Goals of the Bay of Pigs Invasion The United States government was disturbed when Fidel Castro took over Cuba in 1959 and developed ties to the Soviet

Goals of the Bay of Pigs Invasion The United States government was disturbed when Fidel Castro took over Cuba in 1959 and developed ties to the Soviet Union. To overthrow Castro, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) trained a group of Cubans to invade Cuba. President Kennedy approved the resulting Bay of Pigs invasion, which took place on April 17, 1961.

The Bay of Pigs invasion proved to be both a military and diplomatic disaster. Airstrikes failed to destroy Cubas air force, and Cuban troops were more than a match for the invaders. The United States lost credibility for its clumsy invasion tactics as well as its violation of agreements not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere.

Causes of the Berlin Crisis As part of the postWorld War II division of Germany, the city of Berlin in Communist East Germany had been divided into Communist and non-Communist zones. The division of Berlin was planned as a temporary measure. However, the Soviet Union demanded that the division of the city be made permanent, hoping this would reduce the flow of East Germans escaping through Berlin to West Germany.

Effects of the Berlin Crisis In response to Soviet demands, Kennedy increased funding to the military and expanded the size of the armed forces. To avoid a confrontation, the Soviets built a wall to separate the Communist and non-Communist sections of Berlin in August 1961. The Berlin Wall came to be a somber symbol of Cold War tensions.

On October 16, 1962, photographs taken from an American spy plane showed construction of Soviet missile bases in Cuba, about 90 miles from the coast of Florida. The American response to this construction, and the resulting Soviet response, became known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the superpowers to the brink of nuclear war. After much consultation with his advisors, President Kennedy decided to authorize a naval quarantine around Cuba. He demanded that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev cease construction of the missile bases. On October 25, Soviet ships headed for Cuba suddenly reversed direction, called back by Khrushchev. This action led to tremendous relief since confrontation, and the threat of nuclear war, had been avoided.

The Cuban Missile Crisis did not end when Soviet ships reversed their course, however. The end of the crisis came several days later, when Kennedy responded to letters sent from Khrushchev, agreeing to some terms publicly and others in secret. In the end, the Soviet Union agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba. In return, the United States agreed to end the quarantine, stay out of Cuba, and remove missiles of its own from Turkey. As a result of the crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev established a hot line with which they could communicate quickly in case of further crises. In addition, the United States and the Soviet Union, together with Great Britain, signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This treaty banned nuclear testing above the ground.

Kennedy feared that Communist movements would attract support in poor nations by promising people a better future. To counter these movements, Kennedy encouraged people in the Western Hemisphere to join an Alliance for Progress. The Alliance would help build Western-allied stable governments that met the needs of their people. The United States pledged billions of dollars toward this goal. However, many people in Latin America began to view the Alliance as only a tool of the United States to stop the spread of communism. Because of these doubts, the Alliance for Progress was not as much of a success as Kennedy had hoped.

In 1961, Kennedy established the Peace Corps to further his goal of a world in which people worked together peacefully to solve problems. Peace Corps volunteers were Americans who agreed to work side by side with local citizens in poorer nations, teaching skills and improving living conditions. Today, Peace Corps volunteers continue to serve in nations around the world.

The Dominican Republic In 1965, rebels attacked the military-backed government of the Dominican Republic. Johnson believed that the rebels had been backed by Communist supporters. He sent thousands of marines to the Dominican Republic, tipping the balance against the rebels and installing a new provisional government. It turned out that the rebels had not received Communist support after all.

Vietnam Like Kennedy, Johnson was committed to preventing the spread of communism. The ongoing conflict in Southeast Asia between Communist North Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam continued during Johnsons term. Although Johnson at first opposed further United States action in Vietnam, American involvement soon deepened.

The assassination of John F. Kennedy, the thirty-fifth President of the United States, took place on Friday, November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time.

President Kennedy Assassination Facts: JFK was in Dallas, TX on 11/22/63. He was campaigning in the city that day. His motorcade proceeded through the city and he was fatally shot in Dealey Plaza near the end of his motorcade route. His wife, Jacqueline Kennedy and Governor of Texas, John Connally were in the limousine with him.

When the Presidential limousine turned and passed the Texas School Book Depository and continued down Elm Street, shots were fired at Kennedy. The Dallas police sealed off the entrances to the Texas School Book Depository as eyewitnesses professed hearing shots coming from that general direction. Upon investigation of the building a shooting area (now referred to as the snipers nest) was found and later linked to Lee Harvey Oswald The Snipers Nest

Aboard Air Force One, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as President of the United States. To the left is his wife, and to the right still stunned by what happened is Mrs. Kennedy in her blood stained Chanel suit.

Lee Harvey Oswald was, according to three government investigations, the assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963. Oswalds Suspicious Background: A United States Marine who defected to the Soviet Union and later returned. Oswald was a Pro-Castro Supporter. Oswald on November 22, 1963: Oswald was arrested on suspicion of killing Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit Oswald becomes a prime Suspect: The police found his Snipers Nest as they searched the Lee Harvey Oswald Texas School Book Depository As he was about to be taken to the Dallas County Jail, Oswald was shot and fatally wounded before live television cameras in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub operator who said that he had been distraught over the Kennedy assassination. Officer JD Tippit

Rubys Mug shot Ruby fatally Shooting Oswald Jack Leon Rubenstein, who legally changed his name to Jack Leon Ruby in 1947, was an American nightclub operator in Dallas, Texas was convicted on March 14, 1964, of the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after Oswald was arrested for the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. While in jail, he became ill and died of lung cancer on January 3, 1967.

The cost of the funeral was $710.00. Buried at Rose Hill Cemetery. Secret Service was in attendance.

His final journey was from St. Matthews to Arlington Cemetery. Just as the 1960s debate changed politics, so did JFKs funeral as it was watched by millions of Americans on television. The most famous photo of JFKs son saluting his casket as he says goodbye to his father one last time. November 25, 1963

"I have a piece of his brain in my hand. "My God, they have shot his head off." I want them to see what they have done to my husband. -All Quotes from Mrs. Kennedy The Assassination

Conflicting testimony about the autopsy performed on President Kennedy's body. Particularly as to when the examination of the president's brain took place. Who was present and whether or not the photos submitted as evidence are the same as those taken during the examination. (exit wound in the front or back of head?) However, while the President's autopsy was underway at Bethesda Naval Hospital, federal agents removed the X-rays of the body from custody of the examining doctors. Though the X-rays undoubtedly would have been valuable in determining trajectories of the bullets hitting the President, and thus the shooter's location, they are neither published nor alluded to in the Warren Report.

The conclusion of the Warren Commission Report on the JFK Assassination was: Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the killing of Kennedy and the wounding of Texas Governor John Connally. In the years following the release of its report and 26 investigatory evidence volumes in 1964, the Warren Commission has been frequently criticized for some of its methods, important omissions, and conclusions.

According to the single-bullet theory, a three-centimeter-long copper-jacketed lead- core 6.5-millimeter rifle bullet fired from the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository passed through President Kennedys neck and Governor Connallys chest and wrist and embedded itself in the Governors thigh. Horizontal View From above

Bullet fired from 6 th floor of TSBD entered 5.75 BELOW President Kennedys collar and through his neck. From his neck it passed through Governor Connellys chest/right armpit. From his chest/armpit area, it exited by his nipple and into his RIGHT wrist. And from his RIGHT wrist, the bullet landed in the Governors LEFT thigh. The Magic Bullet or Commission Exhibit 399.

United States House of Representatives Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) was established in 1976 to investigate the John F. Kennedy assassination. In its final report in 1979, it concluded that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, probably as a result of a conspiracy. The members of this probable conspiracy were not identified.

Oswald fired THREE shots at JFK. Shots 2 and 3 hit him, shot 3 killed him. Scientific acoustical evidence gives high probability of at least two gunmen fired. Assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. But they would not say whom. They did say who was not involved: Soviets, Castro/Anti- Castro groups, Mafia, Secret Service, F.B.I, and C.I.A. were NOT involved in the conspiracy But what about the Grassy Knoll???

The grassy knoll of Dealey Plaza is a small, sloping hill inside the plaza that became famous following the John F. Kennedy assassination. Of the 104 earwitness reports published by the HCSA Commission and elsewhere, 35 recorded testimony of shots from the direction of the grassy knoll.

Clockwise from Top Left: Carcano bolt action rifle. The bullets that were taken from JFK during autopsy. A shell casing from the murder weapon.

There are many conspiracy theories regarding who was behind the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963 that arose soon after his death and continue to be promoted today. Some of these include: CIA KGB American Mafia FBI director J. Edgar Hoover Former Vice President Richard Nixon Sitting Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson Cuban president Fidel Castro Anti-Castro Cuban exile groups The Federal Reserve The military-industrial complex Representatives of Big Business or some combination of those entities and individuals

The Vietnam War (19541975)

Background of the War According to President Eisenhowers domino theory, if one Southeast Asian nation fell to communism, others would soon follow. Ho Chi Minh, a pro- Communist leader in Vietnam, led a group called the Vietminh against French control of his nation before, during, and after World War II.

Background of the War After the Vietminh successfully defeated the French in 1954, a peace agreement called the Geneva Accords divided Vietnam into Communist North Vietnam and anti-Communist South Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh led North Vietnam, while Ngo Dinh Diem led South Vietnam. The United States began providing economic aid to the French in Vietnam in 1950. In 1960, President Eisenhower sent hundreds of military advisors to help South Vietnams struggle against the North.

Kennedys Vietnam Policy Diems Downfall During the early 1960s, Ngo Dinh Diems policies lost him the support of his people. Realizing that the struggle against communism could not be won under Diems rule, President Kennedy told South Vietnamese military leaders that the United States would not object to Diems overthrow. In November 1963, military leaders seized control of South Vietnam and assassinated Diem.

Kennedys Vietnam Policy McNamaras Role Robert McNamara, President Kennedys Secretary of Defense, was influential in shaping American policy toward Vietnam. McNamara used his strong business background to cut costs while modernizing the armed forces. In the coming years, McNamara would push for direct American involvement in Vietnam.

President Johnson and Communist Advances Shortly after Diems assassination in November 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated, and Vice President Johnson assumed the presidency. In South Vietnam, the military leaders who had taken over the government were unsuccessful and unpopular. As a result, Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam, known as the Viet Cong, made gains in both territory and loyalty. The Viet Congs political wing was known as the National Liberation Front.

Expanding Presidential Power The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution In August 1964, Johnson announced that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had attacked American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. However, some people doubted that this incident had happened and believed it was only an excuse for further U.S. involvement in Vietnam. What Inspired the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, passed by Congress in 1964, regarded peace and security in Southeast Asia as vital to American national interest, and it gave the President additional powers to assist any Southeast Asian country requesting assistance in defense of its freedoms. What Was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? Under the resolution, the President had authority to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression. The resolution, therefore, changed the balance of power between Congress and the President. What Additional Powers Did It Give the President?

Battlefield Conditions American Troops Had superior weapons Were unprepared for heat, terrain, or guerrilla tactics Lacked support of most South Vietnamese Most never saw the enemy but constantly faced the possibility of sudden danger. Viet Cong Troops Fought as guerrillas; avoided head- on clashes Were familiar with terrain; had support of many South Vietnamese Built and hid in elaborate underground tunnels

The Air and Ground Wars Some Weapons Used in the Vietnam War Land Mines Land mines,which can be set off by the pressure of a footstep, are explosive devices planted in the ground. Viet Cong landmines killed and wounded both American GIs and Vietnamese civilians. Saturation Bombing American B-52 bomber planes dropped thousands of tons of explosives, resulting in saturation bombing of North Vietnam.

The Air and Ground Wars Fragmentation Bombs Fragmentation bombs, dropped by Americans over both North and South Vietnam, threw pieces of their thick metal casings in all directions when they exploded. In South Vietnam, fragmentation bombs killed and maimed countless civilians. Agent Orange American pilots dropped an herbicide called Agent Orange over Vietnamese jungles, killing vegetation and exposing Viet Cong hiding places. Agent Orange was later discovered to cause health problems in livestock and humans. Napalm Another chemical weapon used in Vietnam, napalm,was a jellylike substance which, when dropped from planes splattered, and burned uncontrollably.

The Ho Chi Minh Trail North Vietnamese troops and supplies entered South Vietnam via the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a route that passed through Laos and Cambodia.

The Tet Offensive: A Turning Point On January 30, 1960, the Viet Cong and North Vietnam launched a major offensive. This series of attacks was called the Tet Offensive since it occurred during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year. During and after the Tet Offensive, both sides were guilty of brutal atrocities. Communists slaughtered anyone they labeled an enemy; Americans massacred hundreds of civilians at My Lai, a small village in South Vietnam. A helicopter crew that stopped the massacre was later rewarded, and the officer who had ordered it was imprisoned. Because Americans now knew that the Viet Cong could launch massive attacks, and because no end to the war was in sight, the Tet Offensive proved to be a major psychological victory for the Viet Cong and a turning point in the war.

Student Activism Student Activism in the 1960s Generation Gap Young Americans in the 1960s had many opportunities unknown to previous generations; many also questioned the values of their parents. These factors contributed to a wider generation gap between college-aged youths and their parents. Students for a Democratic Society and the New Left Organized in 1960, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) had a major impact on the New Left, a political movement that advocated radical changes to deal with problems such as poverty and racism.

Student Activism The Free Speech Movement Student protests for free speech at the University of California at Berkeley inspired similar movements elsewhere, including challenges to social restrictions on campuses. The Teach-in Movement Begun at the University of Michigan in March 1965, teach-ins, or special sessions at which issues concerning the war could be discussed, soon became a popular means of expressing antiwar sentiment. Continued Protests Hundreds of demonstrations continued at colleges and universities around the country. One of the most dramatic, at Columbia University in New York City, linked the issues of civil rights and the war.

Draft Resistance To increase the available fighting force, the United States invoked the Selective Service Act of 1951, drafting young men between the ages of 18 and 26 into the armed forces. Most of those who refused to be drafted in the early 1960s were conscientious objectors, people who opposed fighting on moral or religious grounds. As the Vietnam War progressed, the draft-resistance movement grew, with many young men burning their draft cards or fleeing the country to avoid the draft. At first, college students could receive a deferment, or postponement of their call to serve. Deferments were eliminated in 1971 in response to complaints that they were unfair to those who could not afford college.

Nixons Vietnam Policy Toward the end of his term as President, Johnson had called for peace negotiations to end the Vietnam War. However, the resulting Paris peace talks, which began in May 1968, failed to produce an agreement. President Nixon campaigned on the claim that he had a secret plan to end the war. In June 1969, he began the policy of Vietnamization, replacing American troops in Vietnam with South Vietnamese soldiers. Although Nixon wanted to end the war, he did not want to lose it. He therefore launched secret bombing raids and expanded the war to Cambodia, hoping to destroy Viet Cong camps there. Nixon hoped his Cambodian attacks would help America in peace negotiations. Instead, the attacks resulted in both civil war in Cambodia and more antiwar protests in the United States.

Nixon Calls for Law and Order The Silent Majority Nixon had campaigned promising a return to law and order. As President, he strengthened this position, discouraging protest against the war. In a 1969 speech, Nixon appealed to those who, he felt, quietly supported his policies. He referred to this group of Americans as the silent majority. Kent State and Jackson State When student antiwar protesters at Kent State University in Ohio reacted angrily to Nixons invasion of Cambodia, Nixon ordered the National Guard to Kent State. After students threw rocks at the guardsmen, the troops opened fire, killing and wounding both protesters and bystanders. The violence at Kent State, and a similar incident at Jackson State in Mississippi, horrified Americans.

American Withdrawal Provisions of Peace Settlement Between the United States, South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong,Signed in Paris in January 1973 The United States would withdraw all its forces from South Vietnam within 60 days. All prisoners of war would be released. All parties to the agreement would end military activities in Laos and Cambodia. The 17th parallel would continue to divide North and South Vietnam until the country could be reunited.

Aftermath of the War in Asia South Vietnam Falls After American forces had withdrawn, North Vietnam attacked strategic cities in South Vietnam, ending with its capital, Saigon. Following a last-minute evacuation of both American soldiers and Vietnamese refugees, South Vietnam surrendered in April 1975, and Vietnam became unified under a Communist government. Southeast Asia After the War In April 1975, Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, a Communist force led by Pol Pot. The Khmer Rouge killed a quarter of the Cambodian population, claiming they were tainted with Western ways. Vietnams new leaders forced hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese into reeducation camps; refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, and newly Communist Laos fled their home countries.

The Legacy of the War With a cost of at least $150 billion, and hundreds of thousands of American soldiers killed or wounded, the Vietnam War was the longest and least successful war in American history. Thousands of American soldiers who did not return home after the war were listed as POWs (prisoners of war) or MIAs (missing in action). Many remain unaccounted for today. In Vietnam, millions were dead or wounded, many of them civilians. The war also heavily damaged the landscape of Vietnam. In 1994, the United States lifted its trade embargo against Vietnam; in 1995, full diplomatic relations were restored.

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Designed by 21-year old Maya Ying Lin and completed in 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial stands near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. It consists of a long wall of black granite, listing the names of every American who died in the Vietnam War. Since its completion, visitors have added to the memorial by leaving personal tokens at the wall in memory of their loved ones.

Nixon in Person Although he had a reserved and remote personality, many Americans respected Nixon for his experience and service. Nixon was willing to say or do anything to defeat his enemies, who included political opponents, the government bureaucracy, the press corps, and leaders of the antiwar movement. Believing that the executive branch needed to be strong, Nixon gathered a close circle of trusted advisors around him.

Nixons Staff Nixons Close Advisors H. R. Haldeman After campaigning tirelessly for Nixon, advertising executive H. R. Haldeman became Nixons chief of staff. John Ehrlichman Lawyer John Ehrlichman served as Nixons personal lawyer and rose to the post of chief domestic advisor. John Mitchell Asked to be Attorney General after working with Nixons campaign in New York, Mitchell often spoke with Nixon several times a day. Henry Kissinger Although he had no previous ties to Nixon, Harvard government professor Henry Kissinger first became Nixons national security advisor and later his Secretary of State.

Domestic PolicyOil and Inflation During Nixons first few years in office, unemployment and inflation rose, and federal spending proved difficult to control. In response, Nixon turned to the practice of deficit spending, or spending more money in a year than the government receives in revenues. He also imposed two price freezes lasting several months each. When the United States supported its ally Israel in a war against Egypt and Syria in 1973, the Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed an embargo, or ban, on shipping oil to the United States. The resulting shortage resulted in high oil prices, which in turn drove inflation even higher.

Domestic PolicySocial Programs Although Nixon himself supported cutting back or eliminating federal social programs, he did not want to alienate those voters who favored them. Under Nixons New Federalism, states were asked to assume greater responsibility for the well-being of their citizens, taking some of this responsibility away from the federal government.

The Southern Strategy Nixons Views on Civil Rights Nixon did not support advances in civil rights, believing that to do so would cost him the support of many white southern voters. Hoping to win over white southern Democrats, Nixon sought a southern strategy which would keep his supporters happy. Results of Nixons Views Nixons views resulted in a slowdown of desegregation. Although Nixon tried to prevent the extension of certain provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Congress went ahead with the extension. Busing to end segregation in schools was slowed, but not halted entirely, by Nixons opposition to it.

Nixons Supreme Court During Nixons first term in office, four of the nine Supreme Court justices either died, resigned, or retired. This gave him the opportunity to name four new justices and, thus, reshape the court. Warren Burger, Nixons choice for Chief Justice, was a moderate. However, Nixons later appointees reflected his conservative views. The Senate rejected two of Nixons nominees from the South, charging that they showed racial bias.

The First Moon Landing During Nixons presidency, the United States achieved its goal of a successful moon landing. On July 20, 1969, Neil A. Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon. He was joined by Edwin E. Buzz Aldrin, Jr., a fellow crewman on the Apollo 11 spacecraft. Television viewers around the world watched the moon landing, and Apollo 11s crew were treated as heroes when they returned.

Henry Kissinger Practical Politics Kissinger admired the European political philosophy of practical politics. Under this policy, nations make decisions based on maintaining their strength rather than on moral principles. Kissinger applied this approach to his dealings with China and the Soviet Union, which led to better diplomatic relations with both nations.

Public Opinion Kissinger understood the power of the media and was able to use it to shape public opinion. Kissingers efforts in ending the Vietnam War and easing Cold War tensions made him a celebrity. He topped a list of most-admired Americans, was often featured on the cover of Time magazine, and in 1973 shared the Nobel peace prize.

Dtente Although Nixon had built a reputation as a strong anti-Communist, he and Kissinger reversed the direction of postwar American foreign policy by holding talks with China and the Soviet Union. Nixon and Kissingers greatest accomplishment was in bringing about dtente, or a relaxation in tensions, between the United States and these Communist nations.

Complex Foreign Affairs Kissinger understood that foreign affairs were more complicated than just a standoff between the United States and communism. The Soviet Union and China, once allies, had become bitter enemies. This development had the potential to reshape global politics.

A New Approach to China Easing Relations Between the United States and China Historical Background After its Communist takeover in 1949, the United States refused to recognize the Peoples Republic of China, viewing the government of Taiwan as the legitimate Chinese rulers. Steps to Ease Relations During the early 1970s, relations eased between the United States and the Peoples Republic of China. Nixon referred to the nation by name, travel and trade restrictions were lifted, and American table-tennis players visited China, beginning Ping-Pong diplomacy. Nixons Visit to China In February 1972, Nixon became the first American President to visit China. Touring Chinese sites in front of television cameras, Nixon established the basis for future diplomatic ties during his visit. Recognizing the Chinese Government The United States decided to join other nations in recognizing the Chinese government. In October 1971, Taiwan lost its seat in the United Nations to the Peoples Republic of China.

Limiting Nuclear Arms Nixon viewed arms control as a vital part of his foreign policy. Although he had taken office planning to build more nuclear weapons, Nixon came to believe that achieving balance between the superpowers was a better strategy than an increasing nuclear arms race. In 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, known as SALT I. In this treaty, both nations agreed to freeze the number of certain types of missiles at 1972 levels. SALT I demonstrated that arms control agreements between the superpowers were possible. However, it did not reduce the number of weapons that either nation possessed, nor did it halt the development of conventional weapon technologies.

Battling Political Enemies Nixons suspicious and secretive nature caused the White House to operate as if it were surrounded by political enemies. One result of this mind-set was the creation of an enemies list, a list of prominent people seen as unsympathetic to the administration. When someone in the National Security Council appeared to have leaked secret government information to the New York Times, Nixon ordered that wiretaps, or listening devices, be installed on the telephones of some news reporters and members of his staff. Leaks to the press continued, including former Defense Department official Daniel Ellsbergs leak of the Pentagon Papers, a government study that revealed widespread deception about the situation in Vietnam. In response, Nixon organized a special White House unit, nicknamed the Plumbers, to stop government leaks. In September 1971, the Plumbers broke into the office of Ellsbergs psychiatrist, hoping to punish Ellsberg by disclosing damaging personal information about him.

Nixons Reelection Campaign Campaign Funding The Committee to Reelect the President, led by John Mitchell, aimed to collect as much campaign money as possible before a new law required such contributions to be reported. The money that the Committee collected was intended to fund both routine campaign activities and secret unethical actions. Dirty Tricks Attempts to sabotage Nixons political opponents came to be known as dirty tricks. These efforts included sending hecklers to disrupt Democratic campaign meetings and assigning spies to join the campaigns of opposing candidates. One particularly damaging dirty trick involved a faked letter that seriously hurt the candidacy of Edmund Muskie, a leading Democratic presidential contender.

The Watergate Break-In In March 1972, a group within the Committee to Reelect the President made plans to wiretap the phones at the Democratic National Committee Headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, D.C. This group was led by E. Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy. The groups first attempt failed. During their second attempt on June 17, 1972, five men were arrested. The money they carried was traced directly to Nixons reelection campaign, linking the break-in to the campaign. The break-in and the coverup which resulted became known as the Watergate scandal.

The Watergate Coverup Although Nixon had not been involved in the break- in, he became involved in its coverup. He illegally authorized the CIA to try to persuade the FBI to stop its investigation of the break-in, on the grounds that the matter involved national security. Nixon advisors launched a scheme to bribe the Watergate defendants into silence, as well as coaching them on how to lie in court. During the months following the break-in, the incident was barely noticed by the public. Nixon won the 1972 election by a landslide.

The Scandal Unfolds The Watergate Trial At the trial of the Watergate burglars in early 1973, all the defendants either pleaded guilty or were found guilty. Judge John J. Sirica, presiding over the trial, was not convinced that the full story had been told. He sentenced the burglars to long prison terms, suggesting that their terms could be reduced if they cooperated with upcoming Senate hearings on Watergate. Woodward and Bernstein Two young Washington Post reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, were influential in tracking down information to uncover the Watergate story. Woodward and Bernstein believed that the White House would prove to be involved in the Watergate scandal.

The Scandal Unfolds The Senate Investigates Aided by Woodward and Bernstein and by the testimony of one of the Watergate burglars, a Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities began to investigate the Watergate affair. Millions of Americans watched the Senate hearings unfold on national television. Nixon attempted to protect himself by forcing two top aides to resign and by proclaiming that he would take final responsibility for the mistakes of others. A Secret Taping System During the Senate hearings, Alexander Butterfield, a former presidential assistant, revealed the existence of a secret taping system in the Presidents office. The taping system had been set up to provide a historical record of Nixons presidency. Now it could be used to show whether or not Nixon had been involved in the Watergate coverup.

The Saturday Night Massacre In an effort to demonstrate his honesty, in May 1973 Nixon agreed to the appointment of a special prosecutor for the Watergate affair. A special prosecutor works for the Justice Department and conducts an investigation into claims of wrongdoing by government officials. The Watergate special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, insisted that Nixon release the White House tapes. Nixon ordered him fired on Saturday, October 20, 1973, beginning a series of resignations and firings that became known as the Saturday Night Massacre.

An Administration in Jeopardy Problems in the Nixon Administration, 19731974 Nixons public approval rating plummeted after his firing of Cox. When Coxs replacement, Leon Jaworski, also requested that Nixon turn over the tapes, Nixon turned over edited transcripts instead. Feelings of anger and disillusionment arose among many who read them. Vice President Spiro Agnew, accused of evading income taxes and taking bribes, resigned in early October 1973. His successor, Gerald Ford, was not confirmed until two months later.

Impeachment Hearings and Nixons Resignation After the Saturday Night Massacre, Congress began the process of determining if they should impeach the President, or charge him with misconduct while in office. In the summer of 1974, the House Judiciary Committee voted to impeach Nixon on numerous charges. Conviction, and removal from office, seemed likely. On August 5, 1974, Nixon released the White House tapes, with an 18 1/2 minute gap. Even with this gap, the tapes revealed his involvement in the Watergate coverup. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned, the first President ever to do so. Gerald Ford was sworn in as the new President.

Ford Becomes President When Gerald Ford took over the Presidency following Nixons resignation, he was viewed as a popular and noncontroversial political figure. Ford named New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller as Vice President, rounding off an administration in which neither the President nor the Vice President had been elected.

The Nixon Pardon At the beginning of Fords presidency, Time magazine noted a mood of good feeling and even exhilaration in Washington. However, this was soon to change. A month after Nixons resignation, Ford pardoned the former President for all offenses he might have committed, avoiding future prosecution. This decision proved to be unpopular, both among the general public and among Nixon loyalists still facing prosecution. As a result, many Republicans were voted out of office in the 1974 congressional elections.

Economic Problems The Economy Stalls Preoccupation with Watergate had prevented Nixon from dealing with the economy. By 1974, both inflation and unemployment were rising, making the economy stagnant. Economists named this situation stagflation. Although Ford tried to restore public confidence in the economy with the voluntary Whip Inflation Now, or WIN program, he later recognized the need for more direct action. Government Spending and Conflicts With Congress Although Ford was generally against government spending, he supported an increase in unemployment benefits and a tax cut in an effort to help the economy. Ford was often at odds with the Democratic-controlled Congress, which wanted the government to take a more active role in the economy. In response to Fords vetoes, Congress created the highest percentage of veto overrides since the 1850s.

Foreign PolicySoutheast Asia When North Vietnam began a new offensive against the South in the spring of 1975, Ford asked for military aid to help South Vietnam. However, both Congress and the American people were against further involvement in Vietnam. To prevent such involvement, Congress was prepared the invoke the War Powers Act, a Nixon-era law limiting the Presidents ability to involve the United States in foreign conflicts without receiving a formal declaration of war from Congress. When Communist Cambodia captured the American merchant ship Mayaguez, Ford sent the marines to recapture the ship. Forty- one American lives were lost in the effort, but the incident dispelled impressions of American weakness in Southeast Asia.

Foreign Policy - Asia, Europe, and Africa Asia Ford continued Nixons goals of friendship with China and was the first American President to visit Japan. Europe and the Soviet Union In 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, a series of agreements on European security. He also continued Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) with the Soviet Union. Africa Fords administration aimed to develop relationships with African countries newly independent from colonial rule.

The Nations Birthday Americas bicentennial, or 200th anniversary, provided Americans, discouraged by Watergate, Vietnam, and the economy, an opportunity to celebrate. Parades, concerts, air shows, political speeches, and fireworks took place on and around July 4, 1976, the 200th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

To understand todays troubles we have to go back way back. There have been 4 attempts to invade and control its people. 1). Alexander the Great 320 B.C.E. 2). Genghis Khan 1200 C.E. 3). The British Empire (3 times)! 4). The Soviet Union

Alexander the Great - Led the worlds largest army across the known world, conquering every empire in his path. - Died in Babylon (Iraq) on his way home at 32. - On his death bed whispered his last words: "I defeated the Persians, and I swung through the Pyramids, But, I wept in Bactria" (ancient name for Afghanistan)

Genghis Khan Well known as a bad dude. Remembered for his willingness to kill EVERYONE! While he had some success in Afghanistan it was the only place his empire couldnt hang on to.

What do all of these nations have in common? They were all the biggest army in the world at the time of their involvement in Afghanistan. They relied on huge shows of military force using advanced military technology and brute force. They underestimated the power of the tribal groups of this region. Each new invader brought new religious beliefs. Losses: Geography and tribal infrastructure.

The Soviets USSR invades Afghanistan to support the communist government against Northern India. The US helps the Mujahadeen overthrow the USSR why?

1979 was during the Cold War, a time when the USA was a rival to the Soviet Union. The USA wanted to help Afghans fight the Soviets. The CIA sent stinger missiles to Afghans to shoot down Soviet helicopters.

MujahadeenThe Freedom Fighters - Using guerilla tactics, Mujahedeen fighters destroyed both military and civilian targets like bridges, roads and buildings. - They assassinated key military and political leaders.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan had many lasting effects. 1). Some of these include: Nearly 1.5 million undetonated land mines. Some statistics say that up to 1 in every 5 children have lost a limb to unexploded mines and artillery. Mines shaped like toys. 2). Afghanistan has the distinct honor of having one of the highest numbers of orphans in any country. This is a result of nearly constant war since 1979. Life expectancy is 45 years.

Lasting effects of the Soviet Invasion 3). A generation of Afghan children orphaned by the war with little guidance, education or support. The Result: A perfect place to be recruited by groups like the Taliban and Al Qaeda (Madrassas)

Lasting Effects of the Soviet Invasion 4). The Birth of Global Jihad The single most lasting effect of the invasion by the Soviet Union was the gathering of Islamic fighters to the cause of defending their version of Islam.

The Fight for Control of Afghanistan After the final Soviet troops left in 1989, the battle for who would run Afghanistan began.

Rise of the Taliban According to our experts on the Taliban, it was during this time that the various Mujahedeen fighters saw an opportunity to spread their control over Afghanistan. Battle Royale for Control of Afghanistan! The Northern Alliance The Taliban VS. Ahmed Shah Masood Mullah Omar

Rise of the Taliban From the withdrawal of the Soviet army in 1989 until the Taliban (some were former Mujahadeen) take control of the capital Kabul, the nation was thrown into yet another period of destruction. In September of 1996 the Taliban became the official government of Afghanistan. They threw out the existing constitution and established strict Sharia Law.

Life under the Taliban According to The Encyclopedia of the Muslim World,edited by Richard C. Martin The Taliban enjoyed great support of the population of Afghanistan following decades of endless fighting. According to the NY Times reporter Amy Pines Under the Taliban regime, Sharia Law was interpreted to ban a wide variety of activities hitherto lawful in Afghanistan: employment, education and sports for women, movies, television, videos, music, dancing, hanging pictures in homes, clapping during sports events, kite flying, and beard trimming. Life under the Taliban Pines. NY Times, Nov. 23 2001. One Taliban list of prohibitions included: pork, pig, pig oil, anything made from human hair, satellite dishes, cinematography, and equipment that produces the joy of music, pool tables, chess, masks, alcohol, tapes, computers, VCRs, television, anything that propagates sex and is full of music, wine, lobster, nail polish, firecrackers, statues, sewing catalogs, pictures, Christmas cards. [11] Theft was punished by the amputation of a hand, rape and murder by public execution. Married adulterers were stoned to death. In Kabul, punishments were carried out in front of crowds in the city's former soccer stadium. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/taliban/life-under-the-taliban

Talibans Islam Women covered in full covering, a Chadri. No education for girls. Global Jihad Focus on destruction of all things modern and western, or even other Muslim countries that communicate with non-Muslim countries. The desire to return to the golden era of Islam (the 1400s) Everyone Elses Islam Head covered, a Hijab. Internal Jihad According to the Averroes Foundation Developing in the modern world, developing relationships with other nations, being a citizen of the world

What is al-Qaeda? Al Qaeda is a stateless (meaning without a country) terrorist organization. It is led and financed by Osama bin Laden, a radical Shia Muslim.

When did al-Qaeda form? The beginnings of al-Qaeda go back to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

The Birth ofAl Qaeda During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan Osama Bin Laden played a huge role in recruiting young Muslim fighters to the cause of global jihad. While he participated in few actual battles in Afghanistan, Bin Laden became known for his generous funding of the jihad against the Soviets. While the Taliban wanted only Afghanistan for their own, Bin Laden had dreams of spreading this movement all around the world.

What changes did Jimmy Carter bring to the presidency? How did Carter deal with domestic issues? What ideals guided Carters foreign policy? What factors influenced the outcome of the 1980 election?

Although Gerald Ford had the advantage of being the incumbent, or current office holder, he faced strong opposition from Republicans inside his own party during the 1976 presidential election. Democrat James Earl (Jimmy) Carter won the election by a narrow margin. Carter had no national political experience and lacked an ability to win reluctant politicians over to his side. Nevertheless, he was well-liked for his informal approach to the presidency. As President, Carter appointed more women and minorities to his staff than previous administrations.

Economic Issues Carter had inherited an unstable economy in which inflation and unemployment continued to grow. In response, Carter cut federal spending, mostly on social programs. This cut angered liberal Democrats. As bond prices fell and interest rates rose, Americans lost confidence in Carter and his economic advisors.

Deregulation Carter felt that government controls on certain industries, put in place in the 1800s and early 1900s, hurt competition and increased consumer costs. His move toward deregulation, the reduction or removal of government controls, affected the energy, railroad, trucking, and airline industries. This move, which continued during the next two administrations, also angered many Democrats.

Energy Issues During Carters Presidency Carters Energy Plan To save on rising oil prices, Carter asked Americans to conserve fuel in their homes, cars, and businesses. He also created a new Cabinet department, the Department of Energy. Response to Carters Energy Plan States that produced oil and gas fiercely opposed Carters conservation plans. The National Energy Act, passed in 1978, incorporated many of Carters directives. Alternative Energy Sources and Three Mile Island One of Carters goals was to seek alternative energy sources. A partial meltdown of a nuclear reactor at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, eroded peoples confidence in nuclear power.

Carters concern for moral values influenced his civil rights actions. Soon after taking office, he granted amnesty, or a general pardon, to those who had evaded the draft during the Vietnam War. Many of Carters staff appointments won the approval of African Americans. However, many African Americans were disappointed by his weak support for social programs. Affirmative action policies, which aimed to make up for past discrimination against women and minorities, were a controversial issue during Carters presidency. In the landmark case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, the Supreme Court ruled that race could be a factor in school admissions but that numerical quotas could not be used.

Camp David Accords In 1978, Carter brought Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin together for negotiations at Camp David. The resulting framework for Middle East peace, known as the Camp David Accords, was an important step toward peace in the Middle East. Under its terms, Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt became the first Arab country to recognize Israel officially.

Soviet-American Relations Although dtente was at a high point when Carter took office, by the end of his term it was effectively dead. Soviets were angered by Carters support of Soviet dissidents, writers and other activists who criticized the actions of their government. Although a second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) was begun, the resulting treaty was never ratified. Still, both nations followed its terms.

Late in 1979, the Soviet Union invaded neighboring Afghanistan to bolster a Soviet- supported government there. Carter called the invasion a clear threat to the peace and took steps to show American disapproval of the Soviet aggression. As one of these steps, Carter imposed a boycott on the 1980 summer Olympic Games to be held in Moscow. Sixty other nations eventually joined the boycott.

In January 1979, revolution broke out in Iran, replacing its pro-American shah, Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi, with Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, an anti- Western leader. When Carter allowed the displaced shah to enter the United States for medical treatment, angry Khomeini followers seized the American embassy in Tehran, Irans capital. Fifty-two Americans were taken hostage and moved from place to place over the course of 444 days. Carters failed attempts to secure the hostages freedom decreased his popularity and made his chances for reelection appear slim.

By the end of Carters term, his administration had lost the confidence of many Americans. Although Carter ran for reelection, the nation instead chose conservative Republican candidate Ronald Reagan by a landslide. In early 1981, following months of secret talks, Iran agreed to release the hostages. President Reagan sent Carter to greet the hostages as they arrived at a U.S. military base in West Germany.

Documents

Goals of the Bay of Pigs Invasion The United States government was disturbed when Fidel Castro took over Cuba in 1959 and developed ties to the Soviet