This publication was made possible through support provided by the United States Agencyfor International Development (USAID) under the terms and conditions of Contract No. AID-492-C-00-03-00022-00. This publication may be reproduced or quoted in other publicationsas long as proper reference is made to the source.

The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of theUnited States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

Go Easy on the Sea

The Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest ProjectCebu City, Philippines

2006

concept & directionrebeccaPESTAÑO-SMITH

textrebeccaPESTAÑO-SMITH, nygielARMADA, asuncionSIA,

cesarLUNA, geronimoSILVESTRE

copy editingasuncionSIA

technical reviewmarcianoCARREON III, geronimoSILVESTRE, nygielARMADA,

williamJATULAN, evelynDEGUIT, cesarLUNA

illustrationsamielRUFO, dexterBESA

design & layoutysoldeCOLLANTES-JATULAN

3

FISH CFISH CFISH CFISH CFISH CAAAAATCH ISTCH ISTCH ISTCH ISTCH ISDECLINING!DECLINING!DECLINING!DECLINING!DECLINING!

FISH STOCKS AREFISH STOCKS AREFISH STOCKS AREFISH STOCKS AREFISH STOCKS AREDDDDDWINDLING!WINDLING!WINDLING!WINDLING!WINDLING!

For many years now, fish are caught much fasterthan their natural ability to replenish themselves.Over the years, we have vastly expanded the scaleand intensity of exploiting our seas.

Studies show that many nearshore fish stocks inthe Philippines are only 10% of what they were 50years ago. Excessive and destructive fishing coupledwith environmental degradation have resulted indeclining fish populations and consequently fishcatch.

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The center of the center...The center of the center...The center of the center...The center of the center...The center of the center...

The Philippines, an archipelago of more than 7,100 islands isblessed with highly productive marine habitats and coastal

waters. Its fisheries resources — both nearshore and offshore —are among the most valuable in the world. In fact, scientists havedescribed the Philippine islands as the center of the center of marineshorefish diversity with “the richest concentration of marine life onthe entire planet” (Carpenter and Springer, 2005).

Scientists have observed that the unique biodiversity of the Philippinesis a result of its location between the Asian continent, Taiwan, Borneoand Sulawesi, from which the islands are separated by deep-seatrenches. These sea trenches which have been separating the variousregions’ habitats for millions of years have led to a very high degreeof endemism, i.e. many species occurring only in this region (NFEFI).

“Scientists have known thatthe area in Southeast Asia

— Indonesia, Malaysiaand the Philippines —

holds the richestmarine biodiversity.

I was amazed todiscover that the

extreme center of thisbiodiversity is in the

Philippines, rather thancloser to the equator.”

(Carpenter in ODU News)

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In the Philippines, the greatest marine biodiversity can be found inthe mixed coastal fauna of the coral reefs, mangroves and seagrassbeds, including approximately 2000 species of fish, 1400 speciesof crustaceans, more than 900 species of bottom-living algae andan untold number of unknown species. Five of the seven sea turtlespecies known to exist in the world today occur in Philippine waters.

More than 17% of the better known fish are endemic to thePhilippines. Of the 500 coral species known worldwide, about 488species in 78 genera are known to thrive in Philippine tropical waters.There are also about 22 species of beach vegetation, 10 of whichare considered dominant (DENR, 2005).

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Our seas, our life...Our seas, our life...Our seas, our life...Our seas, our life...Our seas, our life...“The term ‘marine fisheries’ refers to the extraction of wildliving resources in coastal and open seas in the service ofhuman needs and markets. Marine fisheries resourcesinclude numerous fishes as well as invertebrates such ascrustaceans, mollusks and sea cucumbers.” (Luna et al., 2004)

“Fisheries resources are a natural, renewable resourcewhich, if properly managed, will continue to provide a greatsource of food, income and wealth to the Philippines.” (Pollock,

1996)

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For many people in the world, the sea is a huge food basket!

Food from the sea provides approximately 10% of the required proteinrequirements of the world population. More than one billion peoplearound the world (approximately one-sixth of the global population)depend on fish and other marine products as their primary source ofanimal protein. Fisheries and related industries provide livelihood forup to 400 million people worldwide.

In Southeast Asia alone, more than 5 million people fish on a full-time basis. In the Philippines, it is estimated that more than 2 millionpeople and their families are primarily dependent on fishing as sourceof food and livelihood (NSO, 2005).

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Historically, fishery resources were caught for domestic consumptiononly. Today, with as much as 35-40% of the global harvest beingtraded internationally, these resources have become one of the world’smost highly traded natural resources, accounting for US$55.2 billion(export value) in international trade (FAO, 2004).

World fishery exports by major commodity groups.(FAO, 2004)

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Contribution by sector to total Philippine fisheriesproduction in 2001. Marine fisheries contributed more thanhalf of the total fish production by volume. (BAS, 2002)

Like in many other countries, Philippine marine fisheries providevarious economic and social benefits. In 2001, marine fisheriesproduced 1.8 million tons of fishes and invertebrates or 57% of thePhilippines’ total fisheries production, valued at P67.4 billion.

Both the municipal and commercial fisheries sub-sectors contributesignificantly to employment, food security and social stabilityparticularly in the rural areas and communities where fishers reside.

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In turbulent seasIn turbulent seasIn turbulent seasIn turbulent seasIn turbulent seasDespite its social and economic importance, the Philippine marinefisheries sector is beset by many problems. These include:

! depleted fisheries resources;! declining catch rates that are symptomatic of

overharvesting or overfishing;! degradation of the coastal environment and critical

fisheries habitats;! increased conflicts among resource users;! deepening poverty among small-scale/artisanal fishers;! inequitable distribution of benefits from resource use;! loss and/or reduced value of catches due to improper

post-harvest practices; and! inadequate systems and structures for fisheries

management.

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The Philippines, one of the world’s largest fish-producing nations, isalso among the 10 low-income, food deficit countries of the world.

Fish accounts for more than half of the total animal protein consumedin the country, but per capita national consumption of fish droppedfrom 40 kg in 1987 to 24 kg in 1996. By some estimates, if noappropriate action is taken to reverse declining per capita fishproduction trends, only about 10 kg of fish will be available annuallyfor each Filipino by 2010 (Kurien, 2002; Bernascek, 1996). Thissituation does not augur well for the country and its growingpopulation.

It is the Filipino masseswho are feeling most of the effects

of a shrinking resource.

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Where have all the fishesWhere have all the fishesWhere have all the fishesWhere have all the fishesWhere have all the fishesgone?gone?gone?gone?gone?

“Most of the fish catch, about 90% of the global fishcatch, comes from the shallow waters, within 600 feetaround the continents. And these so-called ‘shelves’ arecompletely devastatingly overfished throughout the world.The biomass — that is, the amount of fish that is leftthere — is about 1/10 or less of what it was 50 years ago.In most cases, the devastation is mind boggling.” (Pauly in

Earth & Sky radio series)

“We have increased our capacity to catch fish faster thanthe ocean has been able to produce fish for us to catch...”(Iudicello in Habitat Media)

“Many areas are in really bad shape due largely to unwisecoastal land use, deforestation and the increasing numberof fishermen resorting to destructive fishing methods.”(Aliño in People and Planet)

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In 1994, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimatedthat about 74% of the world’s major fisheries had been fully exploited,overexploited or depleted. Meanwhile, the World Conservation Unionlists 1081 fish worldwide as threatened or endangered (Safina, 1995).

The Philippine fisheries situation is no exception to this global trend.

Studies show that the abundance of many nearshore fisheryresources in the Philippines is only 10% of what it used to be 50years ago. Excessive fishing and destructive fishing coupled withenvironmental degradation have resulted in declining fish populations.

It is the consensus among fisheries scientists and researchers thatmost of the Philippines’ main fish species and marine organismsare showing signs of severe exploitation, and that the country’smajor fishing grounds are highly overfished (DA-BFAR, 2004).

Average catch per unit effort since the 1940s for fishers using hook-and-linein six provinces in the Philippines. (Arquiza, 1999; De Jesus et al., 2001;

Green et al., 2000; Sotto et al. 2001; Valle et al. 2000; Yambao et al., 2001)

Level of exploitation of the world’s major fisheries. (FAO, 2001)

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Map of heavily exploited areasin the Philippines(Tandog-Edralin et al., 1987)

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Too much fishing is killingToo much fishing is killingToo much fishing is killingToo much fishing is killingToo much fishing is killingthe fishing...the fishing...the fishing...the fishing...the fishing...

“The size of the catch, and therefore of the stock, is directlyrelated to fishing effort: how many boats and fishermenthere are, how long they stay at sea, and so forth...” (Castro

and Huber, 1997)

Available records show that fish in the Philippines are generallybeing harvested at very high levels.

In fact, studies in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s recommend thatthe Philippines must decrease effort on its fisheries by about 50-65% (Dalzell et al., 1987; Silvestre and Pauly, 1989; Dalzell andGanaden, 1991; Trinidad et al., 1993).

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Like all living things, fish can reproduce or renew themselves.However, contrary to what has been traditionally believed, while fisheryresources are renewable, they are not inexhaustible.

If a fishery is to last, the quantity of fish caught can be no more thanthe quantity of new fish added through natural growth andreproduction. The sustainable yield of a population is the amountthat can be caught to balance the growth and recruitment of thepopulation. If more fish are caught, the population or fish stocks willdecline (Castro and Huber, 1997).

Fish need to spawn for theirpopulations to continue.If too many fish areremoved too quickly, thereproductive capacity of thestock or population may beimpaired, and the fisherydeclines.

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Overfishing is a major factor contributing to the decline of fisheries.Overfishing occurs when the quantity of fish harvested causes anet reduction of the fish population, thereby limiting production fromfish stocks for the future. It is reached when fishing effort exceedsthe biological limits of the stock.

Because fish are living organisms, they have certain limits withinwhich they can thrive.

A limit called “minimumviable population” isrequired for fish to be ableto breed a sizeablenumber of young toreplenish its population.

Going beyond this limithas implications for thefish stocks as a whole.Ideally, one would want toachieve the highest fishcatch level that leavessufficient fish in the seato breed. Long-term impacts of overfishing will decrease

the size and abundance of fish in the ocean.(Bohnsack, 1994)

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The highest catch that can be continuously taken year after yearwithout threatening the fish stocks is called the maximum sustainableyield (MSY). From the point of view of employment and foodproduction, this can be thought of as the optimal catch. Precautionaryprinciples, however, dictate that catch should be lower than MSYas insurance against environmentally induced fluctuations, naturalstock fluctuations, and other uncertainties.

Most fisheries are profitable when harvested at or below MSY, andrent is maximized at maximum economic yield (MEY). If fishingpressure or effort is intense, catch can easily exceed the MSY andbefore long, the stock declines and catches fall no matter how muchfishing effort is expended. Overfishing has occurred.

Overfishing is considered a most important management issue inthe Philippine capture fisheries sector. The increase in the number

of people exploiting the seas, the use of illegaland/or destructive fishing gears and

methods as well as inappropriateexploitation patterns have led

to excessive fishingpressure in both thecommercial andmunicipal fisheriessub-sectors.

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We need fish to make moreWe need fish to make moreWe need fish to make moreWe need fish to make moreWe need fish to make morefish...fish...fish...fish...fish...Fisheries biologists recommend that about 1/2 to 2/3 of the fishpopulations must be allocated and not harvested for naturalreplenishment of fish stocks. And to function properly, the marineecosystem requires a mix of fish of various species, sizes and age.

Generally, the reproductive rate of fish and other marine organismsdepends at least in part on the size of their fish populations orstocks. Biologists point out that like most other marine life, fishstocks grow fastest when there are neither too few nor too manyindividuals in the population.

If the population size is very small,the number of young being bornis also small because there arenot too many potential parents.Fewer adults mean fewerparents and therefore, lessnumber of offspring toconstitute the nextgeneration. Overharvestingthe fish stocks would resultin very few individuals leftover to spawn andreproduce.

Recruitment overfishingoccurs when the adults leftare so few that their abilityto produce eggs and larvaeis severely reduced orimpaired. It is primarily causedby extremely high fishing effortwhich tends to reduce the parentstock.

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Nearshore or reef fisheries are particularly vulnerable to recruitmentoverfishing as many reef fishes and invertebrates take time to maturesexually. Such species — e.g. sharks, groupers, rays, etc. —generally grow slowly, take years to reach breeding age, usuallyproduce fewer offspring, and often grow quite large. Groupers, forexample, take 4-6 years before they mature and reproduce. Intensivefishing of these species makes them vulnerable to eventual extinction.

Many reef and pelagic fish species aggregate in large numbers forpurposes of feeding, spawning or protection. While such gatheringsmay occur at special times and places depending on the species,they make these species highly susceptible to intensive fishing,particularly with the advent ofcommercial fishing gears andmethods that can scoop up wholeschools or huge volumes of fish.

Concern has been expressedthroughout the world that spawningaggregations have been increasinglytargeted for the live food fish trade resultingin uncontrolled levels of fishing pressure on theseaggregations (SCRFA). Because spawning is key to maintainingfish populations, such pressures have devastating impacts on thereplenishment of fish stocks.

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Why are fisheries overfishedWhy are fisheries overfishedWhy are fisheries overfishedWhy are fisheries overfishedWhy are fisheries overfishedor depleted?or depleted?or depleted?or depleted?or depleted?Worldwide, the following reasons are commonly cited:

! open access nature of fishing (lack of management,regulation, enforcement);

! habitat destruction;! destructive/unsustainable fishing practices;! widespread technological advances (more efficient gear,

stronger and larger nets; electronic fishing devices likesonar; increased ability to fish all over the world even in themost isolated places);

! growing human population; and! economic development policies of governments, especially

those providing subsidies and encouraging even moreinvestments in fishing technology and boats.

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Overfishing in the Philippines and in many other nations resultsfrom a variety of causes, all of them rooted in the de facto “openaccess regime” that prevails in capture fisheries. In open accessfisheries, the resource is open for everyone to use, with each fisherdeciding where to fish, when to fish, how many hours to fish, whatfish to take and what gear to apply.

Experience has shown that ifa profitable fishery is leftunregulated, free-marketforces almost always result inoverfishing.

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As long as fish is looked at as a commodity and there is money to be made,more and more fishers will be drawn to the profitable fishery and the catchwill eventually exceed the optimal level.

The increased demand for fish from a rapidly growing human populationcoupled with the Philippine government’s production-oriented economicpolicies towards capture fisheries has exacerbated pressure on the country’smarine resources. Where the Philippines and many other countries areconcerned, all indications illustrate that open access has led to intensecompetition for fishery resources, excessive fishing pressure, andconsequently, depletionof fish stocks.

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Often closely related with excessive fishing is the harvesting ofimmature and spawning fishes. The catching of immature fish hastwo major consequences:

! fish are caught before they attain sizes that would maximizephysical yield and command higher prices, thus reducingthe weight and value of the catch accruingto the fisher (producer); and

! the number of individuals maturing asparent stock is reduced and,consequently, populations ofsucceeding generations tendto progressivelydecrease.

The widespread and unregulated practice of catching large, spawningfishes also contribute to stock depletion.

Studies have shown that larger and older fishes play key roles inrestoring stocks, and bigger fishes produce more and healthier eggsthan smaller ones. Larvae from larger-sized fishes resist starvationbetter and have a much greater chance of survival (Eurekalert).Because older and large-sized fishes are routinely sought after,intense fishing of large-sized individuals significantly contributes todecline in fish populations.

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In addition, the destruction ofnatural spawning and nurserygrounds such as lagoons,estuaries, mangrove forests,seagrass beds and coral reefs hascontributed much to the depletionof fish stocks in general and torecruitment overfishing in particular.

No amount of regulation in fishextraction will result in sustainablefisheries if critical habitats thatserve as natural spawning andnursery grounds for fish and othermarine life are not protected orconserved.

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Habitats in TroubleHabitats in TroubleHabitats in TroubleHabitats in TroubleHabitats in Trouble“““““All over the country, whatever coastal province you visit, yousee the same plight – desolate stretches of shorelinecompletely stripped of mangrove cover and now totallyexposed to the pounding of the ocean’s waves.” (Fortes in People

and Planet)

“Ten percent of the world’s reefs have been completelydestroyed. In the Philippines, where coral reef destruction isthe worst, over 70% have been destroyed and only 5% is saidto be in good condition. What has happened to destroy all ofthe reefs? Humans have happened.” (Oceanworld)

A typical coastal zone of a tropical country like the Philippines isdiverse and generally has the following major ecosystems along itsshallow coastlines:

These ecosystems serve as critical habitats to many fishes andother marine life at certain stages of their life cycles. The degradationof any one ecosystem impacts on the growth and productivity ofthose species that are dependent on that ecosystem. Suchinterdependence makes the coastal zone an extremely sensitivegeographic area and quite vulnerable to the adverse impacts of humanactivities and natural events.

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Coastal waters comprise only about 12% of Philippine waters, butthis is where highly diverse and productive habitats that serve ascritical life-support systems for a multitude of aquatic living resourcesare found. Sadly, coastal areas in the country have come underincreasingly severe pressure from human activities.

The coastal situation in the Philippines mirrors global trends whereunsustainable use of natural resources, pollution and habitatdestruction are resulting in significant, if not irreversible, loss offishery resources and their life support systems. And because mid-ocean resources are closely linked to nearshore or coastalresources, the consequence is a domino-like effect in terms ofenvironmental degradation and declining fish catch.

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The state of coral reefs in the Philippines is particularlygrim. A report called “Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia”released in 2002 by the World Resources Institute and theUnited Nations Environmental Programme, revealed that 85-90%of major reef nations in Southeast Asia are at risk.

Both Indonesia and the Philippines, which together account for 77%of the region’s coral reef systems, are in deep trouble. Eighty-sixpercent of Indonesia’s reefs are seriously threatened by humanactivities, and an even more alarming 98% of reefs in the Philippinesare in the same condition (Burke et al., 2002).

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Mangrove areas and seagrass habitats are in equallygrave danger. The most rapid decrease inmangrove and wetland cover occurred duringthe 1960’s and 1970’s when nationalpolicies encouraged the expansion ofaquaculture and the establishment offish ponds.

While reforestation programs have beenunderway for the past decade torehabilitate mangrove areas,coastal development in thePhilippines continues to beaggressive, resulting in awide variety of conflicting uses— industry, construction, dump sites,boat landings, tourism and recreation.Illegal logging and unregulated land use activities have likewiseresulted in land erosion and the subsequent sedimentation ofwetlands and foreshore areas.

Beaches, foreshore and wetlands also serve as receptacles for solidwaste and sewage. Often, garbage and sewage are dumped into ariver, stream or drain, are carried by water currents and eventuallyend up in the sea. Agricultural and industrial runoffs as well aswastewater from intensive aquaculture are also critical threats tothe health and productivity of coastal and fishery ecosystems withdevastating impacts on marine fisheries.

30

About 50% of the coastal and marine pollution in the Philippinescomes from runoff and land-based discharges. Trends in coastaland marine pollution are not encouraging as the incidence of pollution-related problems has increased dramatically over the last 20 years.Algal blooms now occur more frequently than at any time in recent

history, causing red tide events that kill or makeshellfish and some fish species toxic.

Both direct and indirect effects of unplanned coastal developmentcan be severe. When coral reefs, mangrove areas, seagrass beds,beaches and estuaries are destroyed and lost, they cannot be easilyrestored. Habitat losses directly translate to declining fish populationsand catches.

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The high price of blast/The high price of blast/The high price of blast/The high price of blast/The high price of blast/dynamite fishingdynamite fishingdynamite fishingdynamite fishingdynamite fishing

“Even if they are only partially destroyed, coral reefs donot quickly return to high levels of productivity. Blastedreefs can take up to 50 years to regain 50% of theiroriginal coral cover and be productive again.” (Burke et al.

2002)

“Do you hear the noise from that island over there?Over there they use ‘boom-boom’ fishing all the time.Go into any house and you can see dynamite... I myselfused dynamite for nearly 20 years. We could make ourown with gunpowder and tin cans.”

“We continued because there were always lotsmore fish and it was easy. We thought the seawas so big then, we could damage this reefand there would be always another with morefish...” (Voices of the Sea)

Blast/dynamite fishing is one of themost destructive fishing methods.It involves the use of primarilyhomemade bombs, manufacturedeasily and cheaply from locallyavailable materials.

It is illegal and highly dangerous toboth fishers and the marineenvironment. It is also, alarmingly,highly prevalent.

It has been reported that on a “good day”, dynamite fishers canblast as many as 10 times a day, and even children have engagedin the practice.

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Made from potassium nitrate and other substances commonly usedfor fertilizer, the explosives used in fishing are typically thrown towardsa reef or school of fish and explode on the water surface. Fish arekilled by the shock waves created by the blast and then skimmedoff/collected from the surface or from the bottom. In some cases,explosives are also used below the surface in reef areas and openwater.

These explosions kill fish indiscriminately and pulverize the reefs.On average, a 1-kg (35 oz) beer bottle bomb can leave a rubblecrater of approximately 1 to 2 meters in diameter, killing 50-80% ofthe corals in the area. After a blast, algal growth quickly smothersany remaining living corals because the shoals of grazing fish thatwould normally keep algae under control have been decimated.

33

Repeated blastings create vast deserts of loose coral rubble largelydevoid of marine life. Lacking suitable habitat, reef fishes quicklyabandon a degraded reef, causing a decline in fish stocks. Largeblasted areas are slow to recover because corals have difficultyestablishing on loose or sandy substrate.

Rates of erosion also increase as reef sediments are no longerreplenished by living coral. Young corals are quickly smothered byalgae or sand, inhibiting reef growth. It can take more than a centuryfor a reef to recover by natural means once the live coral cover hasbeen destroyed; some coral species do not recover at all.

While an individual blast fisher may get quick profits, in economicterms, blast fishing results in substantial financial losses to societyin terms of reduced goods and services. As pointed out by the Reefsat Risk study, blasted coral reefs lose value from sustainable fisheryincome, coastal protection, aesthetics, potential tourism revenueand biodiversity benefits.

“For example, fishers engaged in blast fishing mayearn US$15,000 per square kilometer, but theygenerate losses to society over a 20-year periodranging from US$19,000 to US$700,000 per squarekilometer. (Burke et al. 2002)

It is also estimated by the same study that the total net losses toblast fishing in the Philippines is US$1.2 billion over a 20-year period.

Blast or dynamite fishingis the scourge of Philippine seas.

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The silent killer: CyanideThe silent killer: CyanideThe silent killer: CyanideThe silent killer: CyanideThe silent killer: Cyanideand poison fishingand poison fishingand poison fishingand poison fishingand poison fishing

“Although coral reef fishes canbe effectively caught with traps,nets and hook-and-line, majorityof the live fish collectors preferto use cyanide to cut short the“hunting” process. The poisonstuns the fish, causing them tolose equilibrium, and become, ina manner of speaking, helplesssitting ducks waiting to bepicked.” (Alvarez, 2003)

If coral reefs are not blasted into rubble byblast or dynamite fishing, they are left intactbut dead by cyanide or poison fishing.

Used to efficiently capture live fish for theaquarium or live food fish trade, cyanide is a

silent killer of the sea, its actual usage andsubsequent devastating impacts camouflaged by calm, shimmeringwater. Unlike dynamite explosions that are noisy and highly visible,cyanide use is quiet, but it is equally deadly.

“Catching live fish using cyanide is easy. Crush a coupleof sodium cyanide tablets into a squeegee bottle ofwater, dive around a coral reef, find a fish youfancy, and squirt the toxic liquid into itsface. The mixture stuns the fishwithout killing it... A square meterof reef is destroyed for everylive fish caught using cyanide.”(WWF, 2003)

35

Aquarium-keeping is a widespread hobby and big business indeveloped countries, with marine life supply coming from developingcountries in the tropics. Despite reports that 40% of fish caught diebefore reaching consumers, ornamental fishes continue to providebrisk trade for many. In the 1980’s, an even much bigger businessemerged — the live food fish trade.

The total value of the live food fish trade reportedly exceeds US$1billion per year. Southeast Asia is the hub of the live fish business,supplying up to 85% of the aquarium trade and nearly all of the livefood fish trade (Barber and Pratt, 1997).

The process of cyanide fishing involves injecting orsquirting the poison into the crevices of the coralreefs, stunning the fish and making them easy tocatch.

Fishers using this method mayeither freely dive down to the reef,or are assisted by the use ofcompressors that allow them tostay at the sea bottom for longperiods of time. The cyanide kills thecoral polyps, symbiotic algae,invertebrates and other coral reeforganisms — turning many coralreefs into lifeless rubbles.

Other chemical substances beingused include bleach, chlorine andeven liquid dish soap.

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Some cyanide fishers may rip the coral reefs apart with crowbars tocapture the disoriented fish hiding in the reef, causing more reefdestruction. Reefs where cyanide is spread will first form black slime,and eventually become dead coral rock, driving away marine life.And as fish populations decline, fishers begin looking for other areasto do their fish collecting and destroy even more habitat.

Collectively, “search and destroy” fishermen spray nearly 400,000kilos of sodium cyanide on Philippine coral reefs annually (Alvarez,2003).

Because this reef-destructive fishing method is relatively efficient, itincreases the likelihood that target fish species and other specieswill be overfished. Thus, cyanide fishing seriously threatens theviability of fisheries not only through habitat destruction but alsothrough overfishing.

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In fishing, gear matters...In fishing, gear matters...In fishing, gear matters...In fishing, gear matters...In fishing, gear matters...The danger of overfishing is directly attributed to intense fishingeffort that may involve the use of illegal, destructive or highly efficientfishing gears.

“It is not just a matter of the number of boats. It could bethe time that they spend fishing. It could be the capacityof the gear — bigger engines allow them to go faster, allowthem to go farther, larger gear can tow more cubic feet ofnet...” (Iudicello in Habitat Media)

Not only has the numbers of fishers and consumers of fish productsconsiderably increased everywhere, technological advances havemade it possible to indiscriminately and more efficiently catch hugevolumes of fish. Intensive fishing techniques such as drift nets andgill nets that are used to maximize catches are a threat to manyforms of fish and other marine life.

“The way we fish is like hanging a huge net dragged from ablimp across a forest, knocking down the trees and scoopingup the plants and animals, and then throwing awayeverything except the deer.” (Norse in Common Dreams News Center)

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The use of fine mesh nets and inappropriate fishing gears thatgenerally capture young/juvenile fishes and fish bycatch result ingrowth overfishing. A large part of bycatch — fish that are caughtwhile fishing for more valuable fishes — is generally discarded andwasted. In many instances, juveniles comprise a large percentageof bycatch.

Fishing patterns in the Philippines indicate that fishermen designtheir gears to catch the maximum volume of fish. The prevalentmindset has always been that “if I do not catch these fishes now,others will”. It is common to find a good number of fishing gearsundergoing modifications from their original designs into species-specific or operation-specific gears. In most intances, fish harvestefficiency remains the prime consideration and objective of gearmodification (Armada et al. 2004).

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“The first time I was on a trawler, I was appalled to seethat for every pound of shrimp caught there were 20 poundsof sharks, rays, crabs and starfish killed. The shrimpers callthis bycatch ‘trawl fish’ — I call it biodiversity” (Norse in

Common Dreams News Center)

Unfortunately, some of the most productive and efficient fishingmethods are also the most damaging.

The use of commercial fishing methods and gears in coastal watersare especially damaging to fish populations because in addition totheir efficiency and capacity to indiscriminately catch huge volumesof fish, commercial fishing gears, particularly bottom trawls, bottomgillnets, drift gillnets, etc., scour shallow sea bottoms and destroycoral reef and seagrass habitats.

The effects of trawl fishing are especially cited by scientists to bemost harmful. In 2003, members of the American Association forthe Advancement of Science (AAAS), despite frequent conflict overfisheries issues, presented a study and consensus statementsubsequently published in open letters to media, the UN, fishermen,conservationists and academics. The statement declared that bottomtrawling — a common method to catch shrimp, fish and other bottomdwelling sea life — is the most ecologically damaging fishing gearand called for its restriction or ban. It pointed out that trawl fishing isextremely harmful to the sea floor, altering and damaging habitatsin ways far “more extensive and perhaps even worse than tropicaldeforestation” (SeaWeb, 2003).

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Another destructive fishing method or practice that used to berampant in the Philippines is muro-ami and its variations such asthe pa-aling. This practice employs the use of large stones or heavyblocks of cement tied to ropes which are repeatedly pounded by thefishers on the coral reefs. The objective is to scare the fish out ofcoral crevices onto the waiting nets, smashing the reef into pieces.Though legally banned, the use of this method unfortunately continuesin some parts of the country.

The following gears may be considered “destructive” whenuncontrolled or not regulated:

1. Beach seine: catches juvenile fishes; scrapes seagrass/corals and damage habitats

2. Fish corral: when too closely spaced, does not allow fish toescape and breed

3. Scissor net: very fine mesh nets catch juvenile fishes,shrimps and crabs

4. Drive-in net: catches juvenile fish; scaring devices destroycorals and reef

5. Round-haul seine: Indiscriminately catches large volumesof fish including juveniles and spawners

6. Purse seine/ring net: often encroaches on municipal watersindiscriminately catching large number of fishes therebydepriving small fishers; may entrap sea turtles and marinemammals

41

Gears that may be “destructive” whenunregulated or uncontrolled

purse seine/ring net

round-haul seine

drive-in net

fish corral

scissor net

beach seine

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Growing population andGrowing population andGrowing population andGrowing population andGrowing population andsocial inequitysocial inequitysocial inequitysocial inequitysocial inequity

“The Philippines has one of the highest population growthrates in Southeast Asia and is projected to grow from itscurrent population of 83.7 million to 147.3 million in 2050.”(Population Reference Bureau, 2006)

“Population, health and environment will be the factors thatwill determine if the Philippines will move forwardeconomically in the coming years.” (Dr. Angel Alcala, Path

Foundation, 2006)

Coastal/fishing communities in the Philippines are experiencing rapidpopulation growth, due in part to migration to coastal areas and thelack of effective reproductive health programs. Increasing populationand poverty have put additional pressure on resources, subsequentlyresulting in increasing environmental damage, overfishing anddestruction of habitats. Experience indicates that as the populationdensity increases, the integrity of the environment and quality oflife for the average person living in the coastal area correspondinglydeclines.

43

The 2002 Philippine Census on Fisheries counted 1.8 millionmunicipal fishing operators, a threefold increase from the 584,000fishers recorded in 1980. Municipal fishers dominated the fishingindustry with 1.781 million operators (99.6%) engaged in municipalfishing; only 7.4 thousand were in commercial fishing. More than98% (1.752 million) in municipal fishing sector were individualoperators (NSO, 2005).

Overall in the Philippines, the coastal areas/fishing communitiesare under increasing pressure from rapid population growth (2.3%per year) and the concentration of development activities in thecoastal strip. More than 60% of the population lives within what areconsidered coastal areas. All major cities are coastal and largeindustries are located close to the sea. The urbanization anddevelopment of coastal areas is causing increased displacement offishing communities.

44

The problem facing Philippine fisheries today is not just one ofresource decline but also of social inequity. Population and economicstudies show that marginal fishers comprise a big sector of the“poorest of the poor” in the country.

In a country where marine capture fishing is the sole means oflivelihood for a significant part of the population, the issue ofsustainable food supply becomes all the more urgent and daunting.

Coastal and marine resources have generally been viewed as“common property” to be shared by all. However, as pointed out byfisheries and social scientists, marine resources are not equallydistributed in the sea, with fish tending to aggregate and concentratein certain fishing grounds and habitats, not to mention thecontributing factors of seasonality and weather conditions. As such,and given the vagaries of fishing operations, each fisher tries to gainthe largest profit for himself by employing different strategies totake the most from the sea. This is evident in efforts by fishers tocontinually adapt their gears towards higher efficiency and the drivefor individual competition to increase productivity to sustain theirlivelihood (Yano, 1994).

For the poor, marginalized fishers, dynamite and poison are amongthe cheapest means to harvest fish, easily available and requiringlittle capital investment. Though risky to life and limb and disastrousto the natural environment, these destructive fishing practices willcontinue to be difficult to suppress for as long as small fishers’economic conditions are not improved and affordable alternativesare not made available.

45

The absence of fisheries management at both commercial andmunicipal levels has exacerbated the plight of marginal fishers whonow find competition not just from peers but also from commercialfishers. Although purported to be two distinctly different sectors,commercial and municipal fishers are in fact competing with eachother for the same catch, particularly when commercial fishers intrudeinto municipal waters. Data show that municipal fishers are nowgetting only 45.6% of the total Philippine catch, while commercialfishers are reaping 54.3%. This is in sharp contrast to the 1950swhen 70% of the country’s fish supplies came from the municipalfishing sector (Green et al., 2003).

46

Distribution of fish catch and other resources between municipal andcommercial fishers in the Philippines. (Green et al., 2003; NSO, 2005)

In a situation where fish catch has leveled off and fisheries appearto have reached their maximum production levels, any furtherexpansion of commercial fisheries could only mean the decline ofmunicipal fisheries.

47

To catch more, we need toTo catch more, we need toTo catch more, we need toTo catch more, we need toTo catch more, we need tofish less...fish less...fish less...fish less...fish less...

“The great oceans are exhaustible. Despite the fact thatthe majority of all the resources are now fully exploited,access to these resources remains open in far too manyfisheries around the wolrd. Overinvestment in the fishingindustry exacerbates the problem... Today, there are toomany vessels chasing too few fish...” (Diouf )

“The current world crisis in marine fisheries is a clear-cut global example of the consequences of violating aprinciple of sustainability: if we harvest more thannature can replenish, the resource is diminished. It’s thesame with our bank accounts — if we live on the capital,we soon run out of money.” (Weber, 1994)

Fisheries scientists say the world is now overdrawing on its fishcapital. After decades of rapid growth, the marine catch has stagnatedor fallen in all but two of the world’s fifteen major fisheries. Worldwide,the marine catch is down 5% since 1989, and has failed to stayahead of population increase. FAO assessments indicate that thereis little reason to anticipate a change in this trend (Doulman, 2003).

48

The Philippine situation is reflective of the global situation. Due tothe country’s open access policy, almost anybody who has thecapital can invest in fishing. The subsequent expansion andovercapitalization of thecommercial fishing industry, theunregulated use of highly efficientbut destructive fishing methods,lack of employent opportunitiesin the rural areas as well asburgeoning demands from agrowing population and globalconsumption patterns allcontribute to the increased intensityof fishing pressure. The best available data indicate that Philippinefishery resources are not sustainable given present exploitationpatterns and practices.

The following data from the 2002 Philippine Census on Fisheriesillustrate considerable increase in fishing pressure in terms of numberof fishing gears used.

Type of fishing activity/gear 1980 2002

Municipal fishing

Bag net 29,616 21,911Purse seine/ring net 22,155 51,523Hook & line/long line/troll line/pole & line 3,280,424 9,449,210Beach seine 22,787 100,909Gill net 136,615 1,185,627Round haul seine - 25,206Push net 2,571 201,950Trawl net - 22,901Muro-ami/drive-in netOthers 818,220 4,507,797Not reported - 17,545

Commercial fishing

Bag net 1,031 751Purse seine/ring net 1,064 3,026Hook & line/long line/troll line/pole & line 2,655 54,883Beach seine 135 653Gill net 243 22,701Round haul seine 65 340Push net 154 344Trawl net 729 904Muro-ami/Drive-in net 61 466Others 742 50,622Not reported - 11,523

49

“Inevitably, the vast amount of fishing effort in theworld’s oceans must be reduced — dramatically — ifdepleted fish populations are to have the chance torecover and then operate an ecologically sustainablebasis in the future.” (Greenpeace International, 1999)

Fisheries biologists say that if marine fish are properly managedand fish populations allowed to rebuild, the annual fish catch could

be stabilized, if not increased. Thisrequires the application of an overall

precautionary approach tofisheries in ways that will helpprevent overfishing and triggerrecovery measures in depletedresources.

Number of fishing boats/vessels used by municipal and commercial fishingoperators by size of boat/vessel, Philippines: 1980 and 2002. (NSO, 2005)

Size of boat (in Gross Tonnage) 1980 2002

Municipal fishing 401,827 810.175

3 or less 388,188 777.666Raft 13,639 32,510

Commercial fishing 3,411 10,860

3 or less 179 1,2043.1 - 5.0 1,044 3,0015.1 - 9.0 559 2,2119.1 - 19.0 728 1,42719.1 - 49.0 460 1,49249.1 - 99.0 239 57799.1 - 499.0 200 516More than 499.0 2 177Not reported - 255

Data from this report likewise show considerable increase in fishingvessels between 1980 and 2002 — more than 100% for the municipalfishing sector and three times as much in the commerial fishingsector. Small-scale fishing boats of 3.1-5 GT made up 1/3 of thereported number, but increases occurred in all tonnage, with boatsof more than 499 GT increasing nearly 90 times from 2 in 1980 to177 in 2002 (NSO, 2005).

50

Stop illegal cutting ofmangroves and conversionof mangrove areas to otheruses. Reforest denudedareas.

Stop commercial fishing inmunicipal waters.

Stop the catching of juvenile andspawning fishes. Allow them togrow and reproduce.

Stop the useof illegal anddestructivefishingmethods andgears.

Stop extractionof corals andendangeredspecies.

Reduce fishing effort atboth commercial andmunicipal levels.

Reduce post-harvestlosses

What can be done to help maintain viable fish populations and ensurecontinued food supply from the sea?

The following are some critical actions needed to at least partiallyrestore the natural productivity of Philippine fisheries:

1. Stop illegal and destructive fishing practices2. Reduce fishing effort to sustainable levels3. Protect and manage coastal habitats4. Reduce post harvest losses5. Provide alternative livelihood6. Strengthen capacity for management

51

What needs to be doneProtect breeding/spawning areas.Establish fishing zones.

Establish closed seasonsto allow fish to spawnand reproduce.

Observe meshsize limits/gearrestrictions.

Establish registrationand licensing systems.

Enforce fishery laws. Strengthencapacity for management.

Conduct resourceassessments,monitoring andevaluation.

Formulate andimplement fisheriesand CRM plans.Incorporate reproductivehealth programs.

Conduct continuingstakeholderconsultation andpublic education.Involve womenand youth.

Involve community/stakeholdersin management.

Provide alternativelivelihood.

52

From open access to managedFrom open access to managedFrom open access to managedFrom open access to managedFrom open access to managedfisheries...fisheries...fisheries...fisheries...fisheries...

“With all the knowledge and creativityof fishermen and scientists, we canfish better. We can, and we must —for the future of the oceans and thesustainability of fisheries.” (Norse in

Common Dreams News Center)

There are no easy solutions to the complexand interrelated issues and problems in marine fisheries. Arrestingor reversing ongoing decline in fish populations and the environmentthat nurtures them is a difficult race against time, and a race thatmust be won.

As defined by FAO, fisheries management involves a complex andwide-ranging set of tasks, which collectively have the end goal ofensuring the continued productivity of the resources and theirsustained optimal benefits to society. Fisheries management entailsthe conduct of responsible and sustainable fisheries strategies and

activities within the context ofenvironmental, social, economic

and conservation considerations(Cochrane, 2002).

53

In the Philippines and in many countries around the world, solutionsto capture fisheries problems cannot adequately happen given theexisting social, political and economic norms and policies that favorthe current open access regime and “efficiency in fishing effort”mindset and policy orientation. To ensure a continuous food supplyfrom the sea and improve the life of the majority of its population,the Philippines must move towards a fisheries framework anchoredon the principles of sustainable development and social equity.

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Fisheries in the coastal and marine waters of the country provide substantialbenefits to the Filipino nation. Among others, these fisheries provide food andessential nutrients that are a daily part of the Filipino diet; substantive employmentand sustenance particularly in rural coastal areas; and valuable foreign exchangefor the country’s developing economy. In 2001, these fisheries produced 1.8million t of fish and other fishery products valued at P67.4 billion. Exports of fishand fishery products was 289.4 thousand t valued at P10.7 billion. Per capita fishconsumption during the same year was 26.4 kg per year, which is among thehighest in the world. In 1997, a total of 732.4 thousand fishers were employed inthese fisheries on full and part-time bases. More than these benefits, fisheries incoastal and marine waters are particularly important to food security and socialstability in the country’s rural coastal areas.

Apart from fisheries, the country’s coastal resources (including mangroves,seagrass beds and coral reefs) provide considerable benefits and services to thenation. Mangroves and seagrass beds stabilize coastlines, serve as nurseryhabitats for various organisms, export nutrients to adjacent habitats and performvarious other ecological functions. The country’s coral reefs, covering a totalarea of equivalent to about 10% of the total land area, support highly diversecommunities of marine organisms and provide coastal protection andopportunities for tourism. The annual contribution of coral reefs and mangrovesto the national economy in terms of harvestable resources, tourism, coastalprotection and other uses are conservatively estimated at P54 billion and P3.4billion, respectively.

Sustaining the numerous benefits derived by the Filipino nation from thecountry’s fisheries and coastal resources is seriously threatened by a host ofproblems. Having reviewed the status of these resources based on the bestavailable scientific evidence, we have arrived at the following conclusion:

" The marine fishery resources of the country are severely depleted. Inthe case of demersals, for example, biomass levels are today only 10-

30% of the levels in the late 1940s. For small pelagics, by the 1980s theaverage catch rate was only one-sixth of the rate in the 1950s. In reeffisheries, the present catch rates are among the lowest in the world.

" Coastal habitats that are critical for supporting fisheries are severelydegraded. Less than one-third of mangrove areas remain of the original450,000 ha in 1918, and 95% of the remaining mangroves are secondarygrowth of much lower quality. An estimated half of seagrass beds havebeen lost or severely degraded during the past 50 years. Over 70% ofthe coral reefs in the country are in a poor state, while less than 5% arein excellent condition.

" On the average, about 25-30% of total catch is lost due to improperpostharvest practices. Inefficient marketing results in further economiclosses.

" Commercial and municipal fishers remain locked in intense competitiondespite laws designed to separate their fishing grounds. Conflictsbetween and within these sectors are severe and continue to escalate.

" Poverty is a ubiquitous feature of coastal communities. As high as 80%of small fishers live below the poverty threshold.

" At both national and local levels, our systems for fisheries managementare characterized by: (i) inadequate policies for fisheries and coastalresource management, (ii) weak interagency coordination and weak lawenforcement; and (iii) inadequate human resources and capacity,infrastructure and equipment.

Sustaining the host of benefits obtained from the country’s fisheries andcoastal resources requires urgent and concerted action by responsible authoritiesand the wider community of stakeholders at the national, regional and locallevels. Action is required in the following areas:

" Reduction and rationalization of fishing capacity, including# replacement of open access systems with rights-based licensing

schemes;# removal of subsidies (both direct and indirect);# regulation and rationalization of use and deployment of fishing

gears to reduce bycatch and environmental impacts of fishing;# effective banning of illegal and destructive fishing gears;# responsible fisheries monitoring and enforcement schemes;# fishing zonation schemes to reduce municipal and commercial

conflicts;

# exploring the use of fishery product certification schemes;" Rehabilitation of coastal habitats and environmental quality, including

# wider use of systems of aquatic protected areas;# resources enhancement and rehabilitation programs;# reduction of coastal environmental impacts from land and water-

based activities;" Improved utilization of harvests, including

# improvement of postharvest methods/practices;# improvement of marketing systems;

" Enhanced local stewardship and management of resources, particularly# increased participation by fishers in all aspects of fisheries

management;" Alternative and supplemental livelihood and investment opportunities,

particularly# provision of alternatives to capture fisheries in tandem with closed

seasons, gear restrictions and other measures to ease pressure onfishery resources;

" Capacity-building and institutional strengthening, including upgradingof the policy, regulatory and institutional systems for fisheries andcoastal resources management.

Programs of action in these areas should be built into integrated fisheriesand coastal resources management plans that should be urgently formulatedat the local, regional and national levels. These plans should be put into actionby responsible authorities jointly with the wider community of stakeholdersusing fisheries and coastal resources.

We appeal to responsible authorities and agencies to take stock of theproblems and urgently put in place the necessary programs of action for thebenefit of current and future generations of Filipinos. Recognizing that progressin sustaining the benefits from our coastal resources will take time and sustainedcollaborative efforts, we appeal to the wider community of stakeholders forunity in meeting the challenges ahead.

Adopted at the Workshop on Managementof Philippine Fisheries and Coastal Resources

15 May 2003, Quezon City, Philippines

57

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