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GOAL SETTING, EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABILITY: LIVING SMART IN THE CITY OF FREMANTLE. Sheehy,L. & Dingle,P. ABSTRACT
By providing community based environmental education programs, regional governments can play an important role
in enabling communities and individuals to contribute to sustainability. To be effective these programs must create
positive lifestyle and behavioural changes. A new approach to community based environmental education that
includes goal setting as a behaviour change technique, is presented here. Goal setting is a concept that is now widely
accepted in society and has been proven in many fields as a successful strategy for increasing motivation and
sustaining effort. It is proposed that the use of goal setting in environmental education programs will increase the
adoption of sustainable behaviours through increased motivation, commitment and direction.
The City of Fremantle used this new approach to develop an innovative community based environmental education
program, called ‘Living Smart – for a sustainable community’. Evaluation of the program demonstrated that the Living
Smart program was effective not only in increasing participants environmental knowledge but also in creating positive
environmental behaviour change. The Living Smart program showcases the challenges and benefits for regional
governments in using this environmental education framework, when implementing community based environmental
education programs for sustainability.
INTRODUCTION
Local and Regional Governments have an integral role to play in the path to sustainability through urban
planning, local regulations and the provision of infrastructure and services (Leigh, 2002). Most
environmental problems and solutions have their roots in local activities, therefore the participation and
cooperation of local authorities is essential (Agyeman et al., 1996). Many governments are already taking
steps towards sustainability through their in-house projects and services. However, with human activity the
cause of many local and global environmental problems, the sustainability of an area will largely depend on
the choices and actions of its population. For example, if a government’s innovative waste management
system is to be effective it requires the support, participation and cooperation of the individuals using that
system. Because of their close links to the community, local governments are in a unique position to
engage local people in sustainability through community environmental education programs (Duxbury et
al., 1988).
Contributing to sustainability will require considerable lifestyle and behavioural changes from both
individuals and communities. Creating informed individuals who actively participate in the protection of the
environment and the wise use of natural resources involves not only raising awareness and understanding
but also creating skills and action (Gayford, 1996). The majority of environmental education programs have
focused on providing information (McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). It was assumed that by increasing a person’s
Sheehy, L. and Dingle, P. (2003) Goal setting, education and sustainability: Living smart in the city of Fremantle. In: International Sustainability Conference, 17 - 19 September, Fremantle, Western Australia.
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awareness of environmental issues and thereby improving their environmental attitudes, the appropriate
course of action in terms of personal behaviour would become obvious and would be followed (Gayford,
1996). It is now widely recognised that this linear model of knowledge, attitude and behaviour does not
occur and that a successful environmental education program must do more than simply provide people
with information and expect them to change (Dorricott and Dingle, 1999; Finger, 1994; Geller, 1981).
GOAL SETTING: A BEHAVIOUR CHANGE TECHNIQUE THAT WORKS Goal setting is a cognitive theory of motivation based on the premise that people have specific goals that
they want to achieve (Yearta et al., 1995). It makes the assumption that human behaviour is purposeful
and that goals direct and sustain an individual’s behaviour towards achieving the goal. Therefore, goals act
as an immediate regulator of behaviour (Martin and Manning, 1995). It follows that if goals regulate
behaviour then goal setting could be used as a strategy for changing behaviour. In fact the beneficial
effects of setting goals for improving performance is one of the most robust and replicable findings in
psychological research (Locke et al., 1981). A review of the goal setting literature found that in 90% of
studies, well set goals lead to greater performance than ‘do your best’ goals and no goals (Locke et al.,
1981). Goal setting has been shown to be successful in a wide range of behaviour change programs. In a
program designed to increase dietary fibre consumption, participants who set goals consumed 91% more
fibre than participants who did not set goals (Schnoll and Zimmerman, 2001). When goal setting was used
for improving the composition of students with learning disabilities, their performance increased
significantly and the time they willingly spent on their tasks increased by 170% (Graham et al., 1992). In a
review of behavioural interventions to modify dietary fat, fruit and vegetable intake those interventions that
included goal setting were found to be significantly effective at achieving outcomes and had positive results
more consistently than any other type of intervention (Ammerman et al., 2002).
A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
An environmental education framework which includes goal setting, has been developed and is presented
here, see Figure One. By using this framework, the environmental education program provides participants
with both goal setting skills and action knowledge. Participants set goals to change their behaviour while
continued support and feedback is given to encourage achievement of the goals. The components of this
framework are described in detail below.
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Figure One: A framework for incorporating goal setting in environmental education programs.
Action Knowledge While an increased level of environmental knowledge will not automatically lead to behaviour change, it is
necessary that a person has some knowledge before behaviour change can occur (Dorricott and Dingle,
1999). The provision of environmental information is an essential component of any environmental
education program and consideration should be given to the type of information provided. Environmental
information that solely raises awareness of underlying environmental issues does not teach participants the
skills needed for action or provide the motivation to drive it (Sia et al., 1986). In addition, framing
environmental problems solely in terms of global or national dimensions can imply that such problems are
beyond a person’s sphere of influence (Middlestadt and Greiser, 2001). Rather it is specific environmental
information, and information about positive actions that is the most effective in promoting change (Kantola
et al., 1984; Stern et al., 1987; Van Houwelingen and Van Raaij, 1989). Any raising of awareness about an
issue must include positive messages about how to act, the benefits of the actions and that these actions
will make a difference (Kearney and De Young, 1996).
Goal Setting Skills It is unrealistic to expect environmental practitioners to perpetually intervene to maintain a single behaviour
or that there be enough environmental education programs to target all environmental problems (De
Young, 2000; Kearney and De Young, 1996; McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). By teaching goal setting as a life skill,
participants will have the ability to change their own behaviour. Participants can then continue to change
and improve those behaviours targeted in the program, even after the program is complete. They can also
transfer these skills to other environmental issues and behaviours that they may be concerned about but
were not targeted in the program (Mila and Sanmarti, 1999). Many people use goal setting in areas such as
finances and careers, and believe that setting goals can be an effective way of changing their behaviour.
However, many people do not know how to set goals effectively. The two most consistent findings
concerning goal setting are that specific goals and challenging goals lead to the best performance (Locke,
1968; Locke et al., 1981; Mento et al., 1987; Tubbs, 1986). To increase the chance of goal achievement
and behaviour change, it is important that participants are taught to set effective goals that are specific and
challenging.
Participants
Goal setting skills
Action knowledge
Set goal
Behaviour change
Achieve Goal MOTIVATION
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Setting the Goals Within any environmental education program there will be different levels of knowledge, ability and
motivation amongst participants. The adaptability and openness of the goal setting process will encourage
each participant to change to the best of their ability by setting individual goals that incorporate changes
they are both able and willing to make. The goal setting process includes three essential steps; assessing
and evaluating, setting the goal and identifying motivations.
1. Assessing and evaluating
Participants consider the information and action strategies they have received and think about how they
can apply this to their own lifestyle (i.e. what actions could they take or what existing behaviours could they
improve on). This can be done individually or in small group discussion.
2. Setting the goal
Participants set their own personal goal by writing an overall goal, with specific sub goals and deadlines.
Each participant’s goal will be different depending on what they are already doing, what they are able to do
and their home and lifestyle characteristics. It is important that each participant makes a commitment to a
goal during the program. By obtaining a commitment to change through a written goal the individual is
much more likely to remember and act on that behaviour.
3. Identifying motivations
After the goal is decided on and written down, participants should identify and write down their personal
motivations or reasons for wanting to achieve the goal. Participants should be encouraged to find as many
reasons as they can. The more reasons or motivation they have for doing something, the more effort they
will put in.
Feedback & Support The goals should be measurable so they can provide feedback. Feedback allows people to see how much
progress they have made towards their goal and how much further there is to go. Feedback can motivate
people to work harder to achieve their goal, can reassure them that they are making effective changes or
can persuade them to develop new strategies to achieve their goal (Becker, 1978; Van Houwelingen and
Van Raaij, 1989). Support can be given by establishing networks between participants, providing personal
mentors, newsletters, information lines, website forums or having ongoing contact with the facilitator.
Participants may come across difficulties in achieving their goal. Circumstances may have changed and
they may need to set a new goal or modify an existing goal. If participants have a source from which they
can gain encouragement, ask questions and get ideas, they will be less likely to abandon their goal and will
persist at it for longer.
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LIVING SMART, FOR A SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY
The Living Smart Program is a joint initiative by the City of Fremantle, The Meeting Place Community
Centre and Murdoch University. It is a community environmental education project that aims to increase
awareness of sustainability issues and to provide the community with the knowledge and skills to take
action to improve the sustainability of their homes and their community. The program consisted of a seven
week workshop series run at The Meeting Place Community Centre and covered a range of sustainability
topics including waste, energy, water, chemicals, gardens, health, taking action and simple living. The
Living Smart program used the framework presented in this paper to create an effective program that not
only provided information but also required the participant to actively participate in the program through
goal setting, see Figure Two.
Figure Two: Adapted framework for Living Smart Program
During the seven weeks, one workshop was devoted to learning effective goal setting skills and the
remaining workshops were used to provide action knowledge on the sustainability topics. An information
booklet was also provided which contained additional information, activities, further references and space
for goal setting. At the end of each topic participants discussed in small groups what they had learnt and
what changes they could make. Each person then set a goal to change or improve their behaviour in the
topic area. These were compiled and each topic’s goals were made into a wall chart showing the actions
committed to by all individuals within the group. This was designed to motivate participants by showing
what others were doing and what they were able to achieve together as a group. At the beginning of each
week, time was given to discuss progress towards their goals. This enabled participants to provide
examples of achieving their goal and experiencing benefits or to discuss any difficulties they were having.
Evaluation Methodology Questionnaires, feedback forms and control groups were used to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate
the success of the program. Questionnaires were completed before and after the program and included
scales used to assess knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. These scales are outlined below in Table One.
The pre and post questionnaires were compared to determine if any knowledge, attitude or behavioural
Participant
Goal setting skills (Workshop)
Action knowledge (Workshop)
Set Goal workshop
Feedback Goal Charts Discussion
Support Facilitator Group members
Behaviour change Significant behaviour
Achieve Goal
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changes had occurred as a result of the program. Participants also completed an extensive evaluation form
on participant satisfaction and effectiveness of the program.
Number of questions
Purpose
Environmental Knowledge 10 To assess participants knowledge of environmental issues. Questions were general and covered all topics covered by the course.
General Environmental Attitudes
9 To assess participants attitudes towards the relationship between nature and humankind. Sourced from, The New Environmental Paradigm (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978).
Specific Environmental Attitudes
11 To assess participants attitudes towards the local environment and their impact on it.
Sustainable Behaviours 33 To assess the number and frequency of sustainable behaviours by participants. The behaviours listed were covered in the course.
Table One: Details of scales used in the pre and post intervention questionnaires. Two control groups were used to compare whether changes in participants knowledge, attitudes and
behaviours were a result of the program and not other internal or external factors. One control group was
recruited from an established environmental organisation. The second group was recruited by dropping
letters in the local area. Both groups were asked to participate in a Murdoch University Environmental
Study and no mention of the Living Smart program was made. The environmental control group (envt
group) was simply asked to answer the pre and post intervention questionnaires. The community control
group (comm group) answered the pre and post questionnaires and were also sent an information booklet
that contained the same environmental information (minus the goal setting) that the Living Smart group
received.
Characteristics of the Living Smart Participants While there was considerable variation within the Living Smart group on their scale scores, overall their
scores were high particularly for sustainable behaviours, see Table Two. When comparing these scores
with the control groups there were some apparent differences. The environmental group had the highest
knowledge while the Living Smart group had the most positive behaviour. However, none of the groups
were found to be statistically different (using a one-way ANOVA) from each other on any of the scales in
the pre-intervention questionnaire. Therefore, it is statistically valid to compare these groups.
Minimum Score
Possible
Maximum Score
Possible
Average score
Minimum scored
Maximum scored
Standard Deviation
Environmental Knowledge
0 10 7.71 5 10 1.82
General Environmental Attitudes
-18 +18 9.71 3 18 5.20
Specific Environmental Attitudes
-22 +22 15.36 10 22 4.18
Sustainable Behaviours 0 99 70.86 48 85 13.16 Table Two: Living Smart participants scores on questionnaire scales
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Participants Behaviour Change In the feedback form participants were asked to evaluate the changes they had made to their lifestyle as a
result of participating in the program. In all topic areas participants believed they had improved their efforts
to be environmentally positive after participating in the program, see Figure Three. Participants also
believed the program had been effective in helping them make positive changes for all of the topics
covered, see Figure Four. Importantly 68% of participants said that the program changed the way they
think about lifestyle/ environmental issues.
Environmental Efforts
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
waste gardens power water health chemicals transport action
score
before now Figure Three: Effort of participants to be environmentally positive in the topic areas before and after
participating in the program (rated on a scale of 1 to 7).
Effectiveness of program for change
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
waste gardens power water health chemicals transport action
score
Figure Four: The effectiveness of the program in helping participants make environmentally
positive changes in the topic areas (rated on a scale of 1 to 7).
The scales, in the pre and post intervention questionnaires were compared to see if there were any
changes, see Figures Five and Six. It was found that the participants in the Living Smart program
significantly increased both their environmental knowledge score and their sustainable behaviour score.
The community group, who received a booklet on sustainable living, significantly increased their
environmental knowledge score but did not significantly increase their sustainable behaviour score. These
changes were found to be statistically significant at the 0.05 level using a paired sample t-test. The
environment group, who did not receive any information, did not change on any of the scales.
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Change in Environmental Knowledge
5
6
7
8
9
10
Living Smart Envt Group Comm Group
sco
re
before now
Change in Sustainable Behaviours
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Living Smart Envt Group Comm Group
sco
re
before now
Figure Five: Change in the level of environmental Figure Six: Change in the frequency of sustainable knowledge of the different groups behaviours by the different groups (Μindicates a significant difference) (Μindicates a significant difference)
The Goal Setting Process Overall participants were satisfied with the goal setting process and thought it was effective in helping them
change their behaviour, see Figure Seven. Participants comments indicated that the goal setting was
effective as it increased motivation, was reinforcing and made them more likely to act. For 63% of
participants it was very important that they reach their goal, for 32% it was somewhat important and not
important for 5%. Participants ability to set goals increased from 4.5 to 5.8 (on a scale of 1 to 7) after
participating in the program, see Figure Seven. Over two-thirds (68%) of participants revisited their goals
after setting them in the workshop and 55% of the participants felt that learning goal setting skills had
impacted on other areas of their life.
Evaluation of the Goal setting Process
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
effectiveness
satisfaction
ability - before
ability- after
Figure Seven: Participant evaluation of the goal setting process (scale 1 to 7)
DISCUSSION
Most environmental education programs to date have been ineffective as they do not consider how a
person will change their behaviour. It is just assumed that the desired behaviour change will occur
(McKenzie-Mohr, 2002). The framework presented in this paper actually facilitates behaviour change
through goal setting. Goal setting has been proven as a successful technique for changing behaviour in
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areas such as sport, health and finances. The results from the Living Smart program indicates that it can
also be used as an effective technique for changing behaviour in environmental education programs.
Firstly, the program was found to be effective at increasing participants environmental knowledge. In the
pre-intervention questionnaire their average score was 7.7 from a possible score of ten and this increased
significantly to an average score of 9. The community control group who received the same environmental
information as the Living Smart group (minus the goal setting) also significantly increased their knowledge
score from an average of 7.8 to 8.8. The environmental control group, who had the highest environmental
score to start of with (8.2) but did not receive any environmental information, did not increase their
knowledge. This indicates that the environmental information, which included positive messages about how
to act, the benefits of the actions and that these actions will make a difference, was effective at improving
participants environmental knowledge.
It was also found that the program was effective in increasing the number and frequency of participants
sustainable behaviours. The Living Smart group who scored 71 on the sustainable behaviour scale in the
pre-intervention questionnaire significantly increased their score to 75, out of a possible 99. This increase in
sustainable behaviours was not found in either of the control groups, despite one control group being
provided with the same environmental information as the Living Smart group. This indicates that while the
environmental information provided increased participants knowledge, it was not sufficient for creating
behaviour change. The Living Smart group who participated in the goal setting process was the only group
to change their behaviour, despite already having the highest sustainable behaviour score.
This increase in the sustainable behaviour score is further qualified by participants own evaluation of their
changed behaviour. Firstly, participants believed that they had increased their efforts to be environmentally
positive in all of the topic areas covered. Secondly, participants said that the program was effective in
helping them make positive changes in all the topic areas. In addition, two-thirds of participants said that
the program changed the way they think about lifestyle and environmental issues. Below is what some
participants cited as positive changes they had made as a result of the program.
I have reduced water and energy consumption and manage waste better. Heightened awareness of chemicals in my
world, more diligent about products. ∼
Using freos many eco, organic products and services. Not using the garden tap at all for last five weeks. ∼
Cycle and train to work five days a week. Energy saving Globes on high use lights. Use of greywater on garden. ∼
Rethinking my lifestyle. Buying more organic produce. Decreasing my cleaning products and buying safer products. Become more physically active. Telling more people about recycling and lifestyle changes.
The framework does not just tell people to set a goal nor does it set the goal for them. Instead it uses a
participative goal setting process to increase the likelihood of goal achievement and behaviour change.
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Unless participants are setting the goal willingly and the goal is of their own choosing, the goal will not be
effective (Latham and Locke, 1991). The goal setting process had three steps; assessing and evaluating,
setting the goal and identifying motivations. Participants were highly satisfied with the goal setting process
and thought that it was effective at helping them change their behaviour, refer to Figure Sixteen. Participants felt that it was either important or very important for them to reach their goals and most
participants revisited their goals after the workshop. This process was effective because it encouraged
active participation, created relevance for participants and required participants to make a commitment to
change.
Active participant involvement in environmental education programs is positively related to improving
environmental behaviour (Zelezny, 1999). Many environmental education programs whether in the written
or oral form have only a one-way flow of information, from the organiser to the participant (Ester and
Winett, 1982). This does not allow the participant to actively participate in the program (Myers and
Macnaghten, 1998). This new framework provided opportunities for participants to discuss the information
they have received and share their experiences and knowledge amongst the group. This draws participants
into the program and communication becomes a dynamic flow amongst the participants and facilitator.
Feedback from the Living Smart program found that participants highly valued being able to share their
experiences and knowledge with other participants.
The fact that we were all encouraged to participate made it far more enjoyable and informative
∼ In the time given to talk to others in the group I learnt some effective ways to improve that I hadn’t thought of.
∼ The most positive thing about the program was group dynamics, positive people and exchange of ideas
In many environmental education programs, participants are often bombarded with large volumes of
information in a short space of time, and then sent away with the expectation that they will change. This is
despite the fact that once at home participants will be confronted by other priorities, time constraints and
possibly a lack of support by family members. Behaviours in the home that impact on the environment are
often unconscious habits. These include, washing clothes, heating the house and using appliances. Habits
can be difficult to break and will often require a conscious decision to change and continued effort. This
framework and the goal setting process allows reflection, discussion and strategy development within the
program. This way when participants leave the program they have already considered how the information
and actions they have learnt can be incorporated into their lifestyle. They know exactly what actions to take
when they get home and they have committed to these actions in their goal.
The program motivated me to take action. I was aware of things I could do but didn’t do anything. Action is the key
and every little bit helps. The goal setting gave me the direction/ means to take action, thus the action became attainable.
∼ I love to see things written down so I can be reminded of my goal, which is too easily forgotten with my many daily
chores and responsibilities.
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During the program thirteen topics were covered and participants set a goal for each of the topics. Often
these goals were long term and required continued effort. Some were short term and more easily
accomplished. Importantly though, all participants improved their goal setting skills after participating in the
program and the majority believed that goal setting was an important tool for making positive environmental
changes. Participants now have the skills to achieve the goals they set in the program, to set new goals
and to continue improving their environmental behaviour even though the program is finished. Over half of
the participants felt that learning goal setting skills had impacted on other areas of their life. Thus, the goal
setting is not only important for changing their environmental behaviour but they have also learnt a valuable
skill which they can use to make desired changes in all aspects of their life (Locke and Latham, 1990).
CONCLUSION The framework presented here and used in the Living Smart Program demonstrates how easily goal setting
can be used to design a successful environmental education program. It simply requires additional
information on goal setting and time for going through the goal setting process. Goal setting has already
been proven as a successful technique for changing behaviour but had not been used within community
environmental education programs. The framework presented here used a goal setting process that
included three easy steps; assessing and evaluating, setting the goals and identifying motivations. When
the framework and goal setting process was used in the Living Smart program it enabled participants to
actively participate, to develop a goal which was specific to their life and make a commitment to change.
The Living Smart program not only achieved the objective of increasing knowledge and awareness but also
achieved the much harder objective of changing people’s behaviour. The Living Smart program is an
excellent example of how a local government can use the framework presented here to develop a
community environmental education program that enables communities and individuals to contribute to
sustainability. For local governments who are serious about achieving sustainability, it is imperative that
they develop links with the community so that communities, individuals and governments can make
progress together.
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