses at greatest depths, coarse-grained, visible minerals, e.g. batholiths
Slide: 26 www.multotec.com
Carbonatites Calcium carbonate (calcite)-rich rock Magmatic ! Can contain magnetite, apatite, micas, sulphide minerals.
Slide: 27 www.multotec.com
Basalts
Formed from “basic” lavas Most common of all volcanic rocks Dark compact rocks (mafic), very fine-grained Acid lavas form light low density rocks (felsic)
Slide: 28 www.multotec.com
Laterites Of peculiar composition, found in moist-tropical regions. Crusty, reddish-brown deposits, hardened by precipitation of iron. Laterite can develop through deep weathering and are rich in hydroxides of aluminium and iron, concentrated by the upward leaching by ground water due to the rapid surface evaporation of moisture. Murrin Murrin in a laterite-hosted orebody typically 20 m in depth and 10 m overburden and has a nickel-cobalt mineralisation. Bauxite, Al2O3.2H2O is a lateritic mineral.
Slide: 30 www.multotec.com
Mineral Solid substance having a regular and definite chemical composition
Slide: 31 www.multotec.com
Mineral Content
Industrial minerals can have a high concentration of values such as 94% iron oxide in iron ore. Base metals contents are often in the low percentages, e.g. copper 3%. Precious metals ores usually have a tiny content of values, e.g. gold and platinum contents are typically 0.0005% or 5 gram/ton or 5 parts / million.
Slide: 33 www.multotec.com
RESOURCES AND RESERVES
IN SITU RESOURCES reported as mineralization in place INFERRED INDICATED MEASURED
EXTRACTABLE RESERVES reported as mineable production estimates PROBABLE PROVEN
consideration of mining, metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental factors
the modifying factors
increasing level of geological knowledge and confidence
Slide: 34 www.multotec.com
Reserves
That part of a mineral deposit which can be economically and legally extracted at the time of the reserve determination. There are two categories of reserves: Probable and Proven
Slide: 35 www.multotec.com
Probable Ore Tonnage & grade are computed partly from specific measurements (samples/production data) and partly from projections (geological evidence over a reasonable distance). Refers to sites available for inspection, measurement and sampling but which are inappropriately spaced for outlining the ore completely or fully establishing it’s grade.
Slide: 36 www.multotec.com
Proven Ore
Tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, drill holes, underground workings and grade from the results of adequate sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling and measurement are so well spaced and the geological character so well defined that size, shape and mineral content are accurately established.